April – The English cathedral priories of
Canterbury and
Rochester are transformed into secular cathedral chapters, concluding the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Europe is hit by
a heat wave and drought lasting for about seven months. Rivers such as the
Rhine and
Seine dry up, and many people die from
dysentery and other illnesses, caused by lack of safe drinking water.[4]
February 14 –
Guadalajara, Mexico, is founded by the
Spaniards after three previous attempts failed, due to aggressive opposition from local tribes.[24]
The first contact of
Japan with the West occurs when a
Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, lands Antonio Pexoto, Francisco Zeimoto and
António Mota in Japan, according to
António Galvão.[38] According to the Japanese books Tanegashima Kafu and Teppoki, it is stated they landed in 1543.[38]
March 18 – As flooding of the Mississippi continues De la Vega notes that "on the eighteenth of March, 1543, while the Spaniards.. were making a procession in honor of Our Redeemer's entrance into Jerusalem, the river entered the gates of the little village of Aminoya in the wildness and fury of its flood, and two days later on ecould not pass through the streets except in canoes."[45]
March 21 – In
Nuremberg, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is printed [47] during the illness of
Nicholas Copernicus, offering mathematical arguments for the existence of the
heliocentric universe, denying the
geocentric model. According to legend, Copernicus, who had a stroke in December, is presented a copy of the book on his deathbed shortly before passing away on [May 24]] in
Frombork at the age of 70.
King Henry VIII of England gives royal assent to numerous laws passed by parliament, including the
Act for the Advancement of True Religion, restricting the reading of the Bible to clerics, noblemen, and upper class society. The Act will be repealed in 1547 during the reign of King Edward VI.
Laws in Wales Act 1542, second phase of the Consolidating Act of Welsh Union, is given royal assent, establishing counties and regularizing parliamentary representation in
Wales.[41]
June 4 – Fabiano di Monte San Savinov leads 500 infantry men and some cavalry in an attempt to conquer the
Republic of San Marino, but the group fails after getting lost in a dense fog on
Saint Quirinus' Day.[49]
June 22 – King Henry VIII of England declares war on King Francis I of France, one month after sending an ultimatum.[50]
July 1 – The
Treaty of Greenwich is signed between representatives of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland as part of a plan to eventually unify the two nations under one monarch. As part of the treaty, the two nations agree to avoid war during the reign of King Henry VIII in England or Mary, Queen of Scots in Scotland and for another year after both are gone. The second part of the Treaty provides that Mary, Queen of Scots (six months old at the time) will eventually become the wife of
Crown Prince Edward (then 5 years old), son of King Henry VIII. The Scottish Parliament repudiates the treaty five months later.[41]
The first large naval battle in the Atlantic Ocean, the
Battle of Muros Bay, takes place off of the coast of
Galicia in Spain between the French fleet and the Spanish fleet. Although France has the larger force, the Spanish Admiral
Álvaro de Bazán identifies the flagship of French Admiral
Jean de Clamorgan and sinks the vessel. Spain then captures the remaining 23 other ships and takes 3,000 prisoners, while France loses 3,000 dead and injured.
August 6– The
Siege of Nice by the
Ottoman Empire and
French forces (under the
Franco-Ottoman alliance), led by Admiral
Hayreddin Barbarossa, begins. At the time, the city is under the control of the Duchy of Savoy and is defended by the Savoyards, assisted by the Habsburg armies of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The siege lasts for 16 days.
August 22 – The city of
Nice is captured by the Ottomans and Barbarossa after a long bombardment. The Ottomans pillage the city and take away 2,500 captives to be sold into slavery.
December 7 – (11 waxing of Natdaw 905 ME) The land and naval forces of the
Confederation of Shan States (consisting of the principalities of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik, and Kale), led by Prince
Sawlon of Mohnyin and
King Hkonmaing, depart from the Shan capital,
Awa, to start an invasion of the
Toungoo Empire in upper Myanmar. The invaders easily overrun Toungoo and its capital at
Prome a week later.
Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
December 11 – The Parliament of Scotland votes against ratifying the
Treaty of Greenwich that had been signed with England on July 1.[41]
[[December 20] – The
Eight Years War, also called the "War of Rough Wooing", begins as Scotland's Parliament votes to declare war on the Kingdom of England."Arran, Earls of", in Encyclopædia Britannica, ed. by Hugh Chisholm (11th ed., Volume 2) (Cambridge University Press, 1911) pp. 642–644.
December 131 – [[Henry VIII|King Henry VIII of England signs and agreement with
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to invade France by June 20, 1544 with at least 35,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry.
January 24 – During a solar eclipse visible over the Netherlands, Dutch mathematician and designer
Gemma Frisius makes the first recorded use of a
camera obscura and uses it to observe the event without directly looking at the Sun. Frisius writes about the event the next year and illustrates it in his book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica (Regarding rays of light in astronomy and geometry).[61]
April 21 – The Italian town of
Agropoli, frequently targeted by pirates from North Africa, is sacked by Ottoman raiders and 100 people are taken prisoner.
May 17 – At
Lima,
Blasco Núñez Vela takes office as the first Spanish Governor of the
Viceroyalty of Peru, which encompasses most of what are now the nations of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay, as well as the western part of Brazil.
The allied French and Ottoman navies depart from the French port of
Marseilles and travel to
Constantinople, the Ottoman capital. The French fleet is commanded by
Antoine Escalin des Aimars, known as Captain Polin, French ambassador to the Ottomans, while the Turks are led by Hayreddin Barbarossa.
June 4 – A combined force of troops from the Holy Roman Empire and from Spain, both commanded by Emperor Henry V, defeat the Italian French defenders of
San Marino in the
Battle of Serravalle after three days of fighting.
June 8 – The Duke of Norfolk crosses the English Channel after having landed troops in Normandy.[68]
December 9 –
Crown Prince Yi Ho becomes the new
King of Korea upon the death of his father,
King Joseon. Yi Ho reigns for eight months before being poisoned by his own mother, and is posthumously named as King Injong of Joseon.[81]
April 1 –
Potosí is founded by the Spanish as a mining town after the discovery of huge silver deposits in this area of modern-day
Bolivia. Silver mined from Huayna Potosí Mountain provides most of the wealth on which the
Spanish Empire is based until its fall in the early 19th century.
