May – The Second
Parliament of Ravennika, convened by Emperor
Henry of Flanders, is held in the town of
Ravennika in (modern
Greece), in order to resolve the differences between the princes of
Frankish Greece, and the
Roman Catholic clergy of their domains. The assembled nobles and prelates conclude a
concordat, which recognizes the independence and immunity of all Church property in Frankish Greece from any feudal duties.[1]
July 18 –
Battle of Gestilren:
Sverker II (the Younger), the exiled former King of Sweden, is defeated and killed by the reigning King
Eric X (Knutsson). After the battle, Eric takes the Swedish throne and marries Princess
Richeza of Denmark, daughter of the late King
Valdemar I (the Great). This to improve the relations with
Denmark, which has traditionally supported the
House of Sverker.
November 21 – Eric X is crowned – which is the first known coronation of a Swedish king. He strengthens his relationship with his brother-in-law, King
Valdemar II (the Conqueror). Shortly after, Valdemar conquers Danzig (modern-day
Gdańsk) on the
Baltic coast, and
Eastern Pomerania from the Slavonic
Wends.[3]
Battle of Ümera: Estonian forces defeat the Crusaders of the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The Estonians pursue the fleeing Crusaders and according to the
Livonian Chronicle some of the prisoners are burned alive, while others have crosses carved on their backs with swords, before being executed as well.[4]
King
John extends his taxes and raises £100,000 from church property as an extraordinary fiscal levy; the operation is described as an “inestimable and incomparable exaction” by contemporary sources.[5]
November 1 – John orders that
Jews across the country have to pay a
tallage, a sum of money to the king. Those who do not pay are arrested and imprisoned. Many Jews are executed or leave the country.[6]
Jochi, Mongol leader and eldest son of
Genghis Khan, begins a campaign against the
Kyrgyz. Meanwhile, Emperor
Xiang Zong of
Western Xia agrees to submit to Mongol rule, he gives his daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and pays him a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.[8]
June 17 –
Battle of Antioch on the Meander: Seljuk forces led by Sultan
Kaykhusraw I are initially victorious with the Latin mercenary cavalry (some 800 men) bearing the brunt of the casualties due to their flanking charge; exhausted by the effort in their attack, the Latin army under Emperor
Theodore I Laskaris is struck in the flank and rear by the Seljuk forces. However, the Seljuks stop the fight in order to plunder the Latin camp – which allows Theodore's forces to rally and counter-attack the now disorganized Turks. Meanwhile, Kaykhusraw seeks out Theodore and engages him in single combat, but he is unhorsed and beheaded. The Seljuks are routed and the former Byzantine emperor
Alexios III Angelos, Theodore's father-in-law, is captured and imprisoned, ending his days in enforced monastic seclusion.[9]
October 15 –
Battle of the Rhyndacus: Latin emperor
Henry of Flanders lands with an expeditionary force (some 3,000 men) at
Pegai, and marches eastwards to the
Rhyndacus River. The Byzantine army (much larger in force overall) under Theodore I prepare an ambush, but Henry assaults his positions along the river and defeats the Byzantine army in a day-long battle. Henry marches unopposed through the remaining Byzantine lands, reaching south as far as
Nymphaion.[10]
Mongol Empire
Spring –
Genghis Khan summons his Mongol chieftains, and prepares to wage war against the
Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty in northern
China. He advances across the
Gobi Desert with a massive army of 100,000 warriors with 300,000 horses, strung out in perhaps 10–20 groups of 5,000–10,000 men each, each with camel-drawn carts, and all linked by fast-moving messengers. Meanwhile, the Jin Government mobilizes an army of 800,000 men, most of which are untrained peasants with low morale, and some 150,000 highly-trained cavalry. This vast army, however, is spread across the
Great Wall, and garrisoned separate fortresses.[11]
Battle of Yehuling: Genghis Khan bypasses the Great Wall with little opposition, and splits his forces into two armies. The main army (60,000 men) is led by himself, and the other army is taken by his son
Ögedei to attack the city of
Datong. Genghis heads for the strategic
Juyong Pass ("Young Badger's Mouth") – which leads down to the capital of
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing), but along the way he is halted at the pass of Yehuling where the bulk of the Jin army awaits him. Between March and October, the battle is fought in three stages, after Genghis has defeated the Jin forces, he begins raiding the countryside before he withdraws for the winter.[12]
March 26 – King
Sancho I of Portugal ("the Populator") dies after a 25-year reign at
Coimbra. He is succeeded by his son
Afonso II ("the Fat") as ruler of
Portugal. During his reign, he designs the first set of Portuguese written laws.
June – Papal legate
Pandulf Verraccio arrives in
Northampton to serve John with his excommunication ordered by Innocent III. For John this is a serious blow to his ability to rule the country.
John sends a gift of
herrings to nunneries in almost every
shire, despite his status as an excommunicant.
The
Papal Interdict of 1208 laid by Innocent III remains in force after John refuses to accept the pope's appointee.
July 10 – The
Great Fire: The most severe of several
early fires of London burns most of the city to the ground; over 3,000 people die, many of them by drowning in the
River Thames. According to a contemporary account: "An awful fire broke out on the
Southwark side of
London Bridge; while it was raging, a fire broke out at the other end also and so hemmed in the numerous crowds who had assembled to help the distressed. The sufferers, to avoid the flames, threw themselves over the bridge into boats and barges; but many of these sunk, the people crowding into them.".[15]
King
John (Lackland) impounds the revenue of all prelates appointed by bishops, who have deserted him at his excommunication. He remains on good terms, however, with churchmen who stood by him, including Abbot Sampson, who this year bequeaths John his jewels.[16]
Europe
Spring – After the fall of
Argos the Crusaders complete their conquest of the
Morea in southern
Greece. The city, along with
Nauplia, is given to
Otho de la Roche, a Burgundian nobleman, as a fief, along with an income of 400 hyperpyron from
Corinth.[17] Meanwhile, the Venetians conquer
Crete and evict
Enrico Pescatore, a Genoese adventurer and pirate, active in the
Mediterranean.
The
Children's Crusade is organized. There are probably two separate movements of young people, both led by shepherd boys, neither of which embark for the
Holy Land – but both of which suffer considerable hardship.[19]
Early Spring – Nicholas leads a group from the
Rhineland and crosses the
alps into
Italy. In August, he arrives with some 7,000 children in
Genoa. Nicholas travels to the
Papal States where he meets Pope
Innocent III.
June – The 12-year-old Stephen of Cloyes leads a group across
France to
Vendôme. Attracting a following of over 30,000 adults and children. After arriving in
Marseilles the vast majority return home to their families.
The
Teutonic Order builds
Bran Castle (or Dietrichstein) in the
Burzenland (modern
Romania) as a fortified position at the entrance of a mountain pass through which traders can travel. The Teutonic Knights built another five castles, some of them made of stone. Their rapid expansion in
Hungary makes the nobility and clergy, who are previously uninterested in those regions, jealous and suspicious.
December 9 – The 18-year-old
Frederick II is crowned
King of the Germans at
Mainz. Frederick's authority in
Germany remains tenuous, and he is recognized only in southern Germany. In the region of northern Germany, the center of
Guelph power, his rival
Otto IV continues to hold the imperial power despite his excommunication.[20]
Asia
Autumn –
Genghis Khan invades Jin territory and besieges
Datong. During the assault, he is wounded by an arrow in his knee and orders a withdrawal for rest and relaxation.[21]
By topic
Literature
Kamo no Chōmei, a Japanese poet and
essayist, writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese prose.
