March 9 –
Battle of Klokotnitsa: Byzantine forces under
Theodore Komnenos (Doukas) invade
Bulgaria, breaking the peace treaty with Tsar
Ivan Asen II. Theodore gathers a large army, including western mercenaries. The two armies meet near the village of
Klokotnitsa. Ivan applies clever tactics and manages to surround the Byzantines. They are completely defeated, only a small force under Theodore's brother
Manuel Doukas manages to escape the battlefield. Theodore is taken prisoner and is blinded. In the aftermath, Ivan quickly extends its control over most of Theodore's domains in
Thrace,
Macedonia and
Albania. The Latin
Duchy of Philippopolis and the independent principality of
Alexius Slav are also captured and annexed into Bulgaria.[1]
Europe
King
Alfonso IX defeats Ibn Hud al-Yamani (known as Almogàver by the Christians). This success opens the road to
Badajoz to the Leonese troops.[2] The Portuguese king
Sancho II continues his offensive southward and takes
Beja,
Juromenha,
Serpa and
Moura.[3]
Frederick II bestows on the
Teutonic Order a special privilege for the conquest of
Prussia, including
Chełmno Land, with papal sovereignty. He allows the Teutonic Knights to forcibly convert the
Prussians to
Christianity.
September 24 – Alfonso IX dies after a 42-year reign and is succeeded by his son
Ferdinand III. He receives the
Kingdom of León, in return for compensation in cash and lands for his half-sisters
Sancha and
Dulce.
Siege of Galway: Norman forces under
Richard Mór de Burgh invade
Connacht and desolate a large portion of the country. He besieges
Galway, but is forced to retreat after a week-long inconclusive battle.
England
April 30 – King
Henry III embarks from
Portsmouth with a large expeditionary force. On
May 2, he arrives at
Guernsey, and the next day the English army lands at
Saint-Malo, where
Peter I (or de Dreux), duke of
Brittany, meets Henry to pay him homage. During the months, the English forces march through the
County of Anjou, taking the castle of
Mirebeau in late July.[5]
October 27 – Henry III signs a truce with King
Louis IX (the Saint) and returns to Portsmouth. He leaves a small force under Peter I and
Ranulf de Blondeville, to act against the French in Brittany and
Normandy.
Autumn – Frederick II appoints Marshal
Richard Filangieri as his imperial
legate, and sends an expeditionary army of mostly
Lombards for the defense of
Jerusalem. He gathers some 600 knights, 100 "sergeants-at-arms", 700 armed infantrymen, and 3,000 marines. The army is supported by 32 war-galleys.[12]
War of the Lombards: Richard Filangieri sails for
Beirut, where the town is handed over to him. He occupies
Sidon and
Tyre – while other Lombard forces appear before
Acre. At Acre, Filangieri summons a meeting of the High Court and shows letters from Frederick II appointing him as ambassador (baili).[13]
China
April 9 – A huge fire breaks out at night in the southeast of
Hangzhou during the
Song dynasty. Fighting the flames is difficult due to limited visibility. When the fires are extinguished, it is discovered that an entire district of the city (some 10,000 houses) has been consumed by the flames.
Mongol Empire
August –
Ögedei Khan orders the invasion of
Korea. A Mongol army crosses the
Yalu River and quickly secures the surrender of the border town of
Uiju. The Mongols are joined by
Hong Bok-won, a Goryeo general, who takes their side with his subordinates numbering some 1500 families.[14]
Siege of Kuju: Mongol forces besiege the city of
Kuju. They deploy assault teams who man
siege towers and scale ladders. Despite the fact the Goryeo army is heavily outnumbered, the garrison refuses to surrender.
Peter de Rivaux, nephew of Peter des Roches, is made
Lord Treasurer of Henry III's household and keeper of the king's wardrobe. This moves him into an important position for controlling the king's affairs.
The
Almohad army besieges the city of
Ceuta, where Abu Musa, rebellious brother of Caliph
Idris al-Ma'mun, has received shelter and the support of the population. The Genoese rent a part of their fleet to the rebels, who successfully resist the forces of the caliph. The consequences of this revolt are threefold: the city becomes de facto independent from the Almohads, but its reliance on the Italian maritime powers increases, and the
Trans-Saharan trade routes begin to shift eastward, due to the local turmoil.[19]
Mongol Empire
February 9 –
Battle of Sanfengshan: The Mongol army (some 50,000 warriors) defeats the Chinese Jin forces near
Yuzhou. General
Subutai successfully wipes out the last field army of the
Jin dynasty – therefore sealing its fate of falling to the
Mongol Empire. During the encounter, also called the Battle of the Three-Peak Mountain, Emperor
Aizong of Jin orders the Jin army (some 150,000 men) to intercept the Mongols. The Jin soldiers are constantly harassed by small groups of Mongol cavalry on the way. When they arrive at Sanfeng Mountain, the Jin army is hungry and exhausted by heavy snowfall. The Jin forces are quickly defeated by the Mongols and flee in all directions.
