In the vertebrate photoreceptor cells, all-trans-retinal is released and replaced by a newly synthesized 11-cis-retinal provided from the retinal epithelial cells.
Beside 11-cis-retinal (A1), 11-cis-3,4-didehydroretinal (A2) is also found in
vertebrates as ligand such as in freshwater fishes.[19] A2-bound opsins have a shifted λmax and absorption spectrum compared to A1-bound opsins.[22]
Functionally conserved residues and motifs
The seven transmembrane α-helical domains in opsins are connected by three extra-cellular and three
cytoplasmic loops. Along the α-helices and the loops, many
amino acid residues are highly conserved between all opsin groups, indicating that they serve important functions and thus are called functionally conserved residues. Actually, insertions and deletions in the α-helices are very rare and should preferentially occur in the loops. Therefore, different G-protein-coupled receptors have different length and homologous residues may be in different positions. To make such positions comparable between different receptors, Ballesteros and
Weinstein introduced a common numbering scheme for G-protein-coupled receptors.[23] The number before the period is the number of the transmembrane domain. The number after the period is set arbitrarily to 50 for the most conserved residue in that transmembrane domain among GPCRs known in 1995. For instance in the seventh transmembrane domain, the
proline in the highly conserved NPxxY7.53motif is Pro7.50, the
asparagine before is then Asp7.49, and the
tyrosine three residues after is then Tyr7.53.[21] Another numbering scheme is based on
cattle rhodopsin. Cattle
rhodopsin has 348
amino acids and is the first opsin whose
amino acid sequence[24] and whose
3D-structure were determined.[12] The cattle rhodopsin numbering scheme is widespread in the opsin literature.[21] Therefore, it is useful to use both schemes.
Such function does not need to be light detection, as some opsins are also involved in
thermosensation,[31]mechanoreception such as
hearing[32] detecting
phospholipids,
chemosensation, and other functions.[33][34] In particular, the
Drosophila rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) Rh1, Rh4, and Rh7 function not only as photoreceptors, but also as chemoreceptors for
aristolochic acid. These opsins still have Lys2967.43 like other opsins. However, if this lysine is replaced by an arginine in Rh1, then Rh1 loses light sensitivity but still responds to aristolochic acid. Thus, Lys2967.43 is not needed for Rh1 to function as chemoreceptor.[26] Also the Drosophila rhabopsins Rh1 and Rh6 are involved in mechanoreception, again for mechanoreception Lys2967.43 is not needed, but needed for proper function in the photoreceptor cells.[25]
Beside these functions, an opsin without Lys2967.43, such as a gluopsin, could still be light sensitive, since in cattle rhodopsin, the retinal binding lysine can be shifted from position 296 to other positions, even into other transmembrane domains, without changing light sensitivity.[35]
Opsins have the retinal binding lysine, except the nemopsins and gluopsins[21]
Most known opsins have the retinal binding lysine except some among the tetraopins, The outgroup contains other
G protein-coupled receptors.
Most tetraopsins have also the retinal binding lysine except some of the chromopsins, which are highlighted by the frame and expanded in the next image. The outgroup contains other G protein-coupled receptors including the other opsins.
Most chromopsins have also the retinal binding lysine except the nemopsins, where it is replaced by
argenine (R), and the gluopsins, where it is replaced by
glutamic acid (E). The astropsins, the nemopsins and the gluopsins are highlighted by the frames. The outgroup contains other G protein-coupled receptors including the other opsins.
In the
phylogeny above, each
clade contains sequences from opsins and other G protein-coupled receptors. The number of sequences and two pie charts are shown next to the clade. The first pie chart shows the percentage of a certain
amino acid at the position in the sequences corresponding Lys2967.43 in cattle rhodopsin. The amino acids are color-coded. The colors are red for
lysine (K), purple for
glutamic acid (E), orange for
argenine (R), dark and mid-gray for other amino acids, and light gray for sequences that have no data at that position. The second pie chart gives the taxon composition for each clade, green stands for
craniates, dark green for
cephalochordates, mid green for
echinoderms, brown for
nematodes, pale pink for
annelids, dark blue for
arthropods, light blue for
mollusks, and purple for
cnidarians. The branches to the clades have pie charts, which give support values for the branches. The values are from right to left SH-aLRT/aBayes/UFBoot. The branches are considered supported when SH-aLRT ≥ 80%, aBayes ≥ 0.95, and UFBoot ≥ 95%. If a support value is above its threshold the pie chart is black otherwise gray.[21]
The NPxxY motif
The
NPxxY7.53 motif is well-conserved among opsins and G-protein-coupled receptors. This motif is important for G-protein binding and receptor activation.[21] For instance, if it is mutated to DPxxY7.53 (
Asn7.49 →
Asp7.49) in the
humanm3 muscarinic receptor, activation is not affected, but it is abolished if it is mutated to APxxY7.53 (
Asn7.49 →
Ala7.49).[36] Such a mutation to APxxY7.53 (Asn7.49 → Ala7.49) reduces the G-protein activation of cattle rhodopsin to 45% compared to wild type. Also in cattle rhodopsin, if the motif is mutated to NPxxA7.53 (
Tyr7.53 →
Ala7.53), cattle rhodopsin does not activate the G-protein.[37] Such a mutation also reduces the activation of the
