Iran has one of the oldest histories in the world, extending more than 5000 years, and throughout history, Iran has been of
geostrategic importance because of its central location in
Eurasia and Western Asia. Iran is a founding member of the
UN,
NAM,
OIC,
OPEC, and
ECO. Iran as a major
regional power occupies an important position in the world economy due to its substantial reserves of
petroleum and
natural gas, and has considerable regional influence in Western Asia. The name Iran is a
cognate of Aryan and literally means "Land of the
Aryans." (Full article...)
While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stage of the war from 602 to 622, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, several islands in the Aegean Sea and parts of Anatolia, the ascendancy of the emperor
Heraclius in 610 led, despite initial setbacks, to a status quo ante bellum. Heraclius's campaigns in Iranian lands from 622 to 626 forced the Persians onto the defensive, allowing his forces to regain momentum. Allied with the
Avars and
Slavs, the Persians made a
final attempt to take Constantinople in 626, but were defeated there. In 627,
allied with Turks, Heraclius invaded the heartland of Persia.
A civil war broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace. (Full article...)
Image 2
Phraates III's portrait on the obverse of a coin, showing him with a beard and a
diadem on his head. Minted at
Ecbatana in
c. 62
At Phraates III's accession, his empire could no longer be considered the supreme power in the
Near East, because of the ascendancy of
Armenia under
Tigranes the Great (
r. 95–55 BC) and
Pontus under his ally
Mithridates VI Eupator (
r. 120–63 BC). Phraates III's reign was thus marked by his efforts to restore his empire to its former position. To the west of his empire, war had engulfed the area. Tigranes and Mithridates VI urged him to join their war against the
Roman Republic, while the Romans tried in turn to convince Phraates III to join them. Phraates III seemingly made promises to both parties but remained passive. He awaited the outcome of the war to take advantage of it at the right moment for the Parthians. (Full article...)
Image 3
Manuscript of the Opuscula nonnulla orientalia, written in
Latin by the German
sinologist Andreas Müller. Banakati's Tarikh-i Banakati is included in the work.
Abu Sulayman Banakati (
Persian: ابوسلیمان بناکتی; died 1330), was a historian and poet, who lived during the late
Ilkhanate era. He is principally known for his Persian
world history book, the Rawdat uli al-albab fi maʿrifat al-tawarikh wa al-ansab, better known as Tarikh-i Banakati.
Banakati was also associated with the court of the Ilkhanate. He himself reports that he served as the chief poet at the court of the Ilkhanid ruler
Ghazan (
r. 1295–1304) in 1302. (Full article...)
Image 4
Gonu near peak intensity on June 4
Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu was an extremely powerful tropical cyclone that became the strongest cyclone on record in the
Arabian Sea. The second named tropical cyclone of the
2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season, Gonu developed from a persistent area of
convection in the eastern Arabian Sea on June 1, 2007. With a favorable upper-level environment and warm
sea surface temperatures, it
rapidly intensified to attain peak winds of 240 km/h (150 mph) on June 4, according to the
India Meteorological Department. Gonu weakened after encountering dry air and cooler waters, and early on June 6, it made
landfall on the easternmost tip of
Oman, becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the
Arabian Peninsula. It then turned northward into the
Gulf of Oman, and dissipated on June 7, after making landfall in southern
Iran, the first landfall in the country since 1898.
Intense tropical cyclones like Gonu are extremely rare in the Arabian Sea, and most storms in this area tend to be small and dissipate quickly. The cyclone caused 50 deaths and about $4.2 billion in damage (2007 USD) in Oman, where the cyclone was considered the nation's worst natural disaster. Gonu dropped heavy rainfall near the eastern coastline, reaching up to 610 mm (24 inches), which caused flooding and heavy damage. In Iran, the cyclone caused 28 deaths and $216 million in damage (2007 USD). (Full article...)