April 8 –
Mongol–Jin War: The Mongol army led by
Ögedei Khan and his brother
Tolui begins the
siege of Kaifeng, capital of the Chinese Jin dynasty. During the summer, the
Jurchens try to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty, but the assassination of a Mongol embassy makes further talks impossible. While the negotiations are going on, a plague is devastating the population of the city. In the meantime, supplies stored at Kaifeng are running out, and several residents of the city are executed on the suspicion that they are traitors.[20]
June –
Mongol invasion of Korea:
Choe Woo, Korean military dictator of
Goryeo, orders against the pleas of King
Gojong and his senior officials, the royal court, and most of
Songdo's population to be moved to
Ganghwa Island. Woo starts the construction of strong defenses on Ganghwa Island, which becomes a fortress. The government orders the common people to flee the countryside and take refuge in major cities, mountain citadels, or nearby islands. The Mongols occupy much of northern
Korea, but fail to capture Ganghwa Island.
December 16 –
Battle of Cheoin: Korean forces defeat a Mongol attack at Cheoin (modern-day
Yongin). The Mongol Empire concludes a peace treaty with Goryeo and withdraws its forces.
Japan
November 17 – Emperor
Go-Horikawa abdicates in favor of his 1-year-old son,
Shijō, after an 11-year reign. Because he is very young, most of the actual leadership is held by his relatives.
The
northern French city of
Troyes issues its first recorded
life annuities, confirming the trend of consolidation of local public debts initiated in
1218, by the neighboring city of
Reims.[21]
War of the Lombards: Lombard forces at
Kyrenia surrender to
John of Beirut, after a 10-month siege. The defenders, with their personal belongings, are allowed to retire to
Tyre. Captured prisoners are exchanged for those held by
Richard Filangieri, commander of the Lombards, at Tyre.
Cyprus is wholly restored under the rule of the 16-year-old King
Henry I ("the Fat"). His vassals are rewarded, and loans that they have made are repaid.[25]
November – Henry III's army camped at
Grosmont Castle is attacked in the night, by a force of Welsh and English rebels. Several of Henry's supporters are captured, and the castle is returned to
Hubert de Burgh, one of the rebels.
December –
Siege of Caizhou: The Mongols under Ögedei Khan besiege Caizhou and ally themselves with the Chinese
Song dynasty to eliminate the Jin Dynasty.
King
Canute II of Sweden ("the Tall") dies after a five-year reign. His rival,
Eric XI ("the Lisp and Lame"), returns as ruler of
Sweden (possibly after a civil war between the two of them). It is also possible that Canute dies of natural causes, and Eric peacefully then returns as king.
A Chinese text of this year records that
Hangzhou City, the capital of the
Song dynasty, has various social clubs that include a West Lake Poetry Club, the Buddhist Tea Society, the Physical Fitness Club, the Anglers' Club, the Occult Club, the Young Girls' Chorus, the Exotic Foods Club, the Plants and Fruits Club, the Antique Collectors' Club, the Horse-Lovers' Club, and the Refined Music Society.[40][41]
June – The 16-year-old
Alexander Nevsky is elected by the Novgorodians as prince (knyaz) of
Novgorod, beseeching the young Kievan noble to take charge of the city's military affairs.
The Mongols under
Batu Khan, eldest of
Jochi, sweep across
Central Asia. They settle in the Russian steppe, curtailing the power of the
Kievan Rus', extracting
tribute from their neighbors, and disrupting their relationship with the
Byzantine Empire.
Autumn –
Siege of Bilär: The Mongols under Batu Khan capture the capital city of
Bilär after a siege that lasts for 45 days. The
Volga Bulgars are defeated within the year, as are the
Kipchaks and
Alans.
The
Goryeo court in
Korea orders the preparation of another set of
woodblocks for printing the Buddhist Tripiṭaka ("Triple Basket") – which is intended both to gain protection against the Mongol invaders and to replace the earlier 11th century set that has been destroyed by the Mongols (see
1232).
Summer – Emperor
Frederick II assembles an expeditionary force (some 15,000 men) to crush the rebellious
Lombard League. He crosses the
Alps to
Verona – where he is joined by Lord
Ezzelino III da Romano, including troops from
Brescia,
Vicenza,
Padua and
Treviso. Frederick relies on his allies for support and in doing so, he provokes the opposition of earlier supporters, such as the
House of Este, which now sides with the Lombards.