vasopressin V2 receptor. In fact in G-protein-coupled receptors, only
loss of function disease mutations are known for Tyr7.53.[38]
Also mutations of
Pro7.50 influence G-protein activation, if the motif is mutated to NAxxY7.53 (
Pro7.50 →
Ala7.50) in the
ratm3 muscarinic receptor, the receptor can still be activated but less efficiently,[39] this mutation even abolishes activation in the
cholecystokinin B receptor completely.[40] In fact, the
RGR-opsins have NAxxY7.53 and
retinochromes have VPxxY7.53 for annelids or YPxxY7.53 for mollusks, natively. Both RGR-opsins and retinochromes, belong to the chromopsins.[21] RGR-opsins[41] and retinochromes[42] also bind unlike most opsins all-trans-retinal in the dark and convert it to 11-cis-retinal when illuminated. Therefore, RGR-opsins and retinochromes are thought to neither signal nor activate a phototransduction cascade but to work as
photoisomerases to produce 11-cis-retinal for other opsins.[43][44] This view is considered established in the opsin literature,[34][45][43][46][47] even so it has not been shown, conclusively.[21] In fact, the human MT2
melatonin receptor signals via a
G-protein and has an NAxxY7.53 motif natively. If this motif is mutated to NPxxY7.53 (Ala7.50 → Pro7.50), the receptor cannot be activated, but can be rescued partially if the motif is mutated to NVxxY7.53 (Ala7.50 →
Val7.50).[48] Furthermore, when the motif is mutated to NAxxY7.53 (Pro7.50 → Ala7.50) in cattle rhodopsin, the mutant has 141% of wild type activity.[37] This evidence shows that a GPCR does not need a standard NPxxY7.53 motif for signaling.[21]
Other residues and motifs
Cys138 and Cys110 form a highly conserved
disulfide bridge. Glu113 serves as the counterion, stabilizing the protonation of the Schiff linkage between Lys296 and the ligand retinal. The Glu134-Arg135-Tyr136 is another highly conserved motif, involved in the propagation of the transduction signal once a photon has been absorbed.
Spectral tuning sites
Certain
amino acid residues, termed spectral tuning sites, have a strong effect on λmax values. Using
site-directed mutagenesis, it is possible to selectively mutate these residues and investigate the resulting changes in light absorption properties of the opsin. It is important to differentiate spectral tuning sites, residues that affect the wavelength at which the opsin absorbs light, from functionally conserved sites, residues important for the proper functioning of the opsin. They are not mutually exclusive, but, for practical reasons, it is easier to investigate spectral tuning sites that do not affect opsin functionality. For a comprehensive review of spectral tuning sites see Yokoyama[49] and Deeb.[50] The impact of spectral tuning sites on λmax differs between different opsin groups and between opsin groups of different species.
Cuttlefish and
octopuses contain opsin in their skin as part of the chromophores. The opsin is part of the sensing network detecting the colour and shape of the cuttlefish's surroundings.[59][60][61]
Phylogeny
Animal opsins (also known as type 2 opsins) are members of the seven-transmembrane-domain proteins of the
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily.[1][2]
Animal opsins fall phylogenetically into five groups: The ciliary opsins (cilopsins, c-opsins), the
rhabdomeric opsins (r-opsins, rhabopsins), the xenopsins, the nessopsins, and the tetraopsins. Four of these subclades occur in
Bilateria (all but the nessopsins).[21][28] However, the bilaterian clades constitute a
paraphyletic taxon without the opsins from the
cnidarians.[21][28][27][62] The nessopsins are also known as anthozoan opsins II[63] or simply as the cnidarian opsins.[64] The tetraopsins are also known as RGR/Go[65] or Group 4 opsins[27] and contain three subgroups: the
neuropsins, the Go-opsins, and the chromopsins.[21][28][64] The chromopsins have seven subgroups: the
RGR-opsins, the
retinochromes, the
peropsins, the varropsins, the astropsins, the nemopsins, and the gluopsins.[21]
Animal visual opsins are traditionally classified as either ciliary or rhabdomeric. Ciliary opsins, found in
vertebrates and
cnidarians, attach to ciliary structures such as
rods and
cones.
Rhabdomeric opsins are attached to light-gathering organelles called rhabdomeres. This classification cuts across phylogenetic categories (clades) so that both the terms "ciliary" and "rhabdomeric" can be ambiguous. Here, "C-opsins (ciliary)" refers to a clade found exclusively in
Bilateria and excludes cnidarian ciliary opsins such as those found in the
box jellyfish. Similarly, "R-opsin (rhabdomeric)" includes melanopsin even though it does not occur on rhabdomeres in vertebrates.[27]
Ciliary opsins
Ciliary opsins (cilopsins, c-opsins) are expressed in ciliary photoreceptor cells, and include the vertebrate visual opsins and encephalopsins.[66] They convert light signals to nerve impulses via cyclic nucleotide gated ion channels, which work by increasing the charge differential across the cell membrane (i.e.
hyperpolarization.[67])
Vertebrate visual opsins are a subclass of ciliary opsins that express in the vertebrate retina and mediate vision. They are further subdivided into:
Photopsins - those responsible for
photopic vision (daylight), which are expressed in cone cells; hence also
cone opsins. Photopsins are further subdivided according to their
spectral sensitivity, namely the wavelength at which the highest light absorption is observed (λmax). Vertebrates generally have four (SWS1, SWS2, RH2, LWS) classes of photopsins.[68][69] Mammals lost Rh2 and SWS2 classes during the
nocturnal bottleneck, so are generally
dichromatic.