Vologases V (
Parthian: 𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔Walagash) was
King of Kings of the
Parthian Empire from 191 to 208. As king of
Armenia (
r. 180–191), he is known as Vologases II. Not much is known about his period of kingship of Armenia, except that he put his son
Rev I (
r. 186–216) on the
Iberian throne in 189. Vologases succeeded his father
Vologases IV as king of the Parthian Empire in 191; it is uncertain if the transition of power was peaceful or if Vologases took the throne in a civil war. When Vologases acceded the Parthian throne, he passed the Armenian throne to his son
Khosrov I (
r. 191–217).
Vologases' reign was marked by war with the
Roman Empire, lasting from 195 to 202, resulting in the brief capture of the Parthian capital of
Ctesiphon, and reaffirmation of Roman rule in Armenia and northern
Mesopotamia. At the same time, internal conflict took place in the Parthian realm, with the local Persian prince
Pabag seizing
Istakhr, the capital of the southern Iranian region of
Persis. (Full article...)
Pacorus I (also spelled Pakoros I;
Parthian: 𐭐𐭊𐭅𐭓; died 38 BC) was a
Parthian prince, who was the son and heir of
Orodes II (
r. 57–37 BC). The
numismatist David Sellwood deduced that Pacorus ruled in
c. 39 BC. It is uncertain whether Pacorus ruled alongside his father, or ruled independently. His wife was an unnamed
Armenian princess, who was a sister of the
Artaxiad king of Armenia,
Artavasdes II (
r. 55–34 BC).
Following the Parthian victory against the
Romans at the
Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in
Western Asia, with Pacorus acting as one of the leading commanders. Although they were initially successful, they were repelled by the Romans. Pacorus himself was defeated and killed at the
Battle of Mount Gindarus by the forces of the
Publius Ventidius Bassus. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II, deeply afflicted by the death of his favourite son, relinquished the throne to his other son
Phraates IV (
r. 37–2 BC) as his new heir. (Full article...)
Image 7
Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath (
Arabic: عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن الأشعث,
romanized: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Ashʿath; died 704), commonly known as Ibn al-Ash'athafter his
grandfather, was a prominent Arab nobleman and military commander during the
Umayyad Caliphate, most notable for leading a failed rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east,
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, in 700–703.
Ibn al-Ash'ath was a scion of a noble family of the
Kinda tribe that had settled in the Arab
garrison town of
Kufa in
Iraq. He played a minor role in the
Second Fitna (680–692) and then served as governor of
Rayy. After the appointment of al-Hajjaj as
governor of Iraq and the eastern provinces of the Caliphate in 694, relations between al-Hajjaj and the Iraqi tribal nobility quickly became strained, as the policies of the
Syria-based Umayyad regime aimed to reduce the Iraqis' privileges and status. Nevertheless, in 699, al-Hajjaj appointed Ibn al-Ash'ath as commander of a huge Iraqi army, the so-called "Peacock Army", to subdue the troublesome principality of
Zabulistan, whose ruler, the
Zunbil, vigorously resisted
Arab expansion. In 700, al-Hajjaj's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al-Ash'ath and the army to revolt. After patching up an agreement with the Zunbil, the army marched back to Iraq. On the way, the mutiny against al-Hajjaj developed into a full-fledged anti-Umayyad rebellion and acquired religious overtones. (Full article...)
Athura (
Old Persian: 𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼𐎠AθurāPersian pronunciation:[aθuɾaː]), also called Assyria, was a geographical area within the
Achaemenid Empire in
Upper Mesopotamia from 539 to 330 BC as a military protectorate state. Although sometimes regarded as a
satrapy,
Achaemenid royal inscriptions list it as a dahyu (plural dahyāva), a concept generally interpreted as meaning either a group of people or both a country and its people, without any administrative implication.