November 27 –
Battle of Cortenuova: Frederick II defeats the forces of the Lombard League; about 5,000 Lombards are captured. Frederick makes a triumphal entry into the allied city of
Cremona in the manner of an ancient
Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to the commune of
Rome), and an elephant. During the winter campaign, Frederick captures the
Piedmontese cities of
Lodi,
Novara,
Vercelli,
Chieri, and
Savona.[51]
December 16–
21 –
Siege of Ryazan: The Mongols under Batu Khan lay siege to Ryazan. The townspeople repel the first Mongol attacks but after 5 days the city walls are breached by Chinese catapults. On
December 21, the Mongols storm the walls and plunder the capital, killing Yuri Igorevich and all inhabitants. Yuri II of Vladimir stands by and does nothing to intervene while Ryazan burns.
December –
Siege of Kolomna: Rus' forces under Yuri II of Vladimir are besieged and annihilated at Kolomna by the Mongols. Yuri barely escapes to
Yaroslavl. The defenceless capital of Vladimir is taken after just 2 days. Yuri's wife Agatha (sister of
Michael of Chernigov) and all his family die in Vladimir when a church where they have sought refuge from the fire collapses.
Levant
Spring –
Al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid ruler of
Damascus, assembles his allies and secures his active support of
Kayqubad I, Sejuk ruler of the
Sultanate of Rum. A civil war seems inevitable when Kayqubad is poisoned during a feast at
Kayseri, on
May 31.[54] Meanwhile, the Seljuks strengthen the fortresses in the eastern provinces against the Mongols.
August 27 – Al-Ashraf becomes dangerously ill and dies after an 8-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
As-Salih Ismail – who defends Damascus against his elder brother
Al-Kamil, Ayyubid ruler of
Egypt. In October, Ismail has the suburbs burnt to prevent the Egyptian forces from shelter.[55]
Elbląg is founded by the Teutonic Order under Grand Master
Hermann von Balk. He constructs a fortified stronghold on the banks of the
Elbląg River (modern
Poland).
January 15–
20 –
Siege of Moscow: The Mongols under
Batu Khan and
Subutai campaign across the northern heartland of the
Kievan Rus', committing numerous atrocities across multiple settlements, including the sacking of an insignificant town known as
Moscow. According to the
Chronicle of Novgorod, Moscow is a fortified village, a trading post "on a crossroads of four rivers". The village is taken by the Mongols after 5 days of siege.
March 4 –
Battle of the Sit River: The Mongols defeat a Kievan Rus' army (some 4,000 men) under Grand Prince
Yuri II of Vladimir in an engagement at the
Sit River (located in the
Sonkovsky District). With Yuri's death, so too dies the hope of any united Rus' resistance against the Mongols. Batu Khan splits his forces up into several contingents – ordering each to wreak havoc across the Rus' territories (modern-day
Russia and
Ukraine).
March –
Siege of Kozelsk: The 12-year-old Prince Vasily of
Chernigov (grandson of
Mstislav II Svyatoslavich), manages against all the odds, to hold out in his capital of
Kozelsk for nearly two months with only citizen militia. He leads a successful sortie outside of the walls – where the garrison slaughters thousands of Mongols and destroys siege equipment. Finally, Kozelsk is conquered and Vasily is slaughtered alongside the inhabitants.
Evpaty Kolovrat, Kievan knight (bogatyr), returns to his hometown of
Ryazan, which was burnt to the ground by the Mongols in
1237. He gathers some 1,700 survivors and pursues Batu Khan, attacking his rearguard, and annihilating thousands of Mongols. Finally, Kolovrat is slain from afar by siege-weaponry. Batu Khan shows admiration for his bravery and as a sign of respect, returns his body and allows his soldiers to return home.
Autumn – The Mongols under Batu Khan retire, leaving behind the ruined northern Rus' territories. He spends the rest of the year suppressing the last resistance of the
Kipchaks, while his cousin
Möngke (son of
Tolui Khan) conquer the
Alans and the northern
Caucasian tribes. Later, Möngke makes a raid of reconnaissance as far as
Kiev.[56]
July 11 –
Siege of Brescia: Emperor
Frederick II begins the siege of
Brescia. He rejects the negotiations of the
Lombard League and insists on unconditional surrender to the imperial forces in northern
Italy. This blocks all possibilities of a peaceful settlement.
Milan and five other Lombard cities are attacked. In early October, after a successful sortie by the city's defenders, Frederick is forced to lift the siege.