Primate ancestors later developed two distinct LWS opsins (LWS and MWS), leaving humans with 3 photopsins in 2 classes: SWS1 (
OPN1SW) and two forms of LWS (
OPN1LW,
OPN1MW).
These pineal opsins, found in the
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) apparently arose as a result of gene duplication from Rh1 (rhodopsin). These opsins appear to serve functions similar to those of pinopsin found in birds and reptiles.[71][72]
Pinopsins
The first Pineal Opsin (Pinopsin) was found in the chicken
pineal gland. It is a blue sensitive opsin (λmax = 470 nm).[73][74]
Pineal opsins have a wide range of expression in the brain, most notably in the
pineal region.
Vertebrate Ancient (VA) opsin
Vertebrate Ancient (VA) opsin has three isoforms VA short (VAS), VA medium (VAM), and VA long (VAL). It is expressed in the inner retina, within the horizontal and
amacrine cells, as well as the pineal organ and
habenular region of the brain.[75] It is sensitive to approximately 500 nm [14], found in most vertebrate classes, but not in mammals.[76]
Parapinopsins
The first parapinopsin (PP) was found in the
parapineal organ of the
catfish.[77] The parapinopsin of
lamprey is a UV-sensitive opsin (λmax = 370 nm).[78] The teleosts have two groups of parapinopsins, one is sensitive to UV (λmax = 360-370 nm), the other is sensitive to blue (λmax = 460-480 nm) light.[79]
Parietopsins
The first parietopsin was found in the photoreceptor cells of the lizard parietal eye. The lizard parietopsin is green-sensitive (λmax = 522 nm), and despite it is a c-opsin, like the vertebrate visual opsins, it does not induce hyperpolarization via a Gt-protein, but induces depolarization via a Go-protein.[80][81]
Encephalopsin or Panopsin
The
panopsins are found in many tissues (skin,[51] brain,[53][82] testes,[53] heart, liver,[82] kidney, skeletal muscle, lung, pancreas and retina[82]). They were originally found in the human and
mouse brain and thus called encephalopsin.[53]
The first invertebrate panopsin was found in the ciliary photoreceptor cells of the annelid Platynereis dumerilii and is called c(iliary)-opsin.[83] This c-opsin is
UV-sensitive (λmax = 383 nm) and can be tuned by 125 nm at a single
amino-acid (range λmax = 377 - 502 nm).[84] Thus, not unsurprisingly, a second but cyan sensitive c-opsin (λmax = 490 nm) exists in Platynereis dumerilii.[85] The first c-opsin mediates in the larva UV induced
gravitaxis. The gravitaxis forms with
phototaxis a ratio-chromatic
depth-gauge.[86] In different depths, the light in water is composed of different
wavelengths: First the red (> 600 nm) and the UV and violet (< 420 nm) wavelengths disappear. The higher the depth the narrower the spectrum so that only
cyan light (480 nm) is left.[87] Thus, the larvae can determine their depth by color. The color unlike brightness stays almost constant independent of time of day or the weather, for instance if it is cloudy.[88][89]
Panopsins are also expressed in the brains of some insects.[66] The panopsins of mosquito and pufferfish absorb maximally at 500 nm and 460 nm, respectively. Both activate in vitro Gi and Go proteins.[90]
The first TMT-opsin was found in many tissues in
Teleost fish and therefore they are called Teleost Multiple Tissue (TMT) opsins.[93] TMT-opsins form three groups which are most closely related to a fourth group the panopsins, which thus are
paralogous to the TMT-opsins.[28][47][91][92] TMT-opsins and panopsins also share the same
introns, which confirms that they belong together.[93]
Opsins in cnidarians
Cnidaria, which include jellyfish, corals, and sea
anemones, are the most
basal animals to possess complex eyes. Jellyfish opsins in the
rhopalia couple to Gs-proteins raising the intracellular cAMP level.[94][62] Coral opsins can couple to Gq-proteins and Gc-proteins. Gc-proteins are a subtype of G-proteins specific to cnidarians.[95] The cnidarian opsins belong to two groups the xenopsins and the nessopsins. The xenopsins contain also bilaterian opsins, while the nessopsins are restricted to the cnidarians.[21][28] However, earlier studies have found that some cnidarian opsins belong to the cilopsins, rhabopsins, and the tetraopsins of the
bilaterians.[65][96][97]
Rhabdomeric opsins
Rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) are also known as Gq-opsins, because they couple to a Gq-protein. Rhabopsins are used by molluscs and arthropods. Arthropods appear to attain colour vision in a similar fashion to the vertebrates, by using three (or more) distinct groups of opsins, distinct both in terms of phylogeny and spectral sensitivity.[66] The rhabopsin melanopsin is also expressed in vertebrates, where it regulates
circadian rhythms and mediates the pupillary reflex.[66]
Unlike cilopsins, rhabopsins are associated with canonical transient receptor potential ion channels; these lead to the electric potential difference across a cell membrane being eradicated (i.e.
depolarization).[67]
The identification of the crystal structure of squid rhodopsin[13] is likely to further our understanding of its function in this group.