JinChina is overrun by the
Mongols under
Genghis Khan, who plunder the countryside and cities, until only
Beijing remains free, despite two bloody palace coups and a lengthy siege.[28][29]
February 15 – King
John (Lackland) lands with an invasion force (accompanied by mercenaries) at
La Rochelle; many barons of
England refuse to join him in the campaign. John sends his half-brother
William Longespée (Long Sword) to
Flanders, with money to assemble a mercenary army there. John pushes the French forces northeast from
Poitou towards
Paris, while Emperor
Otto IV marches southwest from Flanders.[34]
King
Philip II (Augustus) decides to defend the French territories by leaving a third of his army under his son, Prince
Louis to confront John (Lackland) in the
Loire Valley – while Philip heads for Flanders to raid the region. On
July 2, John's forces are confronted by a French relief force while they besiege the castle of
Roche-au-Moine. John retreats back to La Rochelle, but his rearguard suffers immensely by the French army.[35]
June – Otto IV arrives in Flanders with a small army; four German nobles have joined him, but he is soon reinforced by troops of
Renaud I, duke of
Boulogne,
Ferdinand, (jure uxoris) count of
Flanders and the mercenaries under William Longespée. On July 26, Philip II arrives at the Flemish town of
Tournai with his army (some 7,000 men), while the allied forces encamp 12 kilometers south at the Castle of
Mortagne (
France).
July 27 –
Battle of Bouvines: Philip II defeats an army (some 9,000 men) of German, English and Flemish soldiers led by Otto IV near
Bouvines, ending the
Anglo-French War. The French forces have taken a considerable number of soldiers prisoner, including 131 knights and five counts with Ferdinand, Renaud I and William Longespée among them.[34]
November 20 – A group of English nobles, after finding a copy of the
Charter of Liberties, swear an oath at the altar of
Bury St. Edmunds, to force John (Lackland) to acknowledge their rights.
Spring – Emperor
Xuan Zong of the
Jurchen-led Chinese
Jin Dynasty surrenders to the Mongols under
Genghis khan – who have besieged the capital of
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing) for a year. He is forced to pay
tribute (including some 3,000 horses, 10,000 'bolts' of silk and his daughter), along with subjugation to the Mongol Khan. Xuan Zong abandons northern China and moves his court to
Kaifeng.[36]
After securing all Jin lands north of the
Yellow River, Genghis Khan receives a message that Xuan Zong has moved his capital to Kaifeng. He returns to Zhongdu and precedes the city with the help of thousands of Chinese engineers. The Mongols starve the city out (the inhabitants are forced to eat the dead). The garrison, with a short supply of ammunition for the cannons holds out for the winter.[37]
In his campaigns in
Liaodong, the Mongol general
Muqali (or Mukhali) forms a newly
Khitan-Chinese army and a special corps of some 12,000 Chinese auxiliary troops.
March 4 – King
John of England ("Lackland"), hoping to gain the support of Pope
Innocent III against the Barons, takes the oath to go on Crusade. By doing so, Innocent declares John to be his vassal and claims ownership of the whole kingdom (with political protection under church law).[39] On
April 1, Innocent sends a letter to the Barons, asking them to halt their actions against John.
May 17 – The gates to
London are opened by supporters of the rebellious Barons. The houses of
Jews are targeted for ransacking and burning. The rebels, under Robert Fitzwalter, call for the English nobles still on the side of King John to join them, and repair the walls. The
Tower of London, held by John's supporters, is too well defended to fall into the hands of the rebels.
June 15 – A large number of barons, led by
Stephen Langton, archbishop of
Canterbury, meet King John of England on an island in the
Thames at
Runnymede. They force John to sign
Magna Carta, a document that grants liberties to the "free men" – the Barons, the church and the towns. He is subjected to the
rule of law, by confirming the status of
trial by jury, on
June 19.[41]
Summer – Emperor
Otto IV is excommunicated and forced to abdicate as ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire. The German nobles, supported by Innocent III, again elect the 20-year-old
Frederick II as
King of the Romans who is crowned in
Aachen, on
July 25. The same day, Frederick takes the
Cross and promises to go on Crusade.
August – King John of England rejects Magna Carta and writes to Innocent III – asking him to cancel the charter on grounds that he signed it against his will. At the same time, John continues to build up his mercenary army.
August 24 –
Pope Innocent III annuls Magna Carta, freeing King John from its limitations. He annuls the charter on the grounds that John signed it because he is forced and that the document is illegal.
September 13 – King John of England seeks help from Innocent III in his fight against the Barons. In a letter, written while staying at
Dover Castle, he states that the defense of
England is the responsibility of God and the Pope.
October – The Barons offer the English crown to Louis of France and invite him to England. King John England confiscates the Barons' land and besieges
Rochester Castle; the garrison is starved out and surrenders to him.
June 1 –
Mongol conquest of Jin China: After the long
Battle of Zhongdu, the Mongol forces capture
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing). Meanwhile,
Genghis Khan has decamped to the edge of the
grasslands and is on his way back to the
Kherlen River. Without his restraining influence, the Mongols run wild. They devastate and ransack the city, killing thousands. The royal palace goes up in flames, and a part of the capital burns for a month.[44]
April 10 – Ten-year-old
John I, son of the former King
Sverker II ("the Younger") succeeds
Eric X ("Knutsson") as King of Sweden, when Eric dies of fever at the end of a 8-year reign, at
Näs Castle on the island of
Visingsö.
May 18 – King John of England assembles a naval force to defend against a French invasion. Bad storms disperse the fleet, and John spends the summer reorganizing defenses across the country. He sees several of his military household desert to the barons, including his half-brother,
William Longespée, who is the commander of John's army in the south.[45]
June – The rebel English barons besiege
Windsor Castle and
Dover Castle; the latter is strategically important as the 'gateway to England', controlling the shortest route to
France. Meanwhile, King John uses
Corfe Castle in the southwest as his base of operations while he plans his campaign against the barons and the French invading army under Louis.[46]
October 8 –
Az-Zahir Ghazi, Ayyubid ruler of
Aleppo, dies after a 23-year reign. He is succeeded by his 3-year-old son
Al-Aziz Muhammad. Because of his young age, Toghril becomes Al-Aziz's regent or guardian (atabeg).
May – Pope
Innocent III travels to
Perugia to try to settle the long feud between
Genoa and
Pisa, that both states might contribute to the transport of the
Fifth Crusade. There, after a short illness, Innocent dies on
July 16. Two days after his death the aged Cardinal Cencio Savelli (later
Honorius III) is elected as the 177th pope of the
Catholic Church.[50]
Summer – Various groups of French knights reach the Italian ports. King
Andrew II of Hungary arrives with his army in
Split, in
Dalmatia. He is joined by German forces, led by Duke
Leopold VI (the Glorious). At the end of July, Pope
Honorius III orders the crusaders assembled in
Italy and
Sicily to proceed to
Cyprus, but there is no transport provided by the Italian city-states,
Venice,
Genoa and
Pisa.