It mostly incorporated the territories of
Neo-Assyrian Empire corresponding to what is now northern
Iraq in the upper
Tigris, the middle and upper
Euphrates, parts of modern-day northwestern
Iran, modern-day northeastern
Syria (
Eber-Nari) and part of southeast
Anatolia (now
Turkey). However,
Egypt and the
Sinai Peninsula were separate Achaemenid territories. The Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed after a period of violent civil wars, followed by an invasion by a coalition of some of its former subject peoples, the
Iranian peoples (
Medes,
Persians and
Scythians),
Babylonians and
Cimmerians in the late seventh century BC, culminating in the
Battle of Nineveh, and Assyria had fallen completely by 609 BC. (Full article...)
Image 9
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, /ˈoʊpɛk/OH-pek) is an organization enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing and oil-dependent countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize
profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in
Baghdad by the first five members (
Iran,
Iraq,
Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, and
Venezuela). The organization, which currently comprises 12 member countries, accounted for an estimated 30 percent of
global oil production. A 2022 report further details that OPEC member countries were responsible for approximately 38 percent of it. Additionally, it is estimated that 79.5 percent of the world's proven oil reserves are located within OPEC nations, with the
Middle East alone accounting for 67.2 percent of OPEC's total reserves.
In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an
oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the "
Seven Sisters"). In the 1970s,
restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC. However, since 2020, OPEC countries along with non-OPEC participants had helped in stabilising oil markets after the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a collapse in oil demand. This has allowed oil markets to remain stable relative to other energy markets that experienced unprecedented volatility. (Full article...)
...that during the Shiraz blood libel, the first to start the
pogrom of the
Jewish quarter were the soldiers sent to protect the Jews against mob violence?
Geographically, the country of
Iran is located in West Asia and borders the
Caspian Sea,
Persian Gulf, and
Gulf of Oman. Topographically, it is predominantly located on the
Persian Plateau. Its mountains have impacted both the political and the economic history of the country for several centuries. The mountains enclose several broad
basins, on which major agricultural and urban settlements are located. Until the 20th century, when major
highways and railroads were constructed through the mountains to connect the population centers, these basins tended to be relatively isolated from one another. Typically, one major town dominated each basin, and there were complex economic relationships between the town and the hundreds of villages that surrounded it. In the higher elevations of the mountains rimming the basins, tribally organized groups practiced
transhumance, moving with their herds of sheep and goats between traditionally established summer and winter
pastures. There are no major river systems in the country, and historically transportation was by means of caravans that followed routes traversing gaps and passes in the mountains. The mountains also impeded easy access to the Persian Gulf and the
Caspian Sea. (Full article...)
The fortified site, which is located on a hill created by the outflow of a calcium-rich spring pond, was recognized as a
World Heritage Site in July 2003. The citadel includes the remains of
Adur Gushnasp, a
Zoroastrianfire temple built during the
Sassanid period and partially rebuilt (as a mosque) during the
Ilkhanid period. This temple housed one of the three "
Great Fires" or "Royal Fires" that Sassanid rulers humbled themselves before in order to ascend the throne. The fire at Takht-i Soleiman was called
Adur Gushnasp and was dedicated to the arteshtar or warrior class of the Sasanid. A 4th century
Armenian manuscript relating to
Jesus and
Zarathustra, and various
historians of the
Islamic period, mention this pond. The foundations of the fire temple around the pond is attributed to that legend. Takht-E Soleyman appears on the 4th century
Peutinger Map. (Full article...)
The supreme leader of Iran (
Persian: رهبر معظم ایران,
romanized: Rahbar-e Moazam-e Irân ), also referred to as Supreme Leader of the Islamic Revolution (رهبر معظم انقلاب اسلامی, Rahbar-e Moazam-e Enqelâb-e Eslâmi), but officially called the Supreme Leadership Authority (مقام معظم رهبری, Maqâm Moazam Rahbari), is the
head of state and the highest political and religious authority of the
Islamic Republic of Iran (above the
President). The
armed forces,
judiciary,
state radio and television, and other key government organizations such as the
Guardian Council and
Expediency Discernment Council are subject to the Supreme Leader. According to the constitution, the Supreme Leader delineates the general policies of the Islamic Republic (article 110), supervising the
legislature, the
judiciary, and the
executive branches (article 57). The current lifetime officeholder, Seyyed Ali Hosseini Khameneh known as
Ali Khamenei, has issued
decrees and made the final decisions on the
economy, the
environment,
foreign policy,
education, national planning, and other aspects of governance in
Iran. Khamenei also makes the final decisions on the amount of transparency in
elections, and has dismissed and reinstated
presidential cabinet appointees. The Supreme Leader is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians being routinely punished for questioning or insulting him.