Arthropods use different opsins in their different eye types, but at least in Limulus the opsins expressed in the lateral and the compound eyes are 99% identical and presumably diverged recently.[98]
Melanopsin
Melanopsin (OPN4) is involved in
circadian rhythms, the
pupillary reflex, and color correction in high-brightness situations. Phylogenetically, it is a member of the rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) and functionally and structurally a rhabopsin, but does not occur in rhabdomeres.
Tetraopsins
The tetraopsins include the
neuropsins, the Go-opsins, and the chromopsins.[21][28][64] The chromopsins consist of seven subgroups: the
RGR-opsins, the
retinochromes, the
peropsins, the varropsins, the astropsins, the nemopsins, and the gluopsins.[21]
Neuropsins
Neuropsins are sensitive to UVA, typically at 380 nm. They are found in the brain, testes, skin, and retina of humans and rodents, as well as in the brain and retina of birds. In birds and rodents they mediate ultraviolet vision.[51][56][99] They couple to Gi-proteins.[56][99] In humans, Neuropsin is encoded by the
OPN5 gene. In the human retina, its function is unknown. In the mouse, it photo-entrains the retina and cornea at least ex vivo.[100]
RGR-opsins, also known as
Retinal G protein coupled receptors are expressed in the
retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and
Müller cells.[104] They preferentially bind all-trans-retinal in the dark instead of 11-cis-retinal.[41] RGR-opsins were thought to be photoisomerases[44] but instead, they regulate retinoid traffic and production.[66][105] In particular, they speed up light-independently the production of 11-cis-retinol (a precursor of 11-cis-retinal) from all-trans-retinyl-esters.[106] However, the all-trans-retinyl-esters are made available light-dependently by RGR-opsins. Whether RGR-opsins regulate this via a G-protein or another signaling mechanism is unknown.[107] The cattle RGR-opsin absorbs maximally at different wavelengths depending on the pH-value. At high pH it absorbs maximally blue (469 nm) light and at low pH it absorbs maximally UV (370 nm) light.[108]
Peropsin
Peropsin, a visual pigment-like receptor, is a
protein that in humans is encoded by the RRHgene.[109]
Microbial and animal opsins are also called type 1 and type 2 opsins respectively. Both types are called opsins, because at one time it was thought that they were related: Both are seven-transmembrane receptors and bind covalently
retinal as chromophore, which turns them into
photoreceptors sensing light. However, both types are not related on the sequence level.[113]
In fact, the sequence identity between animal and mirobial opsins is no greater than could be accounted for by random chance. However, in recent years new methods have been developed specific to deep
phylogeny. As a result, several studies have found evidence of a possible phylogenetic relationship between the two.[114][35][115] However, this does not necessarily mean that the last common ancestor of microbial and animal opsins was itself light sensitive: All animal opsins arose (by gene duplication and divergence) late in the history of the large
G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)
gene family, which itself arose after the divergence of plants, fungi, choanflagellates and sponges from the earliest animals. The retinal chromophore is found solely in the opsin branch of this large gene family, meaning its occurrence elsewhere represents
convergent evolution, not
homology. Microbial rhodopsins are, by sequence, very different from any of the GPCR families.[116] According to one hypothesis, both microbial and animal opsins belong to the transporter-opsin-G protein-coupled receptor (TOG) superfamily, a proposed clade that includes
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), Ion-translocating
microbial rhodopsin (MR), and seven others.[117]
Most microbial opsins are
ion channels or
pumps instead of proper receptors and do not bind to a
G protein. Microbal opsins are found in all three domains of life:
Archaea,
Bacteria, and
Eukaryota. In Eukaryota, microbial opsins are found mainly in unicellular organisms such as green algae, and in fungi. In most complex multicellular eukaryotes, microbial opsins have been replaced with other light-sensitive molecules such as
cryptochrome and
phytochrome in plants, and animal opsins in
animals.[118]
Microbial opsins are often known by the rhodopsin form of the molecule, i.e., rhodopsin (in the broad sense) = opsin + chromophore. Among the many kinds of microbial opsins are the
proton pumpsbacteriorhodopsin (BR) and xanthorhodopsin (xR), the
chloride pumphalorhodopsin (HR), the photosensors sensory rhodopsin I (SRI) and
sensory rhodopsin II (SRII), as well as
proteorhodopsin (PR),
Neurospora opsin I (NOPI), Chlamydomonas sensory rhodopsins A (CSRA), Chlamydomonas sensory rhodopsins B (CSRB),
channelrhodopsin (ChR), and
archaerhodopsin (Arch).[119]
Several microbal opsins, such as
proteo- and
bacteriorhodopsin, are used by various bacterial groups to harvest energy from light to carry out metabolic processes using a non-
chlorophyll-based pathway. Beside that,
halorhodopsins of
Halobacteria and
channelrhodopsins of some algae, e.g.