September: Leopold VI finds some ships in Split, that bring him and a small force to
Acre. Andrew follows him about a fortnight later; in Split, he receives only two ships. The rest of Andrew's army is left behind. Meanwhile, King
Hugh I of Cyprus lands at Acre, with troops to support the Crusade.[51]
November – The Crusader army (some 15,000 men) under Andrew II sets out from Acre, and marches up the
Plain of Esdraelon. Sultan
Al-Adil I, on hearing that the crusaders are assembling, sends some Muslim troops to
Palestine, to halt their advance. The crusaders move towards
Beisan, while Al-Adil waits at
Ajloun Castle, ready to intercept any attack on
Damascus. He sends his son,
Al-Mu'azzam, to cover
Jerusalem. On
November 10, Andrew's well-mounted army defeats Al-Adil at
Bethsaida, on the
Jordan River. Beisan is occupied and sacked; the Muslims retreat to their fortresses and towns.[52]
December – King
John I of Jerusalem leads an expedition into
Lebanon. On
December 3, he undertakes fruitless assaults on Muslim fortresses and on
Mount Tabor. Meanwhile, the Crusader army under Andrew II wanders across the
Jordan Valley and up the eastern shore of the
Sea of Galilee. During the occupation, Andrew spends his time collecting alleged relics. By the end of December, supplies run out, and the crusaders retreat to Acre.[52]
Other events by place
Europe
Spring –
First Barons' War: English forces of King
Henry III besiege the French-controlled
Mountsorrel Castle in
Leicestershire. Prince
Louis sends reinforcements (some 20,000 men) to assist the Barons in the castle. The English army lifts the siege and withdraws to
Nottingham. Louis makes the mistake of moving the French forces to
Lincoln Castle – where the English garrison holds out against previous attacks. Meanwhile, Henry's forces return to Mountsorrel Castle. This time Louis fails to arrive in time to prevent the razing to the ground of the castle.[53]
May 20 –
Battle of Lincoln: Henry III's forces led by
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke defeat the French army of Prince Louis and the rebel barons who are besieging
Lincoln Castle. During the battle,
Thomas, Comte du Perche is killed and Louis is expelled from his base in the southeast of
England. The looting that takes place afterward is known as the "Lincoln Fair". The citizens of
Lincoln are loyal to Louis so Henry's forces sack the city. To the south, inhabitants of towns between Lincoln and
London ambush and kill many of the French soldiers.[34]
June 6 – The 13-year-old King
Henry I of Castile dies from the fall of a roof tile in
Palencia, an event which his regent,
Álvaro Núñez de Lara, attempts to conceal. He is succeeded by his sister
Berengaria, who renounces the throne in favour of her son
Ferdinand III, on
August 31. The young king begins his reign (supported by his mother as adviser and
regent) by a war against his father, King
Alfonso IX of León, and the Castilian nobles.
August 24 –
Battle of Sandwich: An English fleet under
Hubert de Burgh defeats the French armada (10 large ships and 70 supply ships) in the
English Channel, near
Sandwich. The French fleet is commanded by
Eustace the Monk, a mercenary and pirate, who fights for both the French and English when it suits his needs. The French fleet is bringing more men and supplies to assist Prince Louis, in his quest to take the English throne. The English capture Eustace's flagship, and Eustace himself is (while offering 10,000 marks for ransom) beheaded.[55]
September 12 –
Treaty of Kingston: The First Baron's War ends. After the defeat of the French fleet, Prince Louis is without hope of taking the English throne. William Marshal blockades London from the sea and land. At
Lambeth Louis accepts peace terms. He waives his claim for the throne and promises to restore
Normandy to Henry III but does not. The French and Scots are to leave England, and an amnesty is granted to the rebels.[56]
The Mongol army under
Muqali (or Mukhali) attacks
Hebei Province, as well as
Shandong Province and
Shaanxi Province (controlled by the
Jin Dynasty). He returns to
Genghis Khan's camp in
Mongolia, and receives the hereditary of prince with the title "Grand Preceptor of the Empire", a golden seal, and a white standard with nine tails and a black crescent in the middle. He is appointed as commander-in-chief of operations in
North China.
May 24 – A Crusader expeditionary force, (some 30,000 men) under King
John I of Jerusalem, embarks at
Acre (supported by Frisian ships), and sails for
Egypt. They arrive at the harbour of
Damietta, on the right bank of the
Nile, on
May 27. Sultan
Al-Adil, surprised by the invasion, recruits an army in
Syria, while his son
Al-Kamil marches an Egyptian force northwards from
Cairo, and encamps at Al-Adiliya, a few miles south of Damietta.[58]
June 24 –
Siege of Damietta: The Crusader army assaults the fortified city of Damietta, but they repeatedly fail. As a result, the Crusaders create a new type of naval siege weaponry, attributed by the German chronicler
Oliver of Paderborn: two ships are bound together, with a siege tower and ladder constructed on top.
August 24 – After a fierce fight, the Crusaders manage to establish themselves on the ramparts of Damietta, and capture the fort.[59]
September – Cardinal
Pelagius arrives with reinforcements at the Crusader camp, and proceeds to challenge the command of John I, claiming that the Church holds greater authority than a secular leader. Meanwhile, the Crusaders spend time clearing out an old canal, so that their ships can surround Damietta. Pelagius also brings news that King
Frederick II has promised to follow soon, with a German expeditionary force.[60]
Al-Kamil decides to offer the Crusaders a deal,
Jerusalem in exchange for their departure from Egypt. John I favored accepting this offer but Pelagius refuses, unless it also includes
Kerak Castle and other former castles of Jerusalem, to the east of the
Jordan River. Al-Kamil refuses these strategically important sites, and Pelagius rejects the offer. This angers the Crusaders – who consider Jerusalem their important goal.[61]
October 9 – Al-Kamil conducts a surprise attack on the Crusader camp. Discovering their movements, John I and his retinue counter-attack and annihilates the Egyptian advance guard. On
October 26, Al-Kamil attacks by using a bridge across the Nile, after a fierce onslaught the Egyptians are driven back into the river. The Crusaders strengthen their siege lines and receive French and English reinforcements at Damietta.[62]
November 29 – A storm, lasting for 3 days, floods the Crusader camp – devastating the Crusaders' supplies and transportation. To prevent a recurrence Pelagius orders a dyke to be constructed. After the camp is repaired, a serious epidemic strikes the Crusader forces. The victims suffer from a high fever, and at least a sixth of the soldiers die. During the severe winter, the survivors are left enfeebled and depressed.[63]
Mongol Empire
Spring –
Genghis Khan dispatches a Mongolian army (some 20,000 cavalry) under
Jebe, to deal with the
Qara Khitai (or Western Liao) threat. Meanwhile, he sends
Subutai with another army on a simultaneous campaign against the
Merkits. Jebe defeats a force of 30,000 men led by Prince
Kuchlug at the Khitan capital
Balasagun. Kuchlug flees south to modern
Afghanistan, but is captured by hunters – who hands him over to the Mongols. After Kuchlug is beheaded and paraded through the cities of his new domains, Genghis annexes the entire Khitai empire under Mongol rule.[64]
Jochi, eldest son of Genghis Khan, leads a successful campaign against the
Kyrgyz. Meanwhile, Genghis sends a caravan with precious gifts to
Muhammad II, ruler (shah) of the
Khwarazmian Empire, hoping to establish trade relations. However,
Inalchuq, Khwarazmian governor of
Otrar, attacks the caravan, claiming that the caravan contains spies. Genghis then sends a second group of three ambassadors to Muhammad to demand the merchants be set free. Muhammad refuses, and the merchants along with one of the ambassadors are executed.[65]