Sher Shah Suri, King of the
Sur Empire in northern India, is fatally injured by an explosion from one of his own cannons while leading the siege of the
Kalinjar Fort and dies two days later.[90]
In
Vietnam, warlord
Nguyễn Kim of the
Lê dynasty leads troops toward an attack on
Ninh Binh when he is invited by Dương Chấp Nhất of the
Mạc dynasty to dinner. General Kim is treated to a
watermelon by Duong and dies the nexxt day.
May 27 – Prince Jalal Khan, the second son of the late Sher Shah Suri, is crowned as the new King of the Suri Empire and takes the regnal name of
Islam Shah Suri.[91]
May 31 – During the
Italian War, a French expeditionary force under the direction of
Claude d'Annebault begins an invasion of Britain by landing in Scotland.[92]
June 20 – Spanish explorer
Yñigo Ortiz de Retez arrives at a large island in the South Pacific Ocean. Stopping at the
Mamberamo River, Ortiz claims the island for Spain and christens it "
Nueva Guinea" after concluding that the natives resemble the people on the coast of the
Guinea coast of West Africa.[93]
July 19 – The Royal Navy's flagship, the Mary Rose, is sunk along with 365 of its 400 crew[94] before the Battle of the Solent ends inconclusively. The wreckage will be located in 1971, more than 400 years after the sinking, and raised on October 11, 1582.[95]
August 5 – Scottish nobleman
Domhnall Dubh, also called "Black Donald", secures an alliance with King Henry VIII of England and plans an invasion of Scotland (
Dubh's Rebellion) seeking to install the
Earl of Lennox as the regent for
Mary, Queen of Scots, rather than the incumbent
Regent Arran.[96] The rebellion attracts little support from other nobles and Dubh dies of a fever while in Ireland, before an invasion can take place.
August 8 – King
Injong of Joseon, ruler of the
Korean Empire, dies at the age of 30, after only eight months as monarch. His allies suspect that he had slowly been poisoned by his stepmother,
Queen Janggyeong, who had been Queen consort as the wife of
King Jungjong. Queen Janggyeong's 12-year-old son
Myeongjong is enthroned as the new King, with Janggyeong as the regent.[97]
In a one-day campaign in the
Rough Wooing border war between England and Scotland, the English generals
Lord Hertford and
Robert Bowes carry out a mission of burning Scottish towns along the
River Teviot. He writes later that with 1,500 light horsemen from 5:00 in the morning to 3:00 in the afternoon, his army "burnt 14 or 15 towns" including "Rowle, Spittel,
Bedrowle, Rowlewood, The Wolles, Crossebewghe, Donnerles,
Fotton, West Leas, Troonyhill, and Dupligi.[99]
October 20 – The "
New Laws"(Leyes Nuevas), officially the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians are repealed less than a year after being issued by
King Carlos of Spain.[100]
November 15 – (10 Ramadan 952 AH)
Hamida Banu Begum, Empress consort of India's
Mughal Empire and wife of the Emperor
Humayun, returns to the capital,
Agra, after a three-year absence.[102] She is accompanied by an army provided to Humayun by
Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran.
In
China, a large failure of the harvest in
Henan province occurs due to excessive rainfall, which drives up the price of wheat, and forces many to flee their rural counties; those who stay behind are forced to survive by eating leaves, bark, and human flesh.
February 15 –
Martin Luther delivers his final sermon, three days before his death about "obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory,"[109]
March 1 – Scottish Protestant reformer
George Wishart, arrested on January 19, is burned at the stake at
St Andrews on orders of Cardinal
David Beaton of the Roman Catholic church, after being found guilty of
heresy.[110] Cardinal Beaton is assassinated less than three months later.
March 8 – King
John III of Portugal issues an order for
Portuguese India (at
Goa) to forbid
Hinduism, destroy Hindu temples, prohibit the public celebration of Hindu feasts, expel Hindu priests and severely punish those who created any Hindu images in Portuguese possessions in India.[111]
April-June
April 8 – The
Council of Trent, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstentions, issues the Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis for the scripture considered to be canon by the Roman Catholic Church. The decree recites that if anyone declines to receive all parts of the Vulgate edition of the Bible, they are in contempt of the Church and should be excommunicated.[112] and approves the 4th century
Vulgate of
Jerome as its official Bible[113]
April 13 –
Alice Glaston, age 11, becomes the youngest girl ever to be legally executed in England (though
John Dean, age 8, is executed on February 23, 1629)[114]
April 20 – The
Siege of Diu begins as the
Gujarat Sultanate, led by
Mahmud Shah III attacks the Portuguese colonial fortress at Diu.[116] Reinforcements arrive on July 19 and Governor Castro arrives with 3,000 soldiers on November 7. The keeper of the King's Ports and Galley siege lasts until November 10 and ends with a Portuguese victory
June 17 – The
Council of Trent approves its second decree on Roman Catholic doctrine, Decretum de Pecatto Originali, regarding
original sin, declaring that excommunication should be applied to any person who denies the teaching that the sins of Adam in the Garden of Eden condemned all of humanity, or that Christian baptism remits the guilt of original sin.[124]
July–September
July 4 – After the death of
Martin Luther, the leaders of the Lutheran
Schmalkaldic League German states (Saxony, Hesse, the Palatinate, Württemberg, Pomerania and Anhalt-Köthen) gather at
Ichtershausen as the guests of Saxon Elector John Frederick I in order to make plans to defend against the Roman Catholic forces of the
Holy Roman Empire.[125]
September 8 – The first Protestant Huguenot church in
France, established by Pierre LeClerc and Etienne Mangin at
Meaux 25 miles (40 km) from
Paris, is seized by the French Army and
its 60 members are arrested.[132]Ten women are released and 50 others put on trial for heresy. LeClerc, Mangin and 12 others are burned at the stake on October 8.
September 27 –
San Salvador, now the capital of the Central American nation of
El Salvador, is re-established in a new location at the Valle de Las Hamacas.[134] Until 1545, the colonial capital had been at the
Ciudad Vieja, 10 miles (16 km) further northewest, near
Suchitoto.