The office was established by the
Constitution of Iran in 1979, pursuant to Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini's concept of the
Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, and is a lifetime appointment. Originally the constitution required the Supreme Leader to be Marja'-e taqlid, the highest-ranking cleric in the religious laws of
UsuliTwelverShia Islam. In 1989, however, the constitution was
amended and simply asked for Islamic "scholarship" to allow the Supreme Leader to be a lower-ranking cleric. As the Guardian Jurist (Vali-ye faqih), the Supreme Leader guides the country, protecting it from heresy and imperialist predations, and ensuring the laws of Islam are followed. The style "Supreme Leader" (
Persian: رهبر معظم,
romanized: rahbar-e mo'azzam) is commonly used as a sign of respect although the Constitution designates them simply as "Leader" (رهبر, rahbar). According to the constitution (Article 111), the
Assembly of Experts is tasked with electing (following Ayatollah Khomeini), supervising, and dismissing the Supreme Leader. In practice, the Assembly has never been known to challenge or otherwise publicly oversee any of the Supreme Leader's decisions (all of its meetings and notes are strictly confidential). Members of the Assembly are chosen by bodies (the
Guardian Council) whose members are appointed by the Supreme Leader or appointed by an individual (
Chief Justice of Iran) appointed by the Supreme Leader. (Full article...)
An engineer and teacher from a poor background, he was ideologically shaped by thinkers such as
Navvab Safavi,
Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, and
Ahmad Fardid. After the
Iranian Revolution, Ahmadinejad joined the
Office for Strengthening Unity. Appointed a provincial governor in 1993, he was replaced along with all other provincial governors in 1997 after the election of President
Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching.
Tehran's council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a religious hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the
Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, garnered 62% of the
runoff election votes, and he became president on 3 August 2005. (Full article...)
The ancient Persians were originally an
ancient Iranian people who had migrated to the region of
Persis (corresponding to the modern-day Iranian province of
Fars) by the 9th century BCE. Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruled
some of the world's most powerful empires that are well-recognized for their massive cultural, political, and social influence, which covered much of the territory and population of the
ancient world. Throughout history, the Persian people have contributed greatly to
art and
science.
Persian literature is one of the world's most prominent literary traditions. (Full article...)
Simon I the Great (
Georgian: სიმონ I დიდი, romanized:simon I didi), also known as Svimon (
Georgian: სვიმონი, romanized:svimoni;
c. 1537 – 1611), of the
Bagrationi dynasty, was a
Georgianking (mepe) of
Kartli from 1556 to 1569 and again from 1578 to 1599. His first tenure was marked by war against the
Persian domination of Georgia. In 1569 he was captured by the Persians, and spent nine years in captivity. In 1578 he was released and reinstalled in Kartli. During this period (i.e. his second tenure), he fought as a Persian subject against the
Ottoman domination of Georgia. In 1599 Simon I was captured by the Ottomans and died in captivity. During 1557 to 1569 he was known as Mahmud Khan (
Persian: محمود خان,
romanized: Mahmūd Khān) and from 1578 to 1599 as Shahnavaz Khan (
Persian: شاهنواز خان,
romanized: Shāhnavāz Khān). He was also referred to as Simon the Mad (
Turkish: Deli Simon) by the Ottomans. (Full article...)
Where are your valiant warriors and your priests? Where are your hunting parties and your feasts? Where is that warlike mien, and where are those? Great armies that destroyed our country's foes? . . . Count Iran as a ruin, as the lair of lions and leopards! Look now and despair!