Britain
March 11 –
Treaty of Worcester: King
Henry III writes to the Welsh ruler
Llywelyn the Great and promises safe-conduct if they meet at
Worcester. A peace treaty is signed, which confirms Llywelyn's ownership of
Wales. In return, Llywelyn agrees to pay homage to Henry and to return those castles that he has captured during his recent conquests.[66]
August 31 – Al-Adil I falls ill and dies at
Damascus after an 18-year reign. He is succeeded in
Syria by his eldest son
Al-Mu'azzam and in Egypt by his younger son, Al-Kamil.[68]
The city of
Rheims emits the first recorded public
life annuity in
Medieval Europe. This type of instrument had been mostly issued by religious institutions. The emission by Rheims is the first evidence of a consolidation of public debt that is to become common in the
Langue d'Oïl, the
Low Countries and
Germany.[70]
February –
Pelagius orders the Crusader army to prepare an attack against the Egyptians but is unsuccessful because of the weather and strength of the defenders. Sultan
Al-Kamil, in command of the Egyptian forces, is almost overthrown by a conspiracy in his entourage. He considers fleeing to the Ayyubid
Emirate of Yemen, ruled by his son
Al-Mas'ud Yusuf, but the arrival of his brother
Al-Mu'azzam, with reinforcements from
Syria, ends the conspiracy. On hearing the news that Al-Kamil and his army is retreating to
Cairo, the Crusaders march to Al-Adiliya. After driving back an assault from the garrison of
Damietta they occupy the town on
February 5.[71]
April – The Crusaders surround Damietta, with the Italian forces to the north,
Knights Templar and
Knights Hospitaller to the east – and King
John I of Jerusalem with his French and Pisan troops to the south. The Frisians and German troops occupy the old camp across the
Nile. A new wave of Crusader reinforcements from
Cyprus arrive led by
Walter III of Caesarea. Meanwhile, Al-Mu'azzam decides to dismantle the fortifications at
Mount Tabor and other defensive positions, as well as
Jerusalem itself, in order to deny their protection should the Crusaders prevail there. Some fanatics wish to destroy the
Holy Sepulchre, but this is refused by Al-Mu'azzam.[72]
April 7 –
Al-Muzaffar II, Ayyubid ruler of
Hama, arrives
Egypt with Syrian reinforcements, leading multiple attacks on the Crusader camp at Al-Adiliya, with little impact. In the meantime, new Crusader forces bring badly-needed supplies. Egyptian attacks continue through May, with Crusader counter-attacks utilizing a Lombard device known as a carroccio, confounding the defenders.[73]
July 8 – Pelagius begins multiple attacks at Damietta, using Pisan and Venetian troops. Each time they are repelled by the defenders, using
Greek fire. A counter-offensive led by Al-Kamil on the Templar camp is repulsed on
July 31 by their new Grand Master
Peire de Montagut, supported by the
Teutonic Knights – where the Crusaders reform and pursue the enemy outside the gates.[74]
August 29 – The Crusaders attack the Egyptian camp in the
Battle of Faraskur and the Muslims pretend a
feigned retreat to
Mansoura. John I advises to camp overnight, because there is no fresh water in the region between the Nile and
Lake Manzalah. Al-Kamil decides to halt the retreat and turns his forces to deliver a smashing attack upon the disorganized Crusaders, losing some 4,300 men.[75]
September –
Francis of Assisi, an Italian preacher, arrives in the Crusader camp and introduces
Catholicism in Egypt. He seeks permission from Pelagius to visit Al-Kamil. After an initial refusal, he sends Francis under a flag of truce to Faraskur. Al-Kamil receives him courteously and offers him many gifts. He accepts a death-bed
baptism, and is escorted back to the Crusader camp.[76]
October – Al-Kamil sends two captive knights as envoys, to renew his former offers of an armistice. If the Crusaders evacuate Egypt, he will return the True Cross (lost in the
Battle of Hattin) and they can have Jerusalem, all central
Palestine and
Galilee. John I advised its acceptance, along with the nobles from
England,
France and
Germany. Pelagius again refuses the peace terms.[77]
November 5 –
Siege of Damietta: The Crusaders enter Damietta and find it abandoned. Seeing the Crusader standards flying from the towers, Al-Kamil hastily abandons his camp at Faraskur and withdraws to Mansoura. Survivors in the city are either sent into slavery or held as hostages to trade for Christian prisoners. On
November 23, the Crusader army captures the city of
Tinnis.[78]
Mongol Empire
Winter –
Genghis Khan sends a Mongol army (some 20,000 men) under his eldest son
Jochi and
Jebe to cross the
Tian Shan mountains ("Heavenly Mountains") to ravage the fertile
Fergana Valley, in the eastern part of the
Khwarezm Empire. The Mongols suffer many losses but slip through the defensive lines and confuse the enemy who thinks this is Genghis' main force.
Muhammad II dispatches his elite cavalry reserve to protect the fertile regions with force. Meanwhile, another Mongol army under his second and third sons
Chagatai and
Ögedei passes through the
Dzungarian Gate, and immediately start laying siege to the border city of
Otrar.[79]
Mongol forces under Chagatai and Ögedei capture Otrar after a 5-month siege. The city becomes the first of many settlements to have its entire population slain or enslaved before it is razed to the ground.
Inalchuq, the Khwarezmian governor of Otrar, is captured and executed by pouring molten silver into his eyes and ears – an unlikely and unnecessarily expensive end.[80]
By letter, Genghis Khan summons
Qiu Chuji (Master Changchun) to visit him, to advise him on the medicine of immortality (the
Philosopher's Stone).
May 2 – King
Leo II (or Levon) of
Armenian Cilicia dies, leaving only two daughters. The elder,
Stephanie, is the wife of John I; the younger,
Isabella, daughter of Princess
Sibylla of Cyprus and Jerusalem, is three years old. Leo has promised the succession to his nephew,
Raymond-Roupen of
Antioch, but on his death-bed he names Isabella as his heir.[82]
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^Macrides, Ruth (2007). George Akropolites: The History – Introduction, Translation and Commentary, pp. 131–132. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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^ "Fires, Great", in The Insurance Cyclopeadia: Being an Historical Treasury of Events and Circumstances Connected with the Origin and Progress of Insurance, Cornelius Walford, ed. (C. and E. Layton, 1876) p26
^Warren, W. L. (1961). King John. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 169–172.
^Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, p. 90. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
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abcdLinehan, Peter (1999). "Chapter 21: Castile, Portugal and Navarre". In
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^Toch, Michael (1999). "Welffs, Hohenstaufen and Habsburgs". In Abulafia, David; McKitterick, Rosamond (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1198– c. 1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 381.
^Man, John (2011). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, p. 166.
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^Kenneth M; Wolff, Robert Lee; Hazard, Harry (eds.). A History of The Crusades, Vol II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, pp. 522–554. The University of Wisconsin Press.
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abSteven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 125.
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^Pevsner, Nikolaus (1960). The Buildings of England: Leicestershire and Rutland, p. 195. Penguin Books.
^Ostrogorsky, George (1995). History of the Byzantine State, p. 433. Translated by Hussey, Joan. Rutgers University Press.