October 17 – Irish noble
James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond, the chief opponent of the policies of
Sir Anthony St Leger, England's
Lord Deputy of Ireland up until April 1, is fatally poisoned after being invited to the
Ely Palace near
London. Ormond dies 11 days later, and no investigation is carried out by the Crown as to whether St Leger is involved. St Leger becomes the Lord Deputy again less than three weeks after Ormond's death.[136]
October 28 – (4th waxing of Tazaungmon 908 ME) A second campaign begins in the
Toungoo–Mrauk-U War in what is now the Asian nation of
Myanmar, as King
Tabinshwehti of
Burma starts an invasion of the
Kingdom of Mrauk U (led by
Min Bin) in the
Arakan Mountains. King Tabinshwehti dispatches 19,000 troops, 400 horses, and 60 elephants, with 4,000 invading by land and the other 15,000 being transported on a fleet of 800 war boats, 500 armored war boats, and 100 cargo boats through the Bay of Bengal to the coast of Mrauk U.[137]
December 12 –
Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and the
Lord High Treasurer of England since 1522 is arrested along with his eldest son,
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and both are imprisoned in the
Tower of London.[141] The Earl of Surrey is executed for treason on January 19; the Duke of Norfolk is sentenced to death, but before the sentence can be carried out, King Henry VIII passes away and Norfolk remains in the Tower until being pardoned in 1553.
December 18 – A truce is agreed to between the Kingdom of Scotland (led by
the Regent Arran) and the "Catilians", a group of Scottish Protestants who have been holding
St Andrews Castle since their May 29 assassination of Cardinal
David Beaton. With England's King Henry VIII threatening an invasion to protect the Protestant Castilians, the parties agree that no action will be taken until the Pope can consider whether to absolve the Protestants of murder, and that if the Pope grants the absolution, the Protestants will be allowed to surrender on good terms.[142]
December 30 – Less than a month before his death, King Henry VIII of England revises his last will and testament and designates his preference for the line of succession to the throne. The first four people on the list serve as monarchs at different times, starting with
Edward VI (1547-1553),
Mary I (1553-1558) and
Elizabeth I (1558-1603). The fourth in the line of succession,
Lady Jane Grey, reigns for nine days after the death of Edward before Mary assumes the throne.[144]
The
Spanish conquest of Yucatán is interrupted by an uprising of the Eastern Provinces of the completed in November, but the conquest is completed by March of 1548.
June 13 – A peace treaty is signed between by representatives of the Holy Roman Empire and of the
Ottoman Empire and
France after the Empire's defeat at the 1543
Siege of Nice.[157]
June 26 –
King Henri of France orders the division of France's easternmost provinces and divides them into three zones of control, each administered by a Marshal of the Army. Harding, Robert (1978). Anatomy of a Power Elite: the Provincial Governors in Early Modern France. Yale University Press. p. 29.
October 13 – (New Moon of Thadinovut 909 ME) With the end of the Buddhist Lent, the Kingdom of Burma (now Myanmar) mobilizes to invade the Kingdom of Arakan (now Thailand).[165]
The
English Parliament, the first convened since the death of King Henry VIII, is opened by King Edward VI.
December 6 – The
Battle of Perlis River is fought between the Portuguese Navy and the navy of the
Aceh Sultanate (now a province of
Indonesia) at the
Perlis River in
Malaysia. With nine light warships and 230 soldiers, the Portuguese sink or capture 45 of the 60 ships of Aceh vessel leave 4,000 of their 5,380 soldiers dead or missing.[168]
January 19 – Three ships from the Portuguese Navy arrive at the port of
Aden to assist Mohammed bin Ali al-Tawlaki, who has been defending the city against an attack by the Ottoman Navy. The Portuguese ships are forced to retreat to
Zeila in Somalia, where 120 survivors are captured and their ships are burned.[176]
April 15 – General
Zhu Wan of
Ming dynastyChina dispatches a fleet of ships, commanded by
Lu Tang, to destroy smugglers and pirates at
Shangyu, a port on Liuheng Island.[182] The fleet sets off from
Wenzhou and makes its attack in June.
The
Diet of Augsburg approves a decree of
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, the "Declaration of His Roman Imperial Majesty on the Observance of Religion Within the Holy Empire Until the Decision of the General Council", informally referred to as the
Augsburg Interim, directing German Protestants to resume the doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, including observance of the
Seven Sacraments.[183] As a concession, the Emperor allows the continuation of some Protestant customs, including the right of Protestant clergy to marry and for believers to receive the Protestant
communion of bread and wine.[184]
Ratan Singh of Amber, Raja of the Amber Kingdom in what is now the Indian state of Rajasthan, is poisoned by his younger brother
Askaran, Raja of Narwar.[185]
June 10 – (5th day of the waxing moon in the 8th month of the
910th year of the
Chula Sakarat Era):
Yotfa, the 13-year-old ruler of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom of
Thailand since 1546, is murdered with the consent of his mother, the regent
Si Sudachan, who installs her lover,
Worawongsathirat, on the throne. Yotfa's younger brother, Prince Sissin, is spared from execution. Worawongsathirat and Si Sudachan are both killed in a counter-coup in November.[188]
June 16 – The first of 8,000 French troops under the command of General
André de Montalembert arrive at the port of
Leith at the invitation of the King of Scotland, who seeks to drive out the occupying forces of the Army of England.[190]
October 1 – Archduke Maximilian and Princess Maria, who married 18 days earlier, become the co-regents of Spain as King Charles V departs for Germany to administer the affairs of the Holy Roman Empire. They serve until
Prince Philip, the first regent, returns from battle on July 12, 1551.[195]
November 11 –
Worawongsathirat, ruler of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom of
Thailand after usurping the throne on June 10, stages his coronation along with his wife,
Si Sudachan. Both husband and wife had after both conspired to murder her son, King Yofta, in June.[199] The King and Queen are assassinated on January 13, 1549.[200]
December 17 –
King João III of
Portugal, creates a colonial government of Brazil, with a capital at
Bahia, in order to maintain unity among various Portuguese captaincies (
São Vicente,
Nova Lusitania,
Ilhéus and
Porto Seguro) scattered along the coast.[201] The document contains 48 articles governing the installation of the government, the organization of trade, measures for defense, treatment of the indigenous tribes, and policies toward foreigners. The King provides for a Governor-General, and appoints
Tomé de Sousa as the first officeholder.[202]
January 11 – An uprising of the Diaguitas natives outside of the South American Spanish colonial city of
La Serena (now in Coquimbo province of Chile) begins. Within a day, the South American village is burned down and nearly every Spanish resident is killed.[204]
April 8 – Giovanni Angelo Medici is appointed as a Roman Catholic cardinal by
Pope Paul III, effective May 10. In 1559, Medici is elected as
Pope Pius IV.[208]
June 19 – In the war of the
Rough Wooing between Scotland and England, a Scottish and French force commanded by
André de Montalembert retakes the island of
Inchkeith, killing more than 300 soldiers from the English Army.