January –
Simon de Montfort marries the 23-year-old
Eleanor, sister of King
Henry III. While the marriage takes place with the king's approval, the act itself is performed secretly and without consulting the barons. Eleanor has previously been married to
William Marshal and has sworn a vow of perpetual
chastity upon his death, which she breaks by marrying Montfort. Archbishop
Edmund of Abingdon condemns the marriage for this reason.
Summer – A German expeditionary force under Emperor
Frederick II invades the
Romagna and
Tuscany, hoping to capture
Rome. He appoints his 21-year-old son,
Enzo of Sardinia, as imperial
vicar general for Northern
Italy. Frederick also threatens with war against
Venice, who has sent ships to blockade the harbors on
Sicily. In order to finance his growing need for arms, he institutes an administrative reorganization of the
Holy Roman Empire (among others, the formation of 10 vice regencies in Italy).
Autumn – King
Béla IV allows some 40,000
Cumans, pagan nomads fleeing the Mongols, to settle in
Hungary between the rivers
Danube and
Theiss, after their leader,
Köten, has promised to convert to
Christianity.
November 2 – A expeditionary force (some 4,000 knights) under Theobald I sets out from Acre for the Egyptian frontier, detachments from the military orders and several local barons accompany the Crusaders. While marching to
Jaffa, a Crusader column led by
Peter of Brittany and his lieutenant
Raoul de Soissons with two hundred knights, lays an ambush and attacks a rich Muslim caravan.[63]
November 12 – Sultan
as-Salih Ayyub sends an Ayyubid army to
Gaza to protect the Egyptian border. At nightfall,
Henry of Bar, jealous of the successful ambush of Peter of Brittany, decides to march out towards Gaza with a Crusader force (some 500 knights and 1,000 soldiers). Although warned by Theobald I, Henry orders to set up camp in a flat terrain surrounded by sand dunes near Gaza.[64]
November 13 –
Battle of Gaza: The Crusader army led by Henry of Bar is defeated by the Egyptians near Gaza. More than a thousand men are slaughtered, including Henry himself. Six hundred more are captured and carried off to Egypt. Among them are
Amaury VI de Montfort and
Philippe de Nanteuil – who, in the dungeons of
Cairo, writes a
Crusade song about the failure of the expedition.[65]
December 7 – Ayyubid forces under
An-Nasir Dawud march on
Jerusalem, which is largely undefended. The garrison of the city surrenders to Dawud, after accepting his offer for a safe-conduct to Acre. Dawud destroys Jerusalem's fortifications, including the
Tower of David. Meanwhile, Theobald I (losing many men underway) moves with the remnants of the Crusader army northward to Acre.[66]
October 18 –
Sack of Chernigov: The Mongols led by Batu Khan attack
Chernigov, the garrison rallied outside the walls to face the Mongols in a pitched battle. Prince
Mstislav III Glebovich comes to help with his troops, they are slaughtered by Mongol
catapults. The city is pillaged as are the towns in the surrounding countryside.
^
abPicard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 110.
ISBN2-7068-1398-9.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 138.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284, p. 130. London, UK: Penguin.
ISBN978-0-14-014824-4.
^Carmina Burana. Die Lieder der Benediktbeurer Handschrift. Zweisprachige Ausgabe, hg. u. übers. v. Carl Fischer und Hugo Kuhn, dtv, München 1991; wenn man dagegen z. B. CB 211 und 211a jeweils als zwei Lieder zählt, kommt man auf insgesamt 315 Texte in der Sammlung, so auch Dieter Schaller, Carmina Burana, in:
Lexikon des Mittelalters, Bd. 2, Artemis Verlag, München und Zürich 1983, Sp. 1513
^Peter Linehan (1999). "Chapter 21: Castile, Portugal and Navarre". In David Abulafia (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History c.1198-c.1300. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 668–673.
ISBN0-521-36289-X.
^Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 80–82.
ISBN978-0-7126-5616-0.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 138.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 165.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Pirozhenko, Oleg (2005). Political Trends of Hong Bog Won Clan in the Period of Mongol Domination, p. 240. International Journal of Korean History.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 168.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Linehan, Peter (1999). "Chapter 21: Castile, Portugal and Navarre". In
Abulafia, David (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History c.1198–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. pp. 668–673.
ISBN0-521-36289-X.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 138.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Picard, Christophe (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident VIIIe–XIIIe siècle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
^Franke, Herbert (1994). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Allien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368, p. 263. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN978-0-521-24331-5.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill.
ISBN978-9-00417565-5.