^Powicke, Frederick Maurice (1947). King Henry III and the Lord Edward, pp. 15–16. Oxford: Clarendon.
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^Picard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 110.
ISBN2-7068-1398-9.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for rent, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden; Boston: Brill.
ISBN978-9-00417565-5.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 133.
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^Moses, Paul (2009). The Saint and the Sultan: The Crusades, Islam, and Francis of Assisi's Mission of Peace, pp. 16–17.
ISBN978-0-385-52370-7.
^Van Cleve, Thomas C. (1969). The Fifth Crusade: Prelude to the Siege, pp. 412–413. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
^Van Cleve, Thomas C. (1969). The Fifth Crusade: Prelude to the Siege, p. 414. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 134–135.
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^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 136.
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^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 136–137.
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^Man, John (2011). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, pp. 190–191.
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^Man, John (2011). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection, p. 193.
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^Butkevičienė, Birutė; Gricius, Vytautas (July 2003).
"Mindaugas — Lietuvos karalius". Mokslas Ir Gyvenimas (in Lithuanian). 7 (547). Archived from
the original on 2007-05-23. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 138.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
May – The Second
Parliament of Ravennika, convened by Emperor
Henry of Flanders, is held in the town of
Ravennika in (modern
Greece), in order to resolve the differences between the princes of
Frankish Greece, and the
Roman Catholic clergy of their domains. The assembled nobles and prelates conclude a
concordat, which recognizes the independence and immunity of all Church property in Frankish Greece from any feudal duties.[1]
July 18 –
Battle of Gestilren:
Sverker II (the Younger), the exiled former King of Sweden, is defeated and killed by the reigning King
Eric X (Knutsson). After the battle, Eric takes the Swedish throne and marries Princess
Richeza of Denmark, daughter of the late King
Valdemar I (the Great). This to improve the relations with
Denmark, which has traditionally supported the
House of Sverker.
November 21 – Eric X is crowned – which is the first known coronation of a Swedish king. He strengthens his relationship with his brother-in-law, King
Valdemar II (the Conqueror). Shortly after, Valdemar conquers Danzig (modern-day
Gdańsk) on the
Baltic coast, and
Eastern Pomerania from the Slavonic
Wends.[3]
Battle of Ümera: Estonian forces defeat the Crusaders of the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The Estonians pursue the fleeing Crusaders and according to the
Livonian Chronicle some of the prisoners are burned alive, while others have crosses carved on their backs with swords, before being executed as well.[4]
King
John extends his taxes and raises £100,000 from church property as an extraordinary fiscal levy; the operation is described as an “inestimable and incomparable exaction” by contemporary sources.[5]
November 1 – John orders that
Jews across the country have to pay a
tallage, a sum of money to the king. Those who do not pay are arrested and imprisoned. Many Jews are executed or leave the country.[6]
Jochi, Mongol leader and eldest son of
Genghis Khan, begins a campaign against the
Kyrgyz. Meanwhile, Emperor
Xiang Zong of
Western Xia agrees to submit to Mongol rule, he gives his daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and pays him a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.[8]
June 17 –
Battle of Antioch on the Meander: Seljuk forces led by Sultan
Kaykhusraw I are initially victorious with the Latin mercenary cavalry (some 800 men) bearing the brunt of the casualties due to their flanking charge; exhausted by the effort in their attack, the Latin army under Emperor
Theodore I Laskaris is struck in the flank and rear by the Seljuk forces. However, the Seljuks stop the fight in order to plunder the Latin camp – which allows Theodore's forces to rally and counter-attack the now disorganized Turks. Meanwhile, Kaykhusraw seeks out Theodore and engages him in single combat, but he is unhorsed and beheaded. The Seljuks are routed and the former Byzantine emperor
Alexios III Angelos, Theodore's father-in-law, is captured and imprisoned, ending his days in enforced monastic seclusion.[9]
October 15 –
Battle of the Rhyndacus: Latin emperor
Henry of Flanders lands with an expeditionary force (some 3,000 men) at
Pegai, and marches eastwards to the
Rhyndacus River. The Byzantine army (much larger in force overall) under Theodore I prepare an ambush, but Henry assaults his positions along the river and defeats the Byzantine army in a day-long battle. Henry marches unopposed through the remaining Byzantine lands, reaching south as far as
Nymphaion.[10]
Mongol Empire
Spring –
Genghis Khan summons his Mongol chieftains, and prepares to wage war against the
Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty in northern
China. He advances across the
Gobi Desert with a massive army of 100,000 warriors with 300,000 horses, strung out in perhaps 10–20 groups of 5,000–10,000 men each, each with camel-drawn carts, and all linked by fast-moving messengers. Meanwhile, the Jin Government mobilizes an army of 800,000 men, most of which are untrained peasants with low morale, and some 150,000 highly-trained cavalry. This vast army, however, is spread across the
Great Wall, and garrisoned separate fortresses.[11]
Battle of Yehuling: Genghis Khan bypasses the Great Wall with little opposition, and splits his forces into two armies. The main army (60,000 men) is led by himself, and the other army is taken by his son
Ögedei to attack the city of
Datong. Genghis heads for the strategic
Juyong Pass ("Young Badger's Mouth") – which leads down to the capital of
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing), but along the way he is halted at the pass of Yehuling where the bulk of the Jin army awaits him. Between March and October, the battle is fought in three stages, after Genghis has defeated the Jin forces, he begins raiding the countryside before he withdraws for the winter.[12]
March 26 – King
Sancho I of Portugal ("the Populator") dies after a 25-year reign at
Coimbra. He is succeeded by his son
Afonso II ("the Fat") as ruler of
Portugal. During his reign, he designs the first set of Portuguese written laws.
June – Papal legate
Pandulf Verraccio arrives in
Northampton to serve John with his excommunication ordered by Innocent III. For John this is a serious blow to his ability to rule the country.
John sends a gift of
herrings to nunneries in almost every
shire, despite his status as an excommunicant.
The
Papal Interdict of 1208 laid by Innocent III remains in force after John refuses to accept the pope's appointee.
July 10 – The
Great Fire: The most severe of several
early fires of London burns most of the city to the ground; over 3,000 people die, many of them by drowning in the
River Thames. According to a contemporary account: "An awful fire broke out on the
Southwark side of
London Bridge; while it was raging, a fire broke out at the other end also and so hemmed in the numerous crowds who had assembled to help the distressed. The sufferers, to avoid the flames, threw themselves over the bridge into boats and barges; but many of these sunk, the people crowding into them.".[15]
King
John (Lackland) impounds the revenue of all prelates appointed by bishops, who have deserted him at his excommunication. He remains on good terms, however, with churchmen who stood by him, including Abbot Sampson, who this year bequeaths John his jewels.[16]
Europe
Spring – After the fall of
Argos the Crusaders complete their conquest of the
Morea in southern
Greece. The city, along with
Nauplia, is given to
Otho de la Roche, a Burgundian nobleman, as a fief, along with an income of 400 hyperpyron from
Corinth.[17] Meanwhile, the Venetians conquer
Crete and evict
Enrico Pescatore, a Genoese adventurer and pirate, active in the
Mediterranean.