July 18 – (
Tenbun 18, 24th day of the 7th month) In the Battle of Eguchi, fought in Japan's
Settsu Province near
Osaka, General
Miyoshi Nagayoshi defies the Governor,
Hosokawa Harumoto to attack the Eguchi Castle of Nagayoshi's cousin,
Miyoshi Masanaga. After a 12-day battle, Miyoshi Masanaga is killed along with several of Hosokawa's other generals. Governor Hosokawa, fearing a reprisal, flees and eventually loses his authority over Settsu Province.[214]
July 27 – (
Tenbun 18, 3rd day of the 7th month) European Jesuit
Francis Xavier arrives in
Japan at the port of
Kagoshima, the first Christian missionary there, but is not allowed to go to shore until three weeks later.[216]
December 3 – The
papal conclave to decide on a successor to
Pope Paul III, goes into session in the
Apostolic Palace in Rome with 51 cardinal electors.Participants at the papal conclave agree to elect the next Pope by secret ballot.[221]
Although trade existed between the two beforehand, in this year the
Portuguese begin to send regular seasonal maritime trade missions to
Ming dynastyChina, at
Sao João Island (also known as Shangchuan Island) near
Macau.
Siege of Kajiki: firearms are used for the first time in a siege in Japanese history. (The previous year's
Battle of Uedahara was the first battle in which they were used.)
Excerpta antiqua is published by Hervagius at
Basel,
Switzerland.
^Lockey, Joseph (1914).
Folletos peruanos (in Spanish). Lima: Calle de Lampa. p. 31. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
^Ward, A.W. (1904).
The Cambridge Modern History. New York: The MacMillan Company. p. 76. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
^Price, Randall (3 August 2021).
Rose Guide to the Temple. Rose Publishing.
ISBN978-1-59636-564-3. Retrieved 14 September 2023. But the present gate owes its form due to Ottoman Sultan Suleiman who sealed it in 1541.
^Kristjánsdóttir, Steinunn (30 December 2022).
Monastic Iceland. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN978-1-000-83015-6. Retrieved 14 September 2023. In Iceland, the Reformation occurred in Skalholt diocese in 1541, when the Lutheran Church ordinance of King Christian III was passed by the country's general assembly, Alþingi.
^Early Modern Wars 1500–1775. Amber Books Ltd. 17 September 2013.
ISBN978-1-78274-121-3. Retrieved 18 September 2023. Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi's men were reinforced by 2900 arquebusiers (2000 from Arabia plus 900 regular Ottoman infantry) and a handful of Ottoman cavalry. Although da Gama managed to escape with a few survivors, he was quickly captured and killed.
^Wormald, Jenny (17 August 2017).
Mary, Queen of Scots. Casemate Publishers.
ISBN978-0-85790-350-1. Retrieved 18 September 2023. On 14 December 1542, James V died in his splendid royal bedchamber at Falkland, the beauty he himself had created no longer enough to pierce the malaise of his profound melancholy. His sole surviving child, Mary, succeeded to the throne.
^Garcilaso de la Vega, The Florida of the Inca (1560) translated by John and Jeannette Varner, (University of Texas Press, 1951) p.554
^"Hjortensjon I", in Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first Century, ed. by Tony Jaques (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006) p.450
^Karol Górski, Mikołaj Kopernik: Środowisko społeczne i samotność (Nicolaus Copernicus: Social Environment and Loneliness) (Toruń: Mikloaj Kopernik University Press, 2012) p.251
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^Nevio and Annio Maria Matteimi The Republic of San Marino: Historical and Artistic Guide to the City and the Castles (Azienda Tipografica Editoriale, 1981) p.23
^G. R. Elton, England Under the Tudors (London: The Folio Society, 1997)
^M. H. Spielmann, The Iconography of Andreas Vesalius (André Vésale), Anatomist and Physician, 1514-1564 (John Bale, Sons & Danielsson Ltd., 1925) p.1
^Lucinda H. S. Dean, 'Crowning the Child', Sean McGlynn & Elena Woodacre, The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Newcastle, 2014), pp. 254-80.
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^David Laing, 'Account of the Earl of Hertford's Second Expedition to Scotland', PSAS, p. 277: Samuel Haynes, Collection of State Papers (London, 1740), p. 53.
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^Chamberlain, Robert S. (1948). The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan 1517–1550. Vol. 582. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp. 249–252.
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^Brigden, Susan (2008). "Howard, Henry, earl of Surrey (1516/17–1547), poet and soldier". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press
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^Baumgartner, Frederic (1988). Henry II: King of France 1547-1559. Duke University Press. p. 60.
^Merriman, Marcus, The Rough Wooings (Tuckwell, 2000), pp. 221–229
^Thevet, André (2010). Portraits from the French Renaissance and the Wars of Religion. Translated by Benson, Edward. Truman State University Press. pp. 24–25.
^Wood, William A. R. (1924). History of Siam. Thailand: Chalermit Press.
ISBN1-931541-10-8.
^Freeman, Thomas S. (2013). "One Survived: The Account of the Katherine Parr in Foxe's "Books of Martyrs"". In Betteridge, Thomas;
Lipscomb, Suzannah (eds.). Henry VIII and the Court: Art, Politics and Performance. Farnham, UK: Ashgate. pp. 241–242.
^Princess Sirindhorn's Foundation (2011).
นามานุกรมพระมหากษัตริย์ไทย [Directory of Thai Kings] (PDF) (in Thai). Bangkok: Princess Sirindhorn's Foundation. p. 98.
^Akgunduz, Ahmed; Ozturk, Said (2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. p. 185.
ISBN978-90-902610-8-9.
^Mowat, Sue (2008). Port of Leith: Its History and Its People. John Donald. pp. 114–115.
ISBN978-1-904607-17-5.
^Broecke, Steven Vanden (2003). The Limits of Influence: Pico, Louvain, and the Crisis of Renaissance Astrology. Leiden: Brill. p. 168.
ISBN9789004131699.
^Princess Sirindhorn's Foundation (2011).
นามานุกรมพระมหากษัตริย์ไทย [Directory of Thai Kings] (PDF) (in Thai). Bangkok: Princess Sirindhorn's Foundation. p. 98.