^Dal-Gal, Niccolò (1907).
"St. Anthony of Padua". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
^Gregorovius, Ferdinand. History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages. 9. p. 164.
^Smith, Thomas W. (2017). "The Use of the Bible in the Arengae of Pope Gregory IX's Crusade Calls". In Lapina, Elizabeth; Morton, Nicholas (eds.).
The Uses of the Bible in Crusader Sources. Brill. pp. 206–235.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 169–170.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Berend, Nora (2001). At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000-c.1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 158.
ISBN978-0-521-02720-5.
^Bartlett, Robert (1995).
"The Celtic Lands of the British Isles". In Abulafia, David (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 5: c. 1198 – c. 1300. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 818.
ISBN9780521362894.
^Longnon, Jean (1969). The Frankish States in Greece, 1204–1311, p. 219. Madison, Milwaukee, and London: University of Wisconsin Press.
ISBN0-299-04844-6.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 139.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Howell, Margaret (2001). Eleanor of Provence: Queenship in Thirteenth-Century England, pp. 15–17. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
ISBN978-0-631-22739-7.
^Painter, Sidney (1969). The Crusade of Theobald of Champagne and Richard of Cornwall, 1239–1241, p. 472. Robert Lee Wolff; Harry W. Hazard (eds.). A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, pp. 463–86. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
^Ibn al-Sha'ar al-Mawsili (2005).
عقود الجمان في شعراء هذا الزمان (in Arabic). Vol. V, Part VI (First ed.). Damascus, Syria: DKI (Dar al-Kotob al-Ilmiyah ). pp. 308–311.
March 9 –
Battle of Klokotnitsa: Byzantine forces under
Theodore Komnenos (Doukas) invade
Bulgaria, breaking the peace treaty with Tsar
Ivan Asen II. Theodore gathers a large army, including western mercenaries. The two armies meet near the village of
Klokotnitsa. Ivan applies clever tactics and manages to surround the Byzantines. They are completely defeated, only a small force under Theodore's brother
Manuel Doukas manages to escape the battlefield. Theodore is taken prisoner and is blinded. In the aftermath, Ivan quickly extends its control over most of Theodore's domains in
Thrace,
Macedonia and
Albania. The Latin
Duchy of Philippopolis and the independent principality of
Alexius Slav are also captured and annexed into Bulgaria.[1]
Europe
King
Alfonso IX defeats Ibn Hud al-Yamani (known as Almogàver by the Christians). This success opens the road to
Badajoz to the Leonese troops.[2] The Portuguese king
Sancho II continues his offensive southward and takes
Beja,
Juromenha,
Serpa and
Moura.[3]
Frederick II bestows on the
Teutonic Order a special privilege for the conquest of
Prussia, including
Chełmno Land, with papal sovereignty. He allows the Teutonic Knights to forcibly convert the
Prussians to
Christianity.
September 24 – Alfonso IX dies after a 42-year reign and is succeeded by his son
Ferdinand III. He receives the
Kingdom of León, in return for compensation in cash and lands for his half-sisters
Sancha and
Dulce.
Siege of Galway: Norman forces under
Richard Mór de Burgh invade
Connacht and desolate a large portion of the country. He besieges
Galway, but is forced to retreat after a week-long inconclusive battle.
England
April 30 – King
Henry III embarks from
Portsmouth with a large expeditionary force. On
May 2, he arrives at
Guernsey, and the next day the English army lands at
Saint-Malo, where
Peter I (or de Dreux), duke of
Brittany, meets Henry to pay him homage. During the months, the English forces march through the
County of Anjou, taking the castle of
Mirebeau in late July.[5]
October 27 – Henry III signs a truce with King
Louis IX (the Saint) and returns to Portsmouth. He leaves a small force under Peter I and
Ranulf de Blondeville, to act against the French in Brittany and
Normandy.
Autumn – Frederick II appoints Marshal
Richard Filangieri as his imperial
legate, and sends an expeditionary army of mostly
Lombards for the defense of
Jerusalem. He gathers some 600 knights, 100 "sergeants-at-arms", 700 armed infantrymen, and 3,000 marines. The army is supported by 32 war-galleys.[12]
War of the Lombards: Richard Filangieri sails for
Beirut, where the town is handed over to him. He occupies
Sidon and
Tyre – while other Lombard forces appear before
Acre. At Acre, Filangieri summons a meeting of the High Court and shows letters from Frederick II appointing him as ambassador (baili).[13]
China
April 9 – A huge fire breaks out at night in the southeast of
Hangzhou during the
Song dynasty. Fighting the flames is difficult due to limited visibility. When the fires are extinguished, it is discovered that an entire district of the city (some 10,000 houses) has been consumed by the flames.