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Iran has one of the oldest histories in the world, extending more than 5000 years, and throughout history, Iran has been of
geostrategic importance because of its central location in
Eurasia and Western Asia. Iran is a founding member of the
UN,
NAM,
OIC,
OPEC, and
ECO. Iran as a major
regional power occupies an important position in the world economy due to its substantial reserves of
petroleum and
natural gas, and has considerable regional influence in Western Asia. The name Iran is a
cognate of Aryan and literally means "Land of the
Aryans." (Full article...)
While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stage of the war from 602 to 622, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, several islands in the Aegean Sea and parts of Anatolia, the ascendancy of the emperor
Heraclius in 610 led, despite initial setbacks, to a status quo ante bellum. Heraclius's campaigns in Iranian lands from 622 to 626 forced the Persians onto the defensive, allowing his forces to regain momentum. Allied with the
Avars and
Slavs, the Persians made a
final attempt to take Constantinople in 626, but were defeated there. In 627,
allied with Turks, Heraclius invaded the heartland of Persia.
A civil war broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace. (Full article...)
Image 2
Phraates III's portrait on the obverse of a coin, showing him with a beard and a
diadem on his head. Minted at
Ecbatana in
c. 62
At Phraates III's accession, his empire could no longer be considered the supreme power in the
Near East, because of the ascendancy of
Armenia under
Tigranes the Great (
r. 95–55 BC) and
Pontus under his ally
Mithridates VI Eupator (
r. 120–63 BC). Phraates III's reign was thus marked by his efforts to restore his empire to its former position. To the west of his empire, war had engulfed the area. Tigranes and Mithridates VI urged him to join their war against the
Roman Republic, while the Romans tried in turn to convince Phraates III to join them. Phraates III seemingly made promises to both parties but remained passive. He awaited the outcome of the war to take advantage of it at the right moment for the Parthians. (Full article...)
Image 3
Manuscript of the Opuscula nonnulla orientalia, written in
Latin by the German
sinologist Andreas Müller. Banakati's Tarikh-i Banakati is included in the work.
Abu Sulayman Banakati (
Persian: ابوسلیمان بناکتی; died 1330), was a historian and poet, who lived during the late
Ilkhanate era. He is principally known for his Persian
world history book, the Rawdat uli al-albab fi maʿrifat al-tawarikh wa al-ansab, better known as Tarikh-i Banakati.
Banakati was also associated with the court of the Ilkhanate. He himself reports that he served as the chief poet at the court of the Ilkhanid ruler
Ghazan (
r. 1295–1304) in 1302. (Full article...)
Image 4
Gonu near peak intensity on June 4
Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu was an extremely powerful tropical cyclone that became the strongest cyclone on record in the
Arabian Sea. The second named tropical cyclone of the
2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season, Gonu developed from a persistent area of
convection in the eastern Arabian Sea on June 1, 2007. With a favorable upper-level environment and warm
sea surface temperatures, it
rapidly intensified to attain peak winds of 240 km/h (150 mph) on June 4, according to the
India Meteorological Department. Gonu weakened after encountering dry air and cooler waters, and early on June 6, it made
landfall on the easternmost tip of
Oman, becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the
Arabian Peninsula. It then turned northward into the
Gulf of Oman, and dissipated on June 7, after making landfall in southern
Iran, the first landfall in the country since 1898.
Intense tropical cyclones like Gonu are extremely rare in the Arabian Sea, and most storms in this area tend to be small and dissipate quickly. The cyclone caused 50 deaths and about $4.2 billion in damage (2007 USD) in Oman, where the cyclone was considered the nation's worst natural disaster. Gonu dropped heavy rainfall near the eastern coastline, reaching up to 610 mm (24 inches), which caused flooding and heavy damage. In Iran, the cyclone caused 28 deaths and $216 million in damage (2007 USD). (Full article...)