^Armelle Enders, Nouvelle histoire du Brésil (Éditions Chandeigne, 2008) p.33
^Rosen, Adrienne (2010). "Tudor Rebellions". In Tiller, Kate; Darkes, Giles (eds.). An Historical Atlas of Oxfordshire. Chipping Norton: Oxfordshire Record Society. pp. 82–3.
ISBN978-0-902509-68-9.
^"Hosokawa Harumoto", in The Japan Encyclopedia, ed. by Louis Frédéric (Harvard University Press, 2002) p. 358
^Kenneth M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume III: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of Julius III (The American Philosophical Society, 1984) p.509
^"Bauhin, Jean". www.deutsche-biographie.de (in German). Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^Charron, Pierre (1697).
Of wisdom : three books. London: Printed for M. Gillyflower, M. Bently, H. Bornwick, J. Tonson, W. Freeman, T. Goodwin, M. Wotton, J. Waltboe, S. Manship, and R. Parker. p. 1. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^Ewan, Elizabeth (2006). The biographical dictionary of Scottish women : from the earliest times to 2004 (Reprinted. ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. p. 400.
ISBN0-7486-1713-2.
April – The English cathedral priories of
Canterbury and
Rochester are transformed into secular cathedral chapters, concluding the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Europe is hit by
a heat wave and drought lasting for about seven months. Rivers such as the
Rhine and
Seine dry up, and many people die from
dysentery and other illnesses, caused by lack of safe drinking water.[4]
February 14 –
Guadalajara, Mexico, is founded by the
Spaniards after three previous attempts failed, due to aggressive opposition from local tribes.[24]
The first contact of
Japan with the West occurs when a
Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, lands Antonio Pexoto, Francisco Zeimoto and
António Mota in Japan, according to
António Galvão.[38] According to the Japanese books Tanegashima Kafu and Teppoki, it is stated they landed in 1543.[38]
March 18 – As flooding of the Mississippi continues De la Vega notes that "on the eighteenth of March, 1543, while the Spaniards.. were making a procession in honor of Our Redeemer's entrance into Jerusalem, the river entered the gates of the little village of Aminoya in the wildness and fury of its flood, and two days later on ecould not pass through the streets except in canoes."[45]
March 21 – In
Nuremberg, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is printed [47] during the illness of
Nicholas Copernicus, offering mathematical arguments for the existence of the
heliocentric universe, denying the
geocentric model. According to legend, Copernicus, who had a stroke in December, is presented a copy of the book on his deathbed shortly before passing away on [May 24]] in
Frombork at the age of 70.
King Henry VIII of England gives royal assent to numerous laws passed by parliament, including the
Act for the Advancement of True Religion, restricting the reading of the Bible to clerics, noblemen, and upper class society. The Act will be repealed in 1547 during the reign of King Edward VI.
Laws in Wales Act 1542, second phase of the Consolidating Act of Welsh Union, is given royal assent, establishing counties and regularizing parliamentary representation in
Wales.[41]
June 4 – Fabiano di Monte San Savinov leads 500 infantry men and some cavalry in an attempt to conquer the
Republic of San Marino, but the group fails after getting lost in a dense fog on
Saint Quirinus' Day.[49]
June 22 – King Henry VIII of England declares war on King Francis I of France, one month after sending an ultimatum.[50]
July 1 – The
Treaty of Greenwich is signed between representatives of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland as part of a plan to eventually unify the two nations under one monarch. As part of the treaty, the two nations agree to avoid war during the reign of King Henry VIII in England or Mary, Queen of Scots in Scotland and for another year after both are gone. The second part of the Treaty provides that Mary, Queen of Scots (six months old at the time) will eventually become the wife of
Crown Prince Edward (then 5 years old), son of King Henry VIII. The Scottish Parliament repudiates the treaty five months later.[41]
The first large naval battle in the Atlantic Ocean, the
Battle of Muros Bay, takes place off of the coast of
Galicia in Spain between the French fleet and the Spanish fleet. Although France has the larger force, the Spanish Admiral
Álvaro de Bazán identifies the flagship of French Admiral
Jean de Clamorgan and sinks the vessel. Spain then captures the remaining 23 other ships and takes 3,000 prisoners, while France loses 3,000 dead and injured.
August 6– The
Siege of Nice by the
Ottoman Empire and
French forces (under the
Franco-Ottoman alliance), led by Admiral
Hayreddin Barbarossa, begins. At the time, the city is under the control of the Duchy of Savoy and is defended by the Savoyards, assisted by the Habsburg armies of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The siege lasts for 16 days.
August 22 – The city of
Nice is captured by the Ottomans and Barbarossa after a long bombardment. The Ottomans pillage the city and take away 2,500 captives to be sold into slavery.
December 7 – (11 waxing of Natdaw 905 ME) The land and naval forces of the
Confederation of Shan States (consisting of the principalities of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik, and Kale), led by Prince
Sawlon of Mohnyin and
King Hkonmaing, depart from the Shan capital,
Awa, to start an invasion of the
Toungoo Empire in upper Myanmar. The invaders easily overrun Toungoo and its capital at
Prome a week later.
Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
December 11 – The Parliament of Scotland votes against ratifying the
Treaty of Greenwich that had been signed with England on July 1.[41]
[[December 20] – The
Eight Years War, also called the "War of Rough Wooing", begins as Scotland's Parliament votes to declare war on the Kingdom of England."Arran, Earls of", in Encyclopædia Britannica, ed. by Hugh Chisholm (11th ed., Volume 2) (Cambridge University Press, 1911) pp. 642–644.
December 131 – [[Henry VIII|King Henry VIII of England signs and agreement with
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to invade France by June 20, 1544 with at least 35,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry.
January 24 – During a solar eclipse visible over the Netherlands, Dutch mathematician and designer
Gemma Frisius makes the first recorded use of a
camera obscura and uses it to observe the event without directly looking at the Sun. Frisius writes about the event the next year and illustrates it in his book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica (Regarding rays of light in astronomy and geometry).[61]
April 21 – The Italian town of
Agropoli, frequently targeted by pirates from North Africa, is sacked by Ottoman raiders and 100 people are taken prisoner.
May 17 – At
Lima,
Blasco Núñez Vela takes office as the first Spanish Governor of the
Viceroyalty of Peru, which encompasses most of what are now the nations of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay, as well as the western part of Brazil.