Mongol Empire
August –
Ögedei Khan orders the invasion of
Korea. A Mongol army crosses the
Yalu River and quickly secures the surrender of the border town of
Uiju. The Mongols are joined by
Hong Bok-won, a Goryeo general, who takes their side with his subordinates numbering some 1500 families.[14]
Siege of Kuju: Mongol forces besiege the city of
Kuju. They deploy assault teams who man
siege towers and scale ladders. Despite the fact the Goryeo army is heavily outnumbered, the garrison refuses to surrender.
Peter de Rivaux, nephew of Peter des Roches, is made
Lord Treasurer of Henry III's household and keeper of the king's wardrobe. This moves him into an important position for controlling the king's affairs.
The
Almohad army besieges the city of
Ceuta, where Abu Musa, rebellious brother of Caliph
Idris al-Ma'mun, has received shelter and the support of the population. The Genoese rent a part of their fleet to the rebels, who successfully resist the forces of the caliph. The consequences of this revolt are threefold: the city becomes de facto independent from the Almohads, but its reliance on the Italian maritime powers increases, and the
Trans-Saharan trade routes begin to shift eastward, due to the local turmoil.[19]
Mongol Empire
February 9 –
Battle of Sanfengshan: The Mongol army (some 50,000 warriors) defeats the Chinese Jin forces near
Yuzhou. General
Subutai successfully wipes out the last field army of the
Jin dynasty – therefore sealing its fate of falling to the
Mongol Empire. During the encounter, also called the Battle of the Three-Peak Mountain, Emperor
Aizong of Jin orders the Jin army (some 150,000 men) to intercept the Mongols. The Jin soldiers are constantly harassed by small groups of Mongol cavalry on the way. When they arrive at Sanfeng Mountain, the Jin army is hungry and exhausted by heavy snowfall. The Jin forces are quickly defeated by the Mongols and flee in all directions.
April 8 –
Mongol–Jin War: The Mongol army led by
Ögedei Khan and his brother
Tolui begins the
siege of Kaifeng, capital of the Chinese Jin dynasty. During the summer, the
Jurchens try to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty, but the assassination of a Mongol embassy makes further talks impossible. While the negotiations are going on, a plague is devastating the population of the city. In the meantime, supplies stored at Kaifeng are running out, and several residents of the city are executed on the suspicion that they are traitors.[20]
June –
Mongol invasion of Korea:
Choe Woo, Korean military dictator of
Goryeo, orders against the pleas of King
Gojong and his senior officials, the royal court, and most of
Songdo's population to be moved to
Ganghwa Island. Woo starts the construction of strong defenses on Ganghwa Island, which becomes a fortress. The government orders the common people to flee the countryside and take refuge in major cities, mountain citadels, or nearby islands. The Mongols occupy much of northern
Korea, but fail to capture Ganghwa Island.
December 16 –
Battle of Cheoin: Korean forces defeat a Mongol attack at Cheoin (modern-day
Yongin). The Mongol Empire concludes a peace treaty with Goryeo and withdraws its forces.
Japan
November 17 – Emperor
Go-Horikawa abdicates in favor of his 1-year-old son,
Shijō, after an 11-year reign. Because he is very young, most of the actual leadership is held by his relatives.
The
northern French city of
Troyes issues its first recorded
life annuities, confirming the trend of consolidation of local public debts initiated in
1218, by the neighboring city of
Reims.[21]
War of the Lombards: Lombard forces at
Kyrenia surrender to
John of Beirut, after a 10-month siege. The defenders, with their personal belongings, are allowed to retire to
Tyre. Captured prisoners are exchanged for those held by
Richard Filangieri, commander of the Lombards, at Tyre.
Cyprus is wholly restored under the rule of the 16-year-old King
Henry I ("the Fat"). His vassals are rewarded, and loans that they have made are repaid.[25]
November – Henry III's army camped at
Grosmont Castle is attacked in the night, by a force of Welsh and English rebels. Several of Henry's supporters are captured, and the castle is returned to
Hubert de Burgh, one of the rebels.
December –
Siege of Caizhou: The Mongols under Ögedei Khan besiege Caizhou and ally themselves with the Chinese
Song dynasty to eliminate the Jin Dynasty.
King
Canute II of Sweden ("the Tall") dies after a five-year reign. His rival,
Eric XI ("the Lisp and Lame"), returns as ruler of
Sweden (possibly after a civil war between the two of them). It is also possible that Canute dies of natural causes, and Eric peacefully then returns as king.