The
Children's Crusade is organized. There are probably two separate movements of young people, both led by shepherd boys, neither of which embark for the
Holy Land – but both of which suffer considerable hardship.[19]
Early Spring – Nicholas leads a group from the
Rhineland and crosses the
alps into
Italy. In August, he arrives with some 7,000 children in
Genoa. Nicholas travels to the
Papal States where he meets Pope
Innocent III.
June – The 12-year-old Stephen of Cloyes leads a group across
France to
Vendôme. Attracting a following of over 30,000 adults and children. After arriving in
Marseilles the vast majority return home to their families.
The
Teutonic Order builds
Bran Castle (or Dietrichstein) in the
Burzenland (modern
Romania) as a fortified position at the entrance of a mountain pass through which traders can travel. The Teutonic Knights built another five castles, some of them made of stone. Their rapid expansion in
Hungary makes the nobility and clergy, who are previously uninterested in those regions, jealous and suspicious.
December 9 – The 18-year-old
Frederick II is crowned
King of the Germans at
Mainz. Frederick's authority in
Germany remains tenuous, and he is recognized only in southern Germany. In the region of northern Germany, the center of
Guelph power, his rival
Otto IV continues to hold the imperial power despite his excommunication.[20]
Asia
Autumn –
Genghis Khan invades Jin territory and besieges
Datong. During the assault, he is wounded by an arrow in his knee and orders a withdrawal for rest and relaxation.[21]
By topic
Literature
Kamo no Chōmei, a Japanese poet and
essayist, writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese prose.
JinChina is overrun by the
Mongols under
Genghis Khan, who plunder the countryside and cities, until only
Beijing remains free, despite two bloody palace coups and a lengthy siege.[28][29]
February 15 – King
John (Lackland) lands with an invasion force (accompanied by mercenaries) at
La Rochelle; many barons of
England refuse to join him in the campaign. John sends his half-brother
William Longespée (Long Sword) to
Flanders, with money to assemble a mercenary army there. John pushes the French forces northeast from
Poitou towards
Paris, while Emperor
Otto IV marches southwest from Flanders.[34]
King
Philip II (Augustus) decides to defend the French territories by leaving a third of his army under his son, Prince
Louis to confront John (Lackland) in the
Loire Valley – while Philip heads for Flanders to raid the region. On
July 2, John's forces are confronted by a French relief force while they besiege the castle of
Roche-au-Moine. John retreats back to La Rochelle, but his rearguard suffers immensely by the French army.[35]
June – Otto IV arrives in Flanders with a small army; four German nobles have joined him, but he is soon reinforced by troops of
Renaud I, duke of
Boulogne,
Ferdinand, (jure uxoris) count of
Flanders and the mercenaries under William Longespée. On July 26, Philip II arrives at the Flemish town of
Tournai with his army (some 7,000 men), while the allied forces encamp 12 kilometers south at the Castle of
Mortagne (
France).
July 27 –
Battle of Bouvines: Philip II defeats an army (some 9,000 men) of German, English and Flemish soldiers led by Otto IV near
Bouvines, ending the
Anglo-French War. The French forces have taken a considerable number of soldiers prisoner, including 131 knights and five counts with Ferdinand, Renaud I and William Longespée among them.[34]
November 20 – A group of English nobles, after finding a copy of the
Charter of Liberties, swear an oath at the altar of
Bury St. Edmunds, to force John (Lackland) to acknowledge their rights.
Spring – Emperor
Xuan Zong of the
Jurchen-led Chinese
Jin Dynasty surrenders to the Mongols under
Genghis khan – who have besieged the capital of
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing) for a year. He is forced to pay
tribute (including some 3,000 horses, 10,000 'bolts' of silk and his daughter), along with subjugation to the Mongol Khan. Xuan Zong abandons northern China and moves his court to
Kaifeng.[36]
After securing all Jin lands north of the
Yellow River, Genghis Khan receives a message that Xuan Zong has moved his capital to Kaifeng. He returns to Zhongdu and precedes the city with the help of thousands of Chinese engineers. The Mongols starve the city out (the inhabitants are forced to eat the dead). The garrison, with a short supply of ammunition for the cannons holds out for the winter.[37]
In his campaigns in
Liaodong, the Mongol general
Muqali (or Mukhali) forms a newly
Khitan-Chinese army and a special corps of some 12,000 Chinese auxiliary troops.
March 4 – King
John of England ("Lackland"), hoping to gain the support of Pope
Innocent III against the Barons, takes the oath to go on Crusade. By doing so, Innocent declares John to be his vassal and claims ownership of the whole kingdom (with political protection under church law).[39] On
April 1, Innocent sends a letter to the Barons, asking them to halt their actions against John.
May 17 – The gates to
London are opened by supporters of the rebellious Barons. The houses of
Jews are targeted for ransacking and burning. The rebels, under Robert Fitzwalter, call for the English nobles still on the side of King John to join them, and repair the walls. The
Tower of London, held by John's supporters, is too well defended to fall into the hands of the rebels.
June 15 – A large number of barons, led by
Stephen Langton, archbishop of
Canterbury, meet King John of England on an island in the
Thames at
Runnymede. They force John to sign
Magna Carta, a document that grants liberties to the "free men" – the Barons, the church and the towns. He is subjected to the
rule of law, by confirming the status of
trial by jury, on
June 19.[41]
Summer – Emperor
Otto IV is excommunicated and forced to abdicate as ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire. The German nobles, supported by Innocent III, again elect the 20-year-old
Frederick II as
King of the Romans who is crowned in
Aachen, on
July 25. The same day, Frederick takes the
Cross and promises to go on Crusade.
August – King John of England rejects Magna Carta and writes to Innocent III – asking him to cancel the charter on grounds that he signed it against his will. At the same time, John continues to build up his mercenary army.
August 24 –
Pope Innocent III annuls Magna Carta, freeing King John from its limitations. He annuls the charter on the grounds that John signed it because he is forced and that the document is illegal.
September 13 – King John of England seeks help from Innocent III in his fight against the Barons. In a letter, written while staying at
Dover Castle, he states that the defense of
England is the responsibility of God and the Pope.
October – The Barons offer the English crown to Louis of France and invite him to England. King John England confiscates the Barons' land and besieges
Rochester Castle; the garrison is starved out and surrenders to him.
June 1 –
Mongol conquest of Jin China: After the long
Battle of Zhongdu, the Mongol forces capture
Zhongdu (modern-day
Beijing). Meanwhile,
Genghis Khan has decamped to the edge of the
grasslands and is on his way back to the
Kherlen River. Without his restraining influence, the Mongols run wild. They devastate and ransack the city, killing thousands. The royal palace goes up in flames, and a part of the capital burns for a month.[44]
April 10 – Ten-year-old
John I, son of the former King
Sverker II ("the Younger") succeeds
Eric X ("Knutsson") as King of Sweden, when Eric dies of fever at the end of a 8-year reign, at
Näs Castle on the island of
Visingsö.
May 18 – King John of England assembles a naval force to defend against a French invasion. Bad storms disperse the fleet, and John spends the summer reorganizing defenses across the country. He sees several of his military household desert to the barons, including his half-brother,
William Longespée, who is the commander of John's army in the south.[45]
June – The rebel English barons besiege
Windsor Castle and
Dover Castle; the latter is strategically important as the 'gateway to England', controlling the shortest route to
France. Meanwhile, King John uses
Corfe Castle in the southwest as his base of operations while he plans his campaign against the barons and the French invading army under Louis.[46]
October 8 –
Az-Zahir Ghazi, Ayyubid ruler of
Aleppo, dies after a 23-year reign. He is succeeded by his 3-year-old son
Al-Aziz Muhammad. Because of his young age, Toghril becomes Al-Aziz's regent or guardian (atabeg).