The allied French and Ottoman navies depart from the French port of
Marseilles and travel to
Constantinople, the Ottoman capital. The French fleet is commanded by
Antoine Escalin des Aimars, known as Captain Polin, French ambassador to the Ottomans, while the Turks are led by Hayreddin Barbarossa.
June 4 – A combined force of troops from the Holy Roman Empire and from Spain, both commanded by Emperor Henry V, defeat the Italian French defenders of
San Marino in the
Battle of Serravalle after three days of fighting.
June 8 – The Duke of Norfolk crosses the English Channel after having landed troops in Normandy.[68]
December 9 –
Crown Prince Yi Ho becomes the new
King of Korea upon the death of his father,
King Joseon. Yi Ho reigns for eight months before being poisoned by his own mother, and is posthumously named as King Injong of Joseon.[81]
April 1 –
Potosí is founded by the Spanish as a mining town after the discovery of huge silver deposits in this area of modern-day
Bolivia. Silver mined from Huayna Potosí Mountain provides most of the wealth on which the
Spanish Empire is based until its fall in the early 19th century.
Sher Shah Suri, King of the
Sur Empire in northern India, is fatally injured by an explosion from one of his own cannons while leading the siege of the
Kalinjar Fort and dies two days later.[90]
In
Vietnam, warlord
Nguyễn Kim of the
Lê dynasty leads troops toward an attack on
Ninh Binh when he is invited by Dương Chấp Nhất of the
Mạc dynasty to dinner. General Kim is treated to a
watermelon by Duong and dies the nexxt day.
May 27 – Prince Jalal Khan, the second son of the late Sher Shah Suri, is crowned as the new King of the Suri Empire and takes the regnal name of
Islam Shah Suri.[91]
May 31 – During the
Italian War, a French expeditionary force under the direction of
Claude d'Annebault begins an invasion of Britain by landing in Scotland.[92]
June 20 – Spanish explorer
Yñigo Ortiz de Retez arrives at a large island in the South Pacific Ocean. Stopping at the
Mamberamo River, Ortiz claims the island for Spain and christens it "
Nueva Guinea" after concluding that the natives resemble the people on the coast of the
Guinea coast of West Africa.[93]
July 19 – The Royal Navy's flagship, the Mary Rose, is sunk along with 365 of its 400 crew[94] before the Battle of the Solent ends inconclusively. The wreckage will be located in 1971, more than 400 years after the sinking, and raised on October 11, 1582.[95]
August 5 – Scottish nobleman
Domhnall Dubh, also called "Black Donald", secures an alliance with King Henry VIII of England and plans an invasion of Scotland (
Dubh's Rebellion) seeking to install the
Earl of Lennox as the regent for
Mary, Queen of Scots, rather than the incumbent
Regent Arran.[96] The rebellion attracts little support from other nobles and Dubh dies of a fever while in Ireland, before an invasion can take place.
August 8 – King
Injong of Joseon, ruler of the
Korean Empire, dies at the age of 30, after only eight months as monarch. His allies suspect that he had slowly been poisoned by his stepmother,
Queen Janggyeong, who had been Queen consort as the wife of
King Jungjong. Queen Janggyeong's 12-year-old son
Myeongjong is enthroned as the new King, with Janggyeong as the regent.[97]
In a one-day campaign in the
Rough Wooing border war between England and Scotland, the English generals
Lord Hertford and
Robert Bowes carry out a mission of burning Scottish towns along the
River Teviot. He writes later that with 1,500 light horsemen from 5:00 in the morning to 3:00 in the afternoon, his army "burnt 14 or 15 towns" including "Rowle, Spittel,
Bedrowle, Rowlewood, The Wolles, Crossebewghe, Donnerles,
Fotton, West Leas, Troonyhill, and Dupligi.[99]
October 20 – The "
New Laws"(Leyes Nuevas), officially the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians are repealed less than a year after being issued by
King Carlos of Spain.[100]
November 15 – (10 Ramadan 952 AH)
Hamida Banu Begum, Empress consort of India's
Mughal Empire and wife of the Emperor
Humayun, returns to the capital,
Agra, after a three-year absence.[102] She is accompanied by an army provided to Humayun by
Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran.
In
China, a large failure of the harvest in
Henan province occurs due to excessive rainfall, which drives up the price of wheat, and forces many to flee their rural counties; those who stay behind are forced to survive by eating leaves, bark, and human flesh.
February 15 –
Martin Luther delivers his final sermon, three days before his death about "obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory,"[109]
March 1 – Scottish Protestant reformer
George Wishart, arrested on January 19, is burned at the stake at
St Andrews on orders of Cardinal
David Beaton of the Roman Catholic church, after being found guilty of
heresy.[110] Cardinal Beaton is assassinated less than three months later.
March 8 – King
John III of Portugal issues an order for
Portuguese India (at
Goa) to forbid
Hinduism, destroy Hindu temples, prohibit the public celebration of Hindu feasts, expel Hindu priests and severely punish those who created any Hindu images in Portuguese possessions in India.[111]
April-June
April 8 – The
Council of Trent, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstentions, issues the Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis for the scripture considered to be canon by the Roman Catholic Church. The decree recites that if anyone declines to receive all parts of the Vulgate edition of the Bible, they are in contempt of the Church and should be excommunicated.[112] and approves the 4th century
Vulgate of
Jerome as its official Bible[113]
April 13 –
Alice Glaston, age 11, becomes the youngest girl ever to be legally executed in England (though
John Dean, age 8, is executed on February 23, 1629)[114]
April 20 – The
Siege of Diu begins as the
Gujarat Sultanate, led by
Mahmud Shah III attacks the Portuguese colonial fortress at Diu.[116] Reinforcements arrive on July 19 and Governor Castro arrives with 3,000 soldiers on November 7. The keeper of the King's Ports and Galley siege lasts until November 10 and ends with a Portuguese victory
June 17 – The
Council of Trent approves its second decree on Roman Catholic doctrine, Decretum de Pecatto Originali, regarding
original sin, declaring that excommunication should be applied to any person who denies the teaching that the sins of Adam in the Garden of Eden condemned all of humanity, or that Christian baptism remits the guilt of original sin.[124]
July–September
July 4 – After the death of
Martin Luther, the leaders of the Lutheran
Schmalkaldic League German states (Saxony, Hesse, the Palatinate, Württemberg, Pomerania and Anhalt-Köthen) gather at
Ichtershausen as the guests of Saxon Elector John Frederick I in order to make plans to defend against the Roman Catholic forces of the
Holy Roman Empire.[125]
September 8 – The first Protestant Huguenot church in
France, established by Pierre LeClerc and Etienne Mangin at
Meaux 25 miles (40 km) from
Paris, is seized by the French Army and
its 60 members are arrested.[132]Ten women are released and 50 others put on trial for heresy. LeClerc, Mangin and 12 others are burned at the stake on October 8.