Volvox, serve them as
light-gated ion channels, amongst others also for
phototactic purposes. Sensory rhodopsins exist in Halobacteria that induce a phototactic response by interacting with
transducer membrane-embedded proteins that have no relation to G proteins.[120]
Microbal opsins (like
channelrhodopsin,
halorhodopsin, and
archaerhodopsin) are used in
optogenetics to switch on or off neuronal activity. Microbal opsins are preferred if the neuronal activity should be modulated at higher frequency, because they respond faster than animal opsins. This is because microbal opsins are ion channels or proton/
ion pumps and thus are activated by light directly, while animal opsins activate G-proteins, which then activate
effector enzymes that produce metabolites to open ion channels.[121]
^Oroshnik W (June 1956). "The Synthesis and Configuration of Neo-B Vitamin A and Neoretinine b". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (11): 2651–2652.
doi:
10.1021/ja01592a095.
^Hargrave PA, McDowell JH, Curtis DR, Wang JK, Juszczak E, Fong SL, et al. (1983). "The structure of bovine rhodopsin". Biophysics of Structure and Mechanism. 9 (4): 235–244.
doi:
10.1007/BF00535659.
PMID6342691.
S2CID20407577.
^Ballesteros JA, Weinstein H (1995). "Integrated methods for the construction of three-dimensional models and computational probing of structure-function relations in G protein-coupled receptors". Methods in Neurosciences. 25: 366–428.
doi:
10.1016/S1043-9471(05)80049-7.
ISBN978-0-12-185295-5.
^Nagata T, Koyanagi M, Tsukamoto H, Terakita A (January 2010). "Identification and characterization of a protostome homologue of peropsin from a jumping spider". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 196 (1): 51–59.
doi:
10.1007/s00359-009-0493-9.
PMID19960196.
S2CID22879394.
^Mazna P, Grycova L, Balik A, Zemkova H, Friedlova E, Obsilova V, et al. (November 2008). "The role of proline residues in the structure and function of human MT2 melatonin receptor". Journal of Pineal Research. 45 (4): 361–372.
doi:
10.1111/j.1600-079X.2008.00598.x.
PMID18544139.
S2CID6202186.
^Philp AR, Garcia-Fernandez JM, Soni BG, Lucas RJ, Bellingham J, Foster RG (June 2000). "Vertebrate ancient (VA) opsin and extraretinal photoreception in the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 203 (Pt 12): 1925–1936.
doi:
10.1242/jeb.203.12.1925.
PMID10821749.
^
abcHalford S, Freedman MS, Bellingham J, Inglis SL, Poopalasundaram S, Soni BG, et al. (March 2001). "Characterization of a novel human opsin gene with wide tissue expression and identification of embedded and flanking genes on chromosome 1q43". Genomics. 72 (2): 203–208.
doi:
10.1006/geno.2001.6469.
PMID11401433.
In the vertebrate photoreceptor cells, all-trans-retinal is released and replaced by a newly synthesized 11-cis-retinal provided from the retinal epithelial cells.
Beside 11-cis-retinal (A1), 11-cis-3,4-didehydroretinal (A2) is also found in
vertebrates as ligand such as in freshwater fishes.[19] A2-bound opsins have a shifted λmax and absorption spectrum compared to A1-bound opsins.[22]
Functionally conserved residues and motifs
The seven transmembrane α-helical domains in opsins are connected by three extra-cellular and three
cytoplasmic loops. Along the α-helices and the loops, many
amino acid residues are highly conserved between all opsin groups, indicating that they serve important functions and thus are called functionally conserved residues. Actually, insertions and deletions in the α-helices are very rare and should preferentially occur in the loops. Therefore, different G-protein-coupled receptors have different length and homologous residues may be in different positions. To make such positions comparable between different receptors, Ballesteros and
Weinstein introduced a common numbering scheme for G-protein-coupled receptors.[23] The number before the period is the number of the transmembrane domain. The number after the period is set arbitrarily to 50 for the most conserved residue in that transmembrane domain among GPCRs known in 1995. For instance in the seventh transmembrane domain, the
proline in the highly conserved NPxxY7.53motif is Pro7.50, the
asparagine before is then Asp7.49, and the
tyrosine three residues after is then Tyr7.53.[21] Another numbering scheme is based on
cattle rhodopsin. Cattle
rhodopsin has 348
amino acids and is the first opsin whose
amino acid sequence[24] and whose
3D-structure were determined.[12] The cattle rhodopsin numbering scheme is widespread in the opsin literature.[21] Therefore, it is useful to use both schemes.