May – Pope
Innocent III travels to
Perugia to try to settle the long feud between
Genoa and
Pisa, that both states might contribute to the transport of the
Fifth Crusade. There, after a short illness, Innocent dies on
July 16. Two days after his death the aged Cardinal Cencio Savelli (later
Honorius III) is elected as the 177th pope of the
Catholic Church.[50]
Summer – Various groups of French knights reach the Italian ports. King
Andrew II of Hungary arrives with his army in
Split, in
Dalmatia. He is joined by German forces, led by Duke
Leopold VI (the Glorious). At the end of July, Pope
Honorius III orders the crusaders assembled in
Italy and
Sicily to proceed to
Cyprus, but there is no transport provided by the Italian city-states,
Venice,
Genoa and
Pisa.
September: Leopold VI finds some ships in Split, that bring him and a small force to
Acre. Andrew follows him about a fortnight later; in Split, he receives only two ships. The rest of Andrew's army is left behind. Meanwhile, King
Hugh I of Cyprus lands at Acre, with troops to support the Crusade.[51]
November – The Crusader army (some 15,000 men) under Andrew II sets out from Acre, and marches up the
Plain of Esdraelon. Sultan
Al-Adil I, on hearing that the crusaders are assembling, sends some Muslim troops to
Palestine, to halt their advance. The crusaders move towards
Beisan, while Al-Adil waits at
Ajloun Castle, ready to intercept any attack on
Damascus. He sends his son,
Al-Mu'azzam, to cover
Jerusalem. On
November 10, Andrew's well-mounted army defeats Al-Adil at
Bethsaida, on the
Jordan River. Beisan is occupied and sacked; the Muslims retreat to their fortresses and towns.[52]
December – King
John I of Jerusalem leads an expedition into
Lebanon. On
December 3, he undertakes fruitless assaults on Muslim fortresses and on
Mount Tabor. Meanwhile, the Crusader army under Andrew II wanders across the
Jordan Valley and up the eastern shore of the
Sea of Galilee. During the occupation, Andrew spends his time collecting alleged relics. By the end of December, supplies run out, and the crusaders retreat to Acre.[52]
Other events by place
Europe
Spring –
First Barons' War: English forces of King
Henry III besiege the French-controlled
Mountsorrel Castle in
Leicestershire. Prince
Louis sends reinforcements (some 20,000 men) to assist the Barons in the castle. The English army lifts the siege and withdraws to
Nottingham. Louis makes the mistake of moving the French forces to
Lincoln Castle – where the English garrison holds out against previous attacks. Meanwhile, Henry's forces return to Mountsorrel Castle. This time Louis fails to arrive in time to prevent the razing to the ground of the castle.[53]
May 20 –
Battle of Lincoln: Henry III's forces led by
William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke defeat the French army of Prince Louis and the rebel barons who are besieging
Lincoln Castle. During the battle,
Thomas, Comte du Perche is killed and Louis is expelled from his base in the southeast of
England. The looting that takes place afterward is known as the "Lincoln Fair". The citizens of
Lincoln are loyal to Louis so Henry's forces sack the city. To the south, inhabitants of towns between Lincoln and
London ambush and kill many of the French soldiers.[34]
June 6 – The 13-year-old King
Henry I of Castile dies from the fall of a roof tile in
Palencia, an event which his regent,
Álvaro Núñez de Lara, attempts to conceal. He is succeeded by his sister
Berengaria, who renounces the throne in favour of her son
Ferdinand III, on
August 31. The young king begins his reign (supported by his mother as adviser and
regent) by a war against his father, King
Alfonso IX of León, and the Castilian nobles.
August 24 –
Battle of Sandwich: An English fleet under
Hubert de Burgh defeats the French armada (10 large ships and 70 supply ships) in the
English Channel, near
Sandwich. The French fleet is commanded by
Eustace the Monk, a mercenary and pirate, who fights for both the French and English when it suits his needs. The French fleet is bringing more men and supplies to assist Prince Louis, in his quest to take the English throne. The English capture Eustace's flagship, and Eustace himself is (while offering 10,000 marks for ransom) beheaded.[55]
September 12 –
Treaty of Kingston: The First Baron's War ends. After the defeat of the French fleet, Prince Louis is without hope of taking the English throne. William Marshal blockades London from the sea and land. At
Lambeth Louis accepts peace terms. He waives his claim for the throne and promises to restore
Normandy to Henry III but does not. The French and Scots are to leave England, and an amnesty is granted to the rebels.[56]
The Mongol army under
Muqali (or Mukhali) attacks
Hebei Province, as well as
Shandong Province and
Shaanxi Province (controlled by the
Jin Dynasty). He returns to
Genghis Khan's camp in
Mongolia, and receives the hereditary of prince with the title "Grand Preceptor of the Empire", a golden seal, and a white standard with nine tails and a black crescent in the middle. He is appointed as commander-in-chief of operations in
North China.
May 24 – A Crusader expeditionary force, (some 30,000 men) under King
John I of Jerusalem, embarks at
Acre (supported by Frisian ships), and sails for
Egypt. They arrive at the harbour of
Damietta, on the right bank of the
Nile, on
May 27. Sultan
Al-Adil, surprised by the invasion, recruits an army in
Syria, while his son
Al-Kamil marches an Egyptian force northwards from
Cairo, and encamps at Al-Adiliya, a few miles south of Damietta.[58]
June 24 –
Siege of Damietta: The Crusader army assaults the fortified city of Damietta, but they repeatedly fail. As a result, the Crusaders create a new type of naval siege weaponry, attributed by the German chronicler
Oliver of Paderborn: two ships are bound together, with a siege tower and ladder constructed on top.