Vologases V (
Parthian: 𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔Walagash) was
King of Kings of the
Parthian Empire from 191 to 208. As king of
Armenia (
r. 180–191), he is known as Vologases II. Not much is known about his period of kingship of Armenia, except that he put his son
Rev I (
r. 186–216) on the
Iberian throne in 189. Vologases succeeded his father
Vologases IV as king of the Parthian Empire in 191; it is uncertain if the transition of power was peaceful or if Vologases took the throne in a civil war. When Vologases acceded the Parthian throne, he passed the Armenian throne to his son
Khosrov I (
r. 191–217).
Vologases' reign was marked by war with the
Roman Empire, lasting from 195 to 202, resulting in the brief capture of the Parthian capital of
Ctesiphon, and reaffirmation of Roman rule in Armenia and northern
Mesopotamia. At the same time, internal conflict took place in the Parthian realm, with the local Persian prince
Pabag seizing
Istakhr, the capital of the southern Iranian region of
Persis. (Full article...)
Pacorus I (also spelled Pakoros I;
Parthian: 𐭐𐭊𐭅𐭓; died 38 BC) was a
Parthian prince, who was the son and heir of
Orodes II (
r. 57–37 BC). The
numismatist David Sellwood deduced that Pacorus ruled in
c. 39 BC. It is uncertain whether Pacorus ruled alongside his father, or ruled independently. His wife was an unnamed
Armenian princess, who was a sister of the
Artaxiad king of Armenia,
Artavasdes II (
r. 55–34 BC).
Following the Parthian victory against the
Romans at the
Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in
Western Asia, with Pacorus acting as one of the leading commanders. Although they were initially successful, they were repelled by the Romans. Pacorus himself was defeated and killed at the
Battle of Mount Gindarus by the forces of the
Publius Ventidius Bassus. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II, deeply afflicted by the death of his favourite son, relinquished the throne to his other son
Phraates IV (
r. 37–2 BC) as his new heir. (Full article...)
Image 7
Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath (
Arabic: عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن الأشعث,
romanized: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Ashʿath; died 704), commonly known as Ibn al-Ash'athafter his
grandfather, was a prominent Arab nobleman and military commander during the
Umayyad Caliphate, most notable for leading a failed rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east,
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, in 700–703.
Ibn al-Ash'ath was a scion of a noble family of the
Kinda tribe that had settled in the Arab
garrison town of
Kufa in
Iraq. He played a minor role in the
Second Fitna (680–692) and then served as governor of
Rayy. After the appointment of al-Hajjaj as
governor of Iraq and the eastern provinces of the Caliphate in 694, relations between al-Hajjaj and the Iraqi tribal nobility quickly became strained, as the policies of the
Syria-based Umayyad regime aimed to reduce the Iraqis' privileges and status. Nevertheless, in 699, al-Hajjaj appointed Ibn al-Ash'ath as commander of a huge Iraqi army, the so-called "Peacock Army", to subdue the troublesome principality of
Zabulistan, whose ruler, the
Zunbil, vigorously resisted
Arab expansion. In 700, al-Hajjaj's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al-Ash'ath and the army to revolt. After patching up an agreement with the Zunbil, the army marched back to Iraq. On the way, the mutiny against al-Hajjaj developed into a full-fledged anti-Umayyad rebellion and acquired religious overtones. (Full article...)
Athura (
Old Persian: 𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼𐎠AθurāPersian pronunciation:[aθuɾaː]), also called Assyria, was a geographical area within the
Achaemenid Empire in
Upper Mesopotamia from 539 to 330 BC as a military protectorate state. Although sometimes regarded as a
satrapy,
Achaemenid royal inscriptions list it as a dahyu (plural dahyāva), a concept generally interpreted as meaning either a group of people or both a country and its people, without any administrative implication.