Such function does not need to be light detection, as some opsins are also involved in
thermosensation,[31]mechanoreception such as
hearing[32] detecting
phospholipids,
chemosensation, and other functions.[33][34] In particular, the
Drosophila rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) Rh1, Rh4, and Rh7 function not only as photoreceptors, but also as chemoreceptors for
aristolochic acid. These opsins still have Lys2967.43 like other opsins. However, if this lysine is replaced by an arginine in Rh1, then Rh1 loses light sensitivity but still responds to aristolochic acid. Thus, Lys2967.43 is not needed for Rh1 to function as chemoreceptor.[26] Also the Drosophila rhabopsins Rh1 and Rh6 are involved in mechanoreception, again for mechanoreception Lys2967.43 is not needed, but needed for proper function in the photoreceptor cells.[25]
Beside these functions, an opsin without Lys2967.43, such as a gluopsin, could still be light sensitive, since in cattle rhodopsin, the retinal binding lysine can be shifted from position 296 to other positions, even into other transmembrane domains, without changing light sensitivity.[35]
Opsins have the retinal binding lysine, except the nemopsins and gluopsins[21]
Most known opsins have the retinal binding lysine except some among the tetraopins, The outgroup contains other
G protein-coupled receptors.
Most tetraopsins have also the retinal binding lysine except some of the chromopsins, which are highlighted by the frame and expanded in the next image. The outgroup contains other G protein-coupled receptors including the other opsins.
Most chromopsins have also the retinal binding lysine except the nemopsins, where it is replaced by
argenine (R), and the gluopsins, where it is replaced by
glutamic acid (E). The astropsins, the nemopsins and the gluopsins are highlighted by the frames. The outgroup contains other G protein-coupled receptors including the other opsins.
In the
phylogeny above, each
clade contains sequences from opsins and other G protein-coupled receptors. The number of sequences and two pie charts are shown next to the clade. The first pie chart shows the percentage of a certain
amino acid at the position in the sequences corresponding Lys2967.43 in cattle rhodopsin. The amino acids are color-coded. The colors are red for
lysine (K), purple for
glutamic acid (E), orange for
argenine (R), dark and mid-gray for other amino acids, and light gray for sequences that have no data at that position. The second pie chart gives the taxon composition for each clade, green stands for
craniates, dark green for
cephalochordates, mid green for
echinoderms, brown for
nematodes, pale pink for
annelids, dark blue for
arthropods, light blue for
mollusks, and purple for
cnidarians. The branches to the clades have pie charts, which give support values for the branches. The values are from right to left SH-aLRT/aBayes/UFBoot. The branches are considered supported when SH-aLRT ≥ 80%, aBayes ≥ 0.95, and UFBoot ≥ 95%. If a support value is above its threshold the pie chart is black otherwise gray.[21]
The NPxxY motif
The
NPxxY7.53 motif is well-conserved among opsins and G-protein-coupled receptors. This motif is important for G-protein binding and receptor activation.[21] For instance, if it is mutated to DPxxY7.53 (
Asn7.49 →
Asp7.49) in the
humanm3 muscarinic receptor, activation is not affected, but it is abolished if it is mutated to APxxY7.53 (
Asn7.49 →
Ala7.49).[36] Such a mutation to APxxY7.53 (Asn7.49 → Ala7.49) reduces the G-protein activation of cattle rhodopsin to 45% compared to wild type. Also in cattle rhodopsin, if the motif is mutated to NPxxA7.53 (
Tyr7.53 →
Ala7.53), cattle rhodopsin does not activate the G-protein.[37] Such a mutation also reduces the activation of the
vasopressin V2 receptor. In fact in G-protein-coupled receptors, only
loss of function disease mutations are known for Tyr7.53.[38]
Also mutations of
Pro7.50 influence G-protein activation, if the motif is mutated to NAxxY7.53 (
Pro7.50 →
Ala7.50) in the
ratm3 muscarinic receptor, the receptor can still be activated but less efficiently,[39] this mutation even abolishes activation in the
cholecystokinin B receptor completely.[40] In fact, the
RGR-opsins have NAxxY7.53 and
retinochromes have VPxxY7.53 for annelids or YPxxY7.53 for mollusks, natively. Both RGR-opsins and retinochromes, belong to the chromopsins.[21] RGR-opsins[41] and retinochromes[42] also bind unlike most opsins all-trans-retinal in the dark and convert it to 11-cis-retinal when illuminated. Therefore, RGR-opsins and retinochromes are thought to neither signal nor activate a phototransduction cascade but to work as
photoisomerases to produce 11-cis-retinal for other opsins.[43][44] This view is considered established in the opsin literature,[34][45][43][46][47] even so it has not been shown, conclusively.[21] In fact, the human MT2
melatonin receptor signals via a
G-protein and has an NAxxY7.53 motif natively. If this motif is mutated to NPxxY7.53 (Ala7.50 → Pro7.50), the receptor cannot be activated, but can be rescued partially if the motif is mutated to NVxxY7.53 (Ala7.50 →
Val7.50).[48] Furthermore, when the motif is mutated to NAxxY7.53 (Pro7.50 → Ala7.50) in cattle rhodopsin, the mutant has 141% of wild type activity.[37] This evidence shows that a GPCR does not need a standard NPxxY7.53 motif for signaling.[21]
Other residues and motifs
Cys138 and Cys110 form a highly conserved
disulfide bridge. Glu113 serves as the counterion, stabilizing the protonation of the Schiff linkage between Lys296 and the ligand retinal. The Glu134-Arg135-Tyr136 is another highly conserved motif, involved in the propagation of the transduction signal once a photon has been absorbed.