A Chinese text of this year records that
Hangzhou City, the capital of the
Song dynasty, has various social clubs that include a West Lake Poetry Club, the Buddhist Tea Society, the Physical Fitness Club, the Anglers' Club, the Occult Club, the Young Girls' Chorus, the Exotic Foods Club, the Plants and Fruits Club, the Antique Collectors' Club, the Horse-Lovers' Club, and the Refined Music Society.[40][41]
June – The 16-year-old
Alexander Nevsky is elected by the Novgorodians as prince (knyaz) of
Novgorod, beseeching the young Kievan noble to take charge of the city's military affairs.
The Mongols under
Batu Khan, eldest of
Jochi, sweep across
Central Asia. They settle in the Russian steppe, curtailing the power of the
Kievan Rus', extracting
tribute from their neighbors, and disrupting their relationship with the
Byzantine Empire.
Autumn –
Siege of Bilär: The Mongols under Batu Khan capture the capital city of
Bilär after a siege that lasts for 45 days. The
Volga Bulgars are defeated within the year, as are the
Kipchaks and
Alans.
The
Goryeo court in
Korea orders the preparation of another set of
woodblocks for printing the Buddhist Tripiṭaka ("Triple Basket") – which is intended both to gain protection against the Mongol invaders and to replace the earlier 11th century set that has been destroyed by the Mongols (see
1232).
Summer – Emperor
Frederick II assembles an expeditionary force (some 15,000 men) to crush the rebellious
Lombard League. He crosses the
Alps to
Verona – where he is joined by Lord
Ezzelino III da Romano, including troops from
Brescia,
Vicenza,
Padua and
Treviso. Frederick relies on his allies for support and in doing so, he provokes the opposition of earlier supporters, such as the
House of Este, which now sides with the Lombards.
November 27 –
Battle of Cortenuova: Frederick II defeats the forces of the Lombard League; about 5,000 Lombards are captured. Frederick makes a triumphal entry into the allied city of
Cremona in the manner of an ancient
Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to the commune of
Rome), and an elephant. During the winter campaign, Frederick captures the
Piedmontese cities of
Lodi,
Novara,
Vercelli,
Chieri, and
Savona.[51]
December 16–
21 –
Siege of Ryazan: The Mongols under Batu Khan lay siege to Ryazan. The townspeople repel the first Mongol attacks but after 5 days the city walls are breached by Chinese catapults. On
December 21, the Mongols storm the walls and plunder the capital, killing Yuri Igorevich and all inhabitants. Yuri II of Vladimir stands by and does nothing to intervene while Ryazan burns.
December –
Siege of Kolomna: Rus' forces under Yuri II of Vladimir are besieged and annihilated at Kolomna by the Mongols. Yuri barely escapes to
Yaroslavl. The defenceless capital of Vladimir is taken after just 2 days. Yuri's wife Agatha (sister of
Michael of Chernigov) and all his family die in Vladimir when a church where they have sought refuge from the fire collapses.
Levant
Spring –
Al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid ruler of
Damascus, assembles his allies and secures his active support of
Kayqubad I, Sejuk ruler of the
Sultanate of Rum. A civil war seems inevitable when Kayqubad is poisoned during a feast at
Kayseri, on
May 31.[54] Meanwhile, the Seljuks strengthen the fortresses in the eastern provinces against the Mongols.
August 27 – Al-Ashraf becomes dangerously ill and dies after an 8-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
As-Salih Ismail – who defends Damascus against his elder brother
Al-Kamil, Ayyubid ruler of
Egypt. In October, Ismail has the suburbs burnt to prevent the Egyptian forces from shelter.[55]
Elbląg is founded by the Teutonic Order under Grand Master
Hermann von Balk. He constructs a fortified stronghold on the banks of the
Elbląg River (modern
Poland).
January 15–
20 –
Siege of Moscow: The Mongols under
Batu Khan and
Subutai campaign across the northern heartland of the
Kievan Rus', committing numerous atrocities across multiple settlements, including the sacking of an insignificant town known as
Moscow. According to the
Chronicle of Novgorod, Moscow is a fortified village, a trading post "on a crossroads of four rivers". The village is taken by the Mongols after 5 days of siege.
March 4 –
Battle of the Sit River: The Mongols defeat a Kievan Rus' army (some 4,000 men) under Grand Prince
Yuri II of Vladimir in an engagement at the
Sit River (located in the
Sonkovsky District). With Yuri's death, so too dies the hope of any united Rus' resistance against the Mongols. Batu Khan splits his forces up into several contingents – ordering each to wreak havoc across the Rus' territories (modern-day
Russia and
Ukraine).