September 27 –
San Salvador, now the capital of the Central American nation of
El Salvador, is re-established in a new location at the Valle de Las Hamacas.[134] Until 1545, the colonial capital had been at the
Ciudad Vieja, 10 miles (16 km) further northewest, near
Suchitoto.
October 17 – Irish noble
James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond, the chief opponent of the policies of
Sir Anthony St Leger, England's
Lord Deputy of Ireland up until April 1, is fatally poisoned after being invited to the
Ely Palace near
London. Ormond dies 11 days later, and no investigation is carried out by the Crown as to whether St Leger is involved. St Leger becomes the Lord Deputy again less than three weeks after Ormond's death.[136]
October 28 – (4th waxing of Tazaungmon 908 ME) A second campaign begins in the
Toungoo–Mrauk-U War in what is now the Asian nation of
Myanmar, as King
Tabinshwehti of
Burma starts an invasion of the
Kingdom of Mrauk U (led by
Min Bin) in the
Arakan Mountains. King Tabinshwehti dispatches 19,000 troops, 400 horses, and 60 elephants, with 4,000 invading by land and the other 15,000 being transported on a fleet of 800 war boats, 500 armored war boats, and 100 cargo boats through the Bay of Bengal to the coast of Mrauk U.[137]
December 12 –
Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and the
Lord High Treasurer of England since 1522 is arrested along with his eldest son,
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and both are imprisoned in the
Tower of London.[141] The Earl of Surrey is executed for treason on January 19; the Duke of Norfolk is sentenced to death, but before the sentence can be carried out, King Henry VIII passes away and Norfolk remains in the Tower until being pardoned in 1553.
December 18 – A truce is agreed to between the Kingdom of Scotland (led by
the Regent Arran) and the "Catilians", a group of Scottish Protestants who have been holding
St Andrews Castle since their May 29 assassination of Cardinal
David Beaton. With England's King Henry VIII threatening an invasion to protect the Protestant Castilians, the parties agree that no action will be taken until the Pope can consider whether to absolve the Protestants of murder, and that if the Pope grants the absolution, the Protestants will be allowed to surrender on good terms.[142]
December 30 – Less than a month before his death, King Henry VIII of England revises his last will and testament and designates his preference for the line of succession to the throne. The first four people on the list serve as monarchs at different times, starting with
Edward VI (1547-1553),
Mary I (1553-1558) and
Elizabeth I (1558-1603). The fourth in the line of succession,
Lady Jane Grey, reigns for nine days after the death of Edward before Mary assumes the throne.[144]
The
Spanish conquest of Yucatán is interrupted by an uprising of the Eastern Provinces of the completed in November, but the conquest is completed by March of 1548.
June 13 – A peace treaty is signed between by representatives of the Holy Roman Empire and of the
Ottoman Empire and
France after the Empire's defeat at the 1543
Siege of Nice.[157]
June 26 –
King Henri of France orders the division of France's easternmost provinces and divides them into three zones of control, each administered by a Marshal of the Army. Harding, Robert (1978). Anatomy of a Power Elite: the Provincial Governors in Early Modern France. Yale University Press. p. 29.
October 13 – (New Moon of Thadinovut 909 ME) With the end of the Buddhist Lent, the Kingdom of Burma (now Myanmar) mobilizes to invade the Kingdom of Arakan (now Thailand).[165]
The
English Parliament, the first convened since the death of King Henry VIII, is opened by King Edward VI.
December 6 – The
Battle of Perlis River is fought between the Portuguese Navy and the navy of the
Aceh Sultanate (now a province of
Indonesia) at the
Perlis River in
Malaysia. With nine light warships and 230 soldiers, the Portuguese sink or capture 45 of the 60 ships of Aceh vessel leave 4,000 of their 5,380 soldiers dead or missing.[168]
January 19 – Three ships from the Portuguese Navy arrive at the port of
Aden to assist Mohammed bin Ali al-Tawlaki, who has been defending the city against an attack by the Ottoman Navy. The Portuguese ships are forced to retreat to
Zeila in Somalia, where 120 survivors are captured and their ships are burned.[176]
April 15 – General
Zhu Wan of
Ming dynastyChina dispatches a fleet of ships, commanded by
Lu Tang, to destroy smugglers and pirates at
Shangyu, a port on Liuheng Island.[182] The fleet sets off from
Wenzhou and makes its attack in June.
The
Diet of Augsburg approves a decree of
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, the "Declaration of His Roman Imperial Majesty on the Observance of Religion Within the Holy Empire Until the Decision of the General Council", informally referred to as the
Augsburg Interim, directing German Protestants to resume the doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, including observance of the
Seven Sacraments.[183] As a concession, the Emperor allows the continuation of some Protestant customs, including the right of Protestant clergy to marry and for believers to receive the Protestant
communion of bread and wine.[184]
Ratan Singh of Amber, Raja of the Amber Kingdom in what is now the Indian state of Rajasthan, is poisoned by his younger brother
Askaran, Raja of Narwar.[185]
June 10 – (5th day of the waxing moon in the 8th month of the
910th year of the
Chula Sakarat Era):
Yotfa, the 13-year-old ruler of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom of
Thailand since 1546, is murdered with the consent of his mother, the regent
Si Sudachan, who installs her lover,
Worawongsathirat, on the throne. Yotfa's younger brother, Prince Sissin, is spared from execution. Worawongsathirat and Si Sudachan are both killed in a counter-coup in November.[188]
June 16 – The first of 8,000 French troops under the command of General
André de Montalembert arrive at the port of
Leith at the invitation of the King of Scotland, who seeks to drive out the occupying forces of the Army of England.[190]
October 1 – Archduke Maximilian and Princess Maria, who married 18 days earlier, become the co-regents of Spain as King Charles V departs for Germany to administer the affairs of the Holy Roman Empire. They serve until
Prince Philip, the first regent, returns from battle on July 12, 1551.[195]
November 11 –
Worawongsathirat, ruler of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom of
Thailand after usurping the throne on June 10, stages his coronation along with his wife,
Si Sudachan. Both husband and wife had after both conspired to murder her son, King Yofta, in June.[199] The King and Queen are assassinated on January 13, 1549.[200]
December 17 –
King João III of
Portugal, creates a colonial government of Brazil, with a capital at
Bahia, in order to maintain unity among various Portuguese captaincies (
São Vicente,
Nova Lusitania,
Ilhéus and
Porto Seguro) scattered along the coast.[201] The document contains 48 articles governing the installation of the government, the organization of trade, measures for defense, treatment of the indigenous tribes, and policies toward foreigners. The King provides for a Governor-General, and appoints
Tomé de Sousa as the first officeholder.[202]
January 11 – An uprising of the Diaguitas natives outside of the South American Spanish colonial city of
La Serena (now in Coquimbo province of Chile) begins. Within a day, the South American village is burned down and nearly every Spanish resident is killed.[204]
April 8 – Giovanni Angelo Medici is appointed as a Roman Catholic cardinal by
Pope Paul III, effective May 10. In 1559, Medici is elected as
Pope Pius IV.[208]
June 19 – In the war of the
Rough Wooing between Scotland and England, a Scottish and French force commanded by
André de Montalembert retakes the island of
Inchkeith, killing more than 300 soldiers from the English Army.