Spectral tuning sites
Certain
amino acid residues, termed spectral tuning sites, have a strong effect on λmax values. Using
site-directed mutagenesis, it is possible to selectively mutate these residues and investigate the resulting changes in light absorption properties of the opsin. It is important to differentiate spectral tuning sites, residues that affect the wavelength at which the opsin absorbs light, from functionally conserved sites, residues important for the proper functioning of the opsin. They are not mutually exclusive, but, for practical reasons, it is easier to investigate spectral tuning sites that do not affect opsin functionality. For a comprehensive review of spectral tuning sites see Yokoyama[49] and Deeb.[50] The impact of spectral tuning sites on λmax differs between different opsin groups and between opsin groups of different species.
Cuttlefish and
octopuses contain opsin in their skin as part of the chromophores. The opsin is part of the sensing network detecting the colour and shape of the cuttlefish's surroundings.[59][60][61]
Phylogeny
Animal opsins (also known as type 2 opsins) are members of the seven-transmembrane-domain proteins of the
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily.[1][2]
Animal opsins fall phylogenetically into five groups: The ciliary opsins (cilopsins, c-opsins), the
rhabdomeric opsins (r-opsins, rhabopsins), the xenopsins, the nessopsins, and the tetraopsins. Four of these subclades occur in
Bilateria (all but the nessopsins).[21][28] However, the bilaterian clades constitute a
paraphyletic taxon without the opsins from the
cnidarians.[21][28][27][62] The nessopsins are also known as anthozoan opsins II[63] or simply as the cnidarian opsins.[64] The tetraopsins are also known as RGR/Go[65] or Group 4 opsins[27] and contain three subgroups: the
neuropsins, the Go-opsins, and the chromopsins.[21][28][64] The chromopsins have seven subgroups: the
RGR-opsins, the
retinochromes, the
peropsins, the varropsins, the astropsins, the nemopsins, and the gluopsins.[21]
Animal visual opsins are traditionally classified as either ciliary or rhabdomeric. Ciliary opsins, found in
vertebrates and
cnidarians, attach to ciliary structures such as
rods and
cones.
Rhabdomeric opsins are attached to light-gathering organelles called rhabdomeres. This classification cuts across phylogenetic categories (clades) so that both the terms "ciliary" and "rhabdomeric" can be ambiguous. Here, "C-opsins (ciliary)" refers to a clade found exclusively in
Bilateria and excludes cnidarian ciliary opsins such as those found in the
box jellyfish. Similarly, "R-opsin (rhabdomeric)" includes melanopsin even though it does not occur on rhabdomeres in vertebrates.[27]
Ciliary opsins
Ciliary opsins (cilopsins, c-opsins) are expressed in ciliary photoreceptor cells, and include the vertebrate visual opsins and encephalopsins.[66] They convert light signals to nerve impulses via cyclic nucleotide gated ion channels, which work by increasing the charge differential across the cell membrane (i.e.
hyperpolarization.[67])
Vertebrate visual opsins are a subclass of ciliary opsins that express in the vertebrate retina and mediate vision. They are further subdivided into:
Photopsins - those responsible for
photopic vision (daylight), which are expressed in cone cells; hence also
cone opsins. Photopsins are further subdivided according to their
spectral sensitivity, namely the wavelength at which the highest light absorption is observed (λmax). Vertebrates generally have four (SWS1, SWS2, RH2, LWS) classes of photopsins.[68][69] Mammals lost Rh2 and SWS2 classes during the
nocturnal bottleneck, so are generally
dichromatic.
Primate ancestors later developed two distinct LWS opsins (LWS and MWS), leaving humans with 3 photopsins in 2 classes: SWS1 (
OPN1SW) and two forms of LWS (
OPN1LW,
OPN1MW).
These pineal opsins, found in the
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) apparently arose as a result of gene duplication from Rh1 (rhodopsin). These opsins appear to serve functions similar to those of pinopsin found in birds and reptiles.[71][72]
Pinopsins
The first Pineal Opsin (Pinopsin) was found in the chicken
pineal gland. It is a blue sensitive opsin (λmax = 470 nm).[73][74]
Pineal opsins have a wide range of expression in the brain, most notably in the
pineal region.