It mostly incorporated the territories of
Neo-Assyrian Empire corresponding to what is now northern
Iraq in the upper
Tigris, the middle and upper
Euphrates, parts of modern-day northwestern
Iran, modern-day northeastern
Syria (
Eber-Nari) and part of southeast
Anatolia (now
Turkey). However,
Egypt and the
Sinai Peninsula were separate Achaemenid territories. The Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed after a period of violent civil wars, followed by an invasion by a coalition of some of its former subject peoples, the
Iranian peoples (
Medes,
Persians and
Scythians),
Babylonians and
Cimmerians in the late seventh century BC, culminating in the
Battle of Nineveh, and Assyria had fallen completely by 609 BC. (Full article...)
Image 9
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, /ˈoʊpɛk/OH-pek) is an organization enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing and oil-dependent countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize
profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in
Baghdad by the first five members (
Iran,
Iraq,
Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, and
Venezuela). The organization, which currently comprises 12 member countries, accounted for an estimated 30 percent of
global oil production. A 2022 report further details that OPEC member countries were responsible for approximately 38 percent of it. Additionally, it is estimated that 79.5 percent of the world's proven oil reserves are located within OPEC nations, with the
Middle East alone accounting for 67.2 percent of OPEC's total reserves.
In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an
oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the "
Seven Sisters"). In the 1970s,
restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC. However, since 2020, OPEC countries along with non-OPEC participants had helped in stabilising oil markets after the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a collapse in oil demand. This has allowed oil markets to remain stable relative to other energy markets that experienced unprecedented volatility. (Full article...)
...that during the Shiraz blood libel, the first to start the
pogrom of the
Jewish quarter were the soldiers sent to protect the Jews against mob violence?
Geographically, the country of
Iran is located in West Asia and borders the
Caspian Sea,
Persian Gulf, and
Gulf of Oman. Topographically, it is predominantly located on the
Persian Plateau. Its mountains have impacted both the political and the economic history of the country for several centuries. The mountains enclose several broad
basins, on which major agricultural and urban settlements are located. Until the 20th century, when major
highways and railroads were constructed through the mountains to connect the population centers, these basins tended to be relatively isolated from one another. Typically, one major town dominated each basin, and there were complex economic relationships between the town and the hundreds of villages that surrounded it. In the higher elevations of the mountains rimming the basins, tribally organized groups practiced
transhumance, moving with their herds of sheep and goats between traditionally established summer and winter
pastures. There are no major river systems in the country, and historically transportation was by means of caravans that followed routes traversing gaps and passes in the mountains. The mountains also impeded easy access to the Persian Gulf and the
Caspian Sea. (Full article...)
The fortified site, which is located on a hill created by the outflow of a calcium-rich spring pond, was recognized as a
World Heritage Site in July 2003. The citadel includes the remains of
Adur Gushnasp, a
Zoroastrianfire temple built during the
Sassanid period and partially rebuilt (as a mosque) during the
Ilkhanid period. This temple housed one of the three "
Great Fires" or "Royal Fires" that Sassanid rulers humbled themselves before in order to ascend the throne. The fire at Takht-i Soleiman was called
Adur Gushnasp and was dedicated to the arteshtar or warrior class of the Sasanid. A 4th century
Armenian manuscript relating to
Jesus and
Zarathustra, and various
historians of the
Islamic period, mention this pond. The foundations of the fire temple around the pond is attributed to that legend. Takht-E Soleyman appears on the 4th century
Peutinger Map. (Full article...)
The supreme leader of Iran (
Persian: رهبر معظم ایران,
romanized: Rahbar-e Moazam-e Irân ), also referred to as Supreme Leader of the Islamic Revolution (رهبر معظم انقلاب اسلامی, Rahbar-e Moazam-e Enqelâb-e Eslâmi), but officially called the Supreme Leadership Authority (مقام معظم رهبری, Maqâm Moazam Rahbari), is the
head of state and the highest political and religious authority of the
Islamic Republic of Iran (above the
President). The
armed forces,
judiciary,
state radio and television, and other key government organizations such as the
Guardian Council and
Expediency Discernment Council are subject to the Supreme Leader. According to the constitution, the Supreme Leader delineates the general policies of the Islamic Republic (article 110), supervising the
legislature, the
judiciary, and the
executive branches (article 57). The current lifetime officeholder, Seyyed Ali Hosseini Khameneh known as
Ali Khamenei, has issued
decrees and made the final decisions on the
economy, the
environment,
foreign policy,
education, national planning, and other aspects of governance in
Iran. Khamenei also makes the final decisions on the amount of transparency in
elections, and has dismissed and reinstated
presidential cabinet appointees. The Supreme Leader is legally considered "inviolable", with Iranians being routinely punished for questioning or insulting him.