July 18 – (
Tenbun 18, 24th day of the 7th month) In the Battle of Eguchi, fought in Japan's
Settsu Province near
Osaka, General
Miyoshi Nagayoshi defies the Governor,
Hosokawa Harumoto to attack the Eguchi Castle of Nagayoshi's cousin,
Miyoshi Masanaga. After a 12-day battle, Miyoshi Masanaga is killed along with several of Hosokawa's other generals. Governor Hosokawa, fearing a reprisal, flees and eventually loses his authority over Settsu Province.[214]
July 27 – (
Tenbun 18, 3rd day of the 7th month) European Jesuit
Francis Xavier arrives in
Japan at the port of
Kagoshima, the first Christian missionary there, but is not allowed to go to shore until three weeks later.[216]
December 3 – The
papal conclave to decide on a successor to
Pope Paul III, goes into session in the
Apostolic Palace in Rome with 51 cardinal electors.Participants at the papal conclave agree to elect the next Pope by secret ballot.[221]
Although trade existed between the two beforehand, in this year the
Portuguese begin to send regular seasonal maritime trade missions to
Ming dynastyChina, at
Sao João Island (also known as Shangchuan Island) near
Macau.
Siege of Kajiki: firearms are used for the first time in a siege in Japanese history. (The previous year's
Battle of Uedahara was the first battle in which they were used.)
Excerpta antiqua is published by Hervagius at
Basel,
Switzerland.
^Lockey, Joseph (1914).
Folletos peruanos (in Spanish). Lima: Calle de Lampa. p. 31. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
^Ward, A.W. (1904).
The Cambridge Modern History. New York: The MacMillan Company. p. 76. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
^Price, Randall (3 August 2021).
Rose Guide to the Temple. Rose Publishing.
ISBN978-1-59636-564-3. Retrieved 14 September 2023. But the present gate owes its form due to Ottoman Sultan Suleiman who sealed it in 1541.
^Kristjánsdóttir, Steinunn (30 December 2022).
Monastic Iceland. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN978-1-000-83015-6. Retrieved 14 September 2023. In Iceland, the Reformation occurred in Skalholt diocese in 1541, when the Lutheran Church ordinance of King Christian III was passed by the country's general assembly, Alþingi.
^Early Modern Wars 1500–1775. Amber Books Ltd. 17 September 2013.
ISBN978-1-78274-121-3. Retrieved 18 September 2023. Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi's men were reinforced by 2900 arquebusiers (2000 from Arabia plus 900 regular Ottoman infantry) and a handful of Ottoman cavalry. Although da Gama managed to escape with a few survivors, he was quickly captured and killed.
^Wormald, Jenny (17 August 2017).
Mary, Queen of Scots. Casemate Publishers.
ISBN978-0-85790-350-1. Retrieved 18 September 2023. On 14 December 1542, James V died in his splendid royal bedchamber at Falkland, the beauty he himself had created no longer enough to pierce the malaise of his profound melancholy. His sole surviving child, Mary, succeeded to the throne.
^Garcilaso de la Vega, The Florida of the Inca (1560) translated by John and Jeannette Varner, (University of Texas Press, 1951) p.554
^"Hjortensjon I", in Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first Century, ed. by Tony Jaques (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006) p.450
^Karol Górski, Mikołaj Kopernik: Środowisko społeczne i samotność (Nicolaus Copernicus: Social Environment and Loneliness) (Toruń: Mikloaj Kopernik University Press, 2012) p.251
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^Turnbull, Stephen R. (2003). The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699. Osprey Publishing Ltd. pp. 50–52.
ISBN978-0-415-96913-0.
^Nevio and Annio Maria Matteimi The Republic of San Marino: Historical and Artistic Guide to the City and the Castles (Azienda Tipografica Editoriale, 1981) p.23
^G. R. Elton, England Under the Tudors (London: The Folio Society, 1997)
^M. H. Spielmann, The Iconography of Andreas Vesalius (André Vésale), Anatomist and Physician, 1514-1564 (John Bale, Sons & Danielsson Ltd., 1925) p.1
^Lucinda H. S. Dean, 'Crowning the Child', Sean McGlynn & Elena Woodacre, The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Newcastle, 2014), pp. 254-80.
^
abPotter, D. L. (1 January 2011). "Chapter Four. 'Fighting Over The Bear's Skin': The Invasion Of France (1544)".
Henry VIII and Francis I. Brill. pp. 172–173.
ISBN978-90-04-20432-4. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^Robert KnechtRenaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign of Francis I (Cambridge University Press, 1994) pp.501—502.
ISBN0-521-57885-X.
^Quanchi, Max (2005). Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands. The Scarecrow Press. p. 215.
ISBN0810853957.
^Gardiner, Julie, ed. (2005). Before the Mast: Life and Death aboard the Mary Rose. The Archaeology of the Mary Rose. Vol. 4. Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
ISBN0-9544029-4-4.
^
abPenguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006.
ISBN0-14-102715-0.
^David Laing, 'Account of the Earl of Hertford's Second Expedition to Scotland', PSAS, p. 277: Samuel Haynes, Collection of State Papers (London, 1740), p. 53.
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