March –
Siege of Kozelsk: The 12-year-old Prince Vasily of
Chernigov (grandson of
Mstislav II Svyatoslavich), manages against all the odds, to hold out in his capital of
Kozelsk for nearly two months with only citizen militia. He leads a successful sortie outside of the walls – where the garrison slaughters thousands of Mongols and destroys siege equipment. Finally, Kozelsk is conquered and Vasily is slaughtered alongside the inhabitants.
Evpaty Kolovrat, Kievan knight (bogatyr), returns to his hometown of
Ryazan, which was burnt to the ground by the Mongols in
1237. He gathers some 1,700 survivors and pursues Batu Khan, attacking his rearguard, and annihilating thousands of Mongols. Finally, Kolovrat is slain from afar by siege-weaponry. Batu Khan shows admiration for his bravery and as a sign of respect, returns his body and allows his soldiers to return home.
Autumn – The Mongols under Batu Khan retire, leaving behind the ruined northern Rus' territories. He spends the rest of the year suppressing the last resistance of the
Kipchaks, while his cousin
Möngke (son of
Tolui Khan) conquer the
Alans and the northern
Caucasian tribes. Later, Möngke makes a raid of reconnaissance as far as
Kiev.[56]
July 11 –
Siege of Brescia: Emperor
Frederick II begins the siege of
Brescia. He rejects the negotiations of the
Lombard League and insists on unconditional surrender to the imperial forces in northern
Italy. This blocks all possibilities of a peaceful settlement.
Milan and five other Lombard cities are attacked. In early October, after a successful sortie by the city's defenders, Frederick is forced to lift the siege.
January –
Simon de Montfort marries the 23-year-old
Eleanor, sister of King
Henry III. While the marriage takes place with the king's approval, the act itself is performed secretly and without consulting the barons. Eleanor has previously been married to
William Marshal and has sworn a vow of perpetual
chastity upon his death, which she breaks by marrying Montfort. Archbishop
Edmund of Abingdon condemns the marriage for this reason.
Summer – A German expeditionary force under Emperor
Frederick II invades the
Romagna and
Tuscany, hoping to capture
Rome. He appoints his 21-year-old son,
Enzo of Sardinia, as imperial
vicar general for Northern
Italy. Frederick also threatens with war against
Venice, who has sent ships to blockade the harbors on
Sicily. In order to finance his growing need for arms, he institutes an administrative reorganization of the
Holy Roman Empire (among others, the formation of 10 vice regencies in Italy).
Autumn – King
Béla IV allows some 40,000
Cumans, pagan nomads fleeing the Mongols, to settle in
Hungary between the rivers
Danube and
Theiss, after their leader,
Köten, has promised to convert to
Christianity.
November 2 – A expeditionary force (some 4,000 knights) under Theobald I sets out from Acre for the Egyptian frontier, detachments from the military orders and several local barons accompany the Crusaders. While marching to
Jaffa, a Crusader column led by
Peter of Brittany and his lieutenant
Raoul de Soissons with two hundred knights, lays an ambush and attacks a rich Muslim caravan.[63]
November 12 – Sultan
as-Salih Ayyub sends an Ayyubid army to
Gaza to protect the Egyptian border. At nightfall,
Henry of Bar, jealous of the successful ambush of Peter of Brittany, decides to march out towards Gaza with a Crusader force (some 500 knights and 1,000 soldiers). Although warned by Theobald I, Henry orders to set up camp in a flat terrain surrounded by sand dunes near Gaza.[64]
November 13 –
Battle of Gaza: The Crusader army led by Henry of Bar is defeated by the Egyptians near Gaza. More than a thousand men are slaughtered, including Henry himself. Six hundred more are captured and carried off to Egypt. Among them are
Amaury VI de Montfort and
Philippe de Nanteuil – who, in the dungeons of
Cairo, writes a
Crusade song about the failure of the expedition.[65]
December 7 – Ayyubid forces under
An-Nasir Dawud march on
Jerusalem, which is largely undefended. The garrison of the city surrenders to Dawud, after accepting his offer for a safe-conduct to Acre. Dawud destroys Jerusalem's fortifications, including the
Tower of David. Meanwhile, Theobald I (losing many men underway) moves with the remnants of the Crusader army northward to Acre.[66]
October 18 –
Sack of Chernigov: The Mongols led by Batu Khan attack
Chernigov, the garrison rallied outside the walls to face the Mongols in a pitched battle. Prince
Mstislav III Glebovich comes to help with his troops, they are slaughtered by Mongol
catapults. The city is pillaged as are the towns in the surrounding countryside.
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