The office was established by the
Constitution of Iran in 1979, pursuant to Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini's concept of the
Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, and is a lifetime appointment. Originally the constitution required the Supreme Leader to be Marja'-e taqlid, the highest-ranking cleric in the religious laws of
UsuliTwelverShia Islam. In 1989, however, the constitution was
amended and simply asked for Islamic "scholarship" to allow the Supreme Leader to be a lower-ranking cleric. As the Guardian Jurist (Vali-ye faqih), the Supreme Leader guides the country, protecting it from heresy and imperialist predations, and ensuring the laws of Islam are followed. The style "Supreme Leader" (
Persian: رهبر معظم,
romanized: rahbar-e mo'azzam) is commonly used as a sign of respect although the Constitution designates them simply as "Leader" (رهبر, rahbar). According to the constitution (Article 111), the
Assembly of Experts is tasked with electing (following Ayatollah Khomeini), supervising, and dismissing the Supreme Leader. In practice, the Assembly has never been known to challenge or otherwise publicly oversee any of the Supreme Leader's decisions (all of its meetings and notes are strictly confidential). Members of the Assembly are chosen by bodies (the
Guardian Council) whose members are appointed by the Supreme Leader or appointed by an individual (
Chief Justice of Iran) appointed by the Supreme Leader. (Full article...)
An engineer and teacher from a poor background, he was ideologically shaped by thinkers such as
Navvab Safavi,
Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, and
Ahmad Fardid. After the
Iranian Revolution, Ahmadinejad joined the
Office for Strengthening Unity. Appointed a provincial governor in 1993, he was replaced along with all other provincial governors in 1997 after the election of President
Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching.
Tehran's council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a religious hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the
Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, garnered 62% of the
runoff election votes, and he became president on 3 August 2005. (Full article...)
The ancient Persians were originally an
ancient Iranian people who had migrated to the region of
Persis (corresponding to the modern-day Iranian province of
Fars) by the 9th century BCE. Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruled
some of the world's most powerful empires that are well-recognized for their massive cultural, political, and social influence, which covered much of the territory and population of the
ancient world. Throughout history, the Persian people have contributed greatly to
art and
science.
Persian literature is one of the world's most prominent literary traditions. (Full article...)
Simon I the Great (
Georgian: სიმონ I დიდი, romanized:simon I didi), also known as Svimon (
Georgian: სვიმონი, romanized:svimoni;
c. 1537 – 1611), of the
Bagrationi dynasty, was a
Georgianking (mepe) of
Kartli from 1556 to 1569 and again from 1578 to 1599. His first tenure was marked by war against the
Persian domination of Georgia. In 1569 he was captured by the Persians, and spent nine years in captivity. In 1578 he was released and reinstalled in Kartli. During this period (i.e. his second tenure), he fought as a Persian subject against the
Ottoman domination of Georgia. In 1599 Simon I was captured by the Ottomans and died in captivity. During 1557 to 1569 he was known as Mahmud Khan (
Persian: محمود خان,
romanized: Mahmūd Khān) and from 1578 to 1599 as Shahnavaz Khan (
Persian: شاهنواز خان,
romanized: Shāhnavāz Khān). He was also referred to as Simon the Mad (
Turkish: Deli Simon) by the Ottomans. (Full article...)
Where are your valiant warriors and your priests? Where are your hunting parties and your feasts? Where is that warlike mien, and where are those? Great armies that destroyed our country's foes? . . . Count Iran as a ruin, as the lair of lions and leopards! Look now and despair!
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