August 24 – After a fierce fight, the Crusaders manage to establish themselves on the ramparts of Damietta, and capture the fort.[59]
September – Cardinal
Pelagius arrives with reinforcements at the Crusader camp, and proceeds to challenge the command of John I, claiming that the Church holds greater authority than a secular leader. Meanwhile, the Crusaders spend time clearing out an old canal, so that their ships can surround Damietta. Pelagius also brings news that King
Frederick II has promised to follow soon, with a German expeditionary force.[60]
Al-Kamil decides to offer the Crusaders a deal,
Jerusalem in exchange for their departure from Egypt. John I favored accepting this offer but Pelagius refuses, unless it also includes
Kerak Castle and other former castles of Jerusalem, to the east of the
Jordan River. Al-Kamil refuses these strategically important sites, and Pelagius rejects the offer. This angers the Crusaders – who consider Jerusalem their important goal.[61]
October 9 – Al-Kamil conducts a surprise attack on the Crusader camp. Discovering their movements, John I and his retinue counter-attack and annihilates the Egyptian advance guard. On
October 26, Al-Kamil attacks by using a bridge across the Nile, after a fierce onslaught the Egyptians are driven back into the river. The Crusaders strengthen their siege lines and receive French and English reinforcements at Damietta.[62]
November 29 – A storm, lasting for 3 days, floods the Crusader camp – devastating the Crusaders' supplies and transportation. To prevent a recurrence Pelagius orders a dyke to be constructed. After the camp is repaired, a serious epidemic strikes the Crusader forces. The victims suffer from a high fever, and at least a sixth of the soldiers die. During the severe winter, the survivors are left enfeebled and depressed.[63]
Mongol Empire
Spring –
Genghis Khan dispatches a Mongolian army (some 20,000 cavalry) under
Jebe, to deal with the
Qara Khitai (or Western Liao) threat. Meanwhile, he sends
Subutai with another army on a simultaneous campaign against the
Merkits. Jebe defeats a force of 30,000 men led by Prince
Kuchlug at the Khitan capital
Balasagun. Kuchlug flees south to modern
Afghanistan, but is captured by hunters – who hands him over to the Mongols. After Kuchlug is beheaded and paraded through the cities of his new domains, Genghis annexes the entire Khitai empire under Mongol rule.[64]
Jochi, eldest son of Genghis Khan, leads a successful campaign against the
Kyrgyz. Meanwhile, Genghis sends a caravan with precious gifts to
Muhammad II, ruler (shah) of the
Khwarazmian Empire, hoping to establish trade relations. However,
Inalchuq, Khwarazmian governor of
Otrar, attacks the caravan, claiming that the caravan contains spies. Genghis then sends a second group of three ambassadors to Muhammad to demand the merchants be set free. Muhammad refuses, and the merchants along with one of the ambassadors are executed.[65]
Britain
March 11 –
Treaty of Worcester: King
Henry III writes to the Welsh ruler
Llywelyn the Great and promises safe-conduct if they meet at
Worcester. A peace treaty is signed, which confirms Llywelyn's ownership of
Wales. In return, Llywelyn agrees to pay homage to Henry and to return those castles that he has captured during his recent conquests.[66]
August 31 – Al-Adil I falls ill and dies at
Damascus after an 18-year reign. He is succeeded in
Syria by his eldest son
Al-Mu'azzam and in Egypt by his younger son, Al-Kamil.[68]
The city of
Rheims emits the first recorded public
life annuity in
Medieval Europe. This type of instrument had been mostly issued by religious institutions. The emission by Rheims is the first evidence of a consolidation of public debt that is to become common in the
Langue d'Oïl, the
Low Countries and
Germany.[70]
February –
Pelagius orders the Crusader army to prepare an attack against the Egyptians but is unsuccessful because of the weather and strength of the defenders. Sultan
Al-Kamil, in command of the Egyptian forces, is almost overthrown by a conspiracy in his entourage. He considers fleeing to the Ayyubid
Emirate of Yemen, ruled by his son
Al-Mas'ud Yusuf, but the arrival of his brother
Al-Mu'azzam, with reinforcements from
Syria, ends the conspiracy. On hearing the news that Al-Kamil and his army is retreating to
Cairo, the Crusaders march to Al-Adiliya. After driving back an assault from the garrison of
Damietta they occupy the town on
February 5.[71]
April – The Crusaders surround Damietta, with the Italian forces to the north,
Knights Templar and
Knights Hospitaller to the east – and King
John I of Jerusalem with his French and Pisan troops to the south. The Frisians and German troops occupy the old camp across the
Nile. A new wave of Crusader reinforcements from
Cyprus arrive led by
Walter III of Caesarea. Meanwhile, Al-Mu'azzam decides to dismantle the fortifications at
Mount Tabor and other defensive positions, as well as
Jerusalem itself, in order to deny their protection should the Crusaders prevail there. Some fanatics wish to destroy the
Holy Sepulchre, but this is refused by Al-Mu'azzam.[72]
April 7 –
Al-Muzaffar II, Ayyubid ruler of
Hama, arrives
Egypt with Syrian reinforcements, leading multiple attacks on the Crusader camp at Al-Adiliya, with little impact. In the meantime, new Crusader forces bring badly-needed supplies. Egyptian attacks continue through May, with Crusader counter-attacks utilizing a Lombard device known as a carroccio, confounding the defenders.[73]
July 8 – Pelagius begins multiple attacks at Damietta, using Pisan and Venetian troops. Each time they are repelled by the defenders, using
Greek fire. A counter-offensive led by Al-Kamil on the Templar camp is repulsed on
July 31 by their new Grand Master
Peire de Montagut, supported by the
Teutonic Knights – where the Crusaders reform and pursue the enemy outside the gates.[74]
August 29 – The Crusaders attack the Egyptian camp in the
Battle of Faraskur and the Muslims pretend a
feigned retreat to
Mansoura. John I advises to camp overnight, because there is no fresh water in the region between the Nile and
Lake Manzalah. Al-Kamil decides to halt the retreat and turns his forces to deliver a smashing attack upon the disorganized Crusaders, losing some 4,300 men.[75]
September –
Francis of Assisi, an Italian preacher, arrives in the Crusader camp and introduces
Catholicism in Egypt. He seeks permission from Pelagius to visit Al-Kamil. After an initial refusal, he sends Francis under a flag of truce to Faraskur. Al-Kamil receives him courteously and offers him many gifts. He accepts a death-bed
baptism, and is escorted back to the Crusader camp.[76]
October – Al-Kamil sends two captive knights as envoys, to renew his former offers of an armistice. If the Crusaders evacuate Egypt, he will return the True Cross (lost in the
Battle of Hattin) and they can have Jerusalem, all central
Palestine and
Galilee. John I advised its acceptance, along with the nobles from
England,
France and
Germany. Pelagius again refuses the peace terms.[77]
November 5 –
Siege of Damietta: The Crusaders enter Damietta and find it abandoned. Seeing the Crusader standards flying from the towers, Al-Kamil hastily abandons his camp at Faraskur and withdraws to Mansoura. Survivors in the city are either sent into slavery or held as hostages to trade for Christian prisoners. On
November 23, the Crusader army captures the city of
Tinnis.[78]
Mongol Empire
Winter –
Genghis Khan sends a Mongol army (some 20,000 men) under his eldest son
Jochi and
Jebe to cross the
Tian Shan mountains ("Heavenly Mountains") to ravage the fertile
Fergana Valley, in the eastern part of the
Khwarezm Empire. The Mongols suffer many losses but slip through the defensive lines and confuse the enemy who thinks this is Genghis' main force.
Muhammad II dispatches his elite cavalry reserve to protect the fertile regions with force. Meanwhile, another Mongol army under his second and third sons
Chagatai and
Ögedei passes through the
Dzungarian Gate, and immediately start laying siege to the border city of
Otrar.[79]
Mongol forces under Chagatai and Ögedei capture Otrar after a 5-month siege. The city becomes the first of many settlements to have its entire population slain or enslaved before it is razed to the ground.
Inalchuq, the Khwarezmian governor of Otrar, is captured and executed by pouring molten silver into his eyes and ears – an unlikely and unnecessarily expensive end.[80]
By letter, Genghis Khan summons
Qiu Chuji (Master Changchun) to visit him, to advise him on the medicine of immortality (the
Philosopher's Stone).
May 2 – King
Leo II (or Levon) of
Armenian Cilicia dies, leaving only two daughters. The elder,
Stephanie, is the wife of John I; the younger,
Isabella, daughter of Princess
Sibylla of Cyprus and Jerusalem, is three years old. Leo has promised the succession to his nephew,
Raymond-Roupen of
Antioch, but on his death-bed he names Isabella as his heir.[82]
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