Vertebrate Ancient (VA) opsin
Vertebrate Ancient (VA) opsin has three isoforms VA short (VAS), VA medium (VAM), and VA long (VAL). It is expressed in the inner retina, within the horizontal and
amacrine cells, as well as the pineal organ and
habenular region of the brain.[75] It is sensitive to approximately 500 nm [14], found in most vertebrate classes, but not in mammals.[76]
Parapinopsins
The first parapinopsin (PP) was found in the
parapineal organ of the
catfish.[77] The parapinopsin of
lamprey is a UV-sensitive opsin (λmax = 370 nm).[78] The teleosts have two groups of parapinopsins, one is sensitive to UV (λmax = 360-370 nm), the other is sensitive to blue (λmax = 460-480 nm) light.[79]
Parietopsins
The first parietopsin was found in the photoreceptor cells of the lizard parietal eye. The lizard parietopsin is green-sensitive (λmax = 522 nm), and despite it is a c-opsin, like the vertebrate visual opsins, it does not induce hyperpolarization via a Gt-protein, but induces depolarization via a Go-protein.[80][81]
Encephalopsin or Panopsin
The
panopsins are found in many tissues (skin,[51] brain,[53][82] testes,[53] heart, liver,[82] kidney, skeletal muscle, lung, pancreas and retina[82]). They were originally found in the human and
mouse brain and thus called encephalopsin.[53]
The first invertebrate panopsin was found in the ciliary photoreceptor cells of the annelid Platynereis dumerilii and is called c(iliary)-opsin.[83] This c-opsin is
UV-sensitive (λmax = 383 nm) and can be tuned by 125 nm at a single
amino-acid (range λmax = 377 - 502 nm).[84] Thus, not unsurprisingly, a second but cyan sensitive c-opsin (λmax = 490 nm) exists in Platynereis dumerilii.[85] The first c-opsin mediates in the larva UV induced
gravitaxis. The gravitaxis forms with
phototaxis a ratio-chromatic
depth-gauge.[86] In different depths, the light in water is composed of different
wavelengths: First the red (> 600 nm) and the UV and violet (< 420 nm) wavelengths disappear. The higher the depth the narrower the spectrum so that only
cyan light (480 nm) is left.[87] Thus, the larvae can determine their depth by color. The color unlike brightness stays almost constant independent of time of day or the weather, for instance if it is cloudy.[88][89]
Panopsins are also expressed in the brains of some insects.[66] The panopsins of mosquito and pufferfish absorb maximally at 500 nm and 460 nm, respectively. Both activate in vitro Gi and Go proteins.[90]
The first TMT-opsin was found in many tissues in
Teleost fish and therefore they are called Teleost Multiple Tissue (TMT) opsins.[93] TMT-opsins form three groups which are most closely related to a fourth group the panopsins, which thus are
paralogous to the TMT-opsins.[28][47][91][92] TMT-opsins and panopsins also share the same
introns, which confirms that they belong together.[93]
Opsins in cnidarians
Cnidaria, which include jellyfish, corals, and sea
anemones, are the most
basal animals to possess complex eyes. Jellyfish opsins in the
rhopalia couple to Gs-proteins raising the intracellular cAMP level.[94][62] Coral opsins can couple to Gq-proteins and Gc-proteins. Gc-proteins are a subtype of G-proteins specific to cnidarians.[95] The cnidarian opsins belong to two groups the xenopsins and the nessopsins. The xenopsins contain also bilaterian opsins, while the nessopsins are restricted to the cnidarians.[21][28] However, earlier studies have found that some cnidarian opsins belong to the cilopsins, rhabopsins, and the tetraopsins of the
bilaterians.[65][96][97]
Rhabdomeric opsins
Rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) are also known as Gq-opsins, because they couple to a Gq-protein. Rhabopsins are used by molluscs and arthropods. Arthropods appear to attain colour vision in a similar fashion to the vertebrates, by using three (or more) distinct groups of opsins, distinct both in terms of phylogeny and spectral sensitivity.[66] The rhabopsin melanopsin is also expressed in vertebrates, where it regulates
circadian rhythms and mediates the pupillary reflex.[66]
Unlike cilopsins, rhabopsins are associated with canonical transient receptor potential ion channels; these lead to the electric potential difference across a cell membrane being eradicated (i.e.
depolarization).[67]
The identification of the crystal structure of squid rhodopsin[13] is likely to further our understanding of its function in this group.
Arthropods use different opsins in their different eye types, but at least in Limulus the opsins expressed in the lateral and the compound eyes are 99% identical and presumably diverged recently.[98]
Melanopsin
Melanopsin (OPN4) is involved in
circadian rhythms, the
pupillary reflex, and color correction in high-brightness situations. Phylogenetically, it is a member of the rhabdomeric opsins (rhabopsins, r-opsins) and functionally and structurally a rhabopsin, but does not occur in rhabdomeres.
Tetraopsins
The tetraopsins include the
neuropsins, the Go-opsins, and the chromopsins.[21][28][64] The chromopsins consist of seven subgroups: the
RGR-opsins, the
retinochromes, the
peropsins, the varropsins, the astropsins, the nemopsins, and the gluopsins.[21]
Neuropsins
Neuropsins are sensitive to UVA, typically at 380 nm. They are found in the brain, testes, skin, and retina of humans and rodents, as well as in the brain and retina of birds. In birds and rodents they mediate ultraviolet vision.[51][56][99] They couple to Gi-proteins.[56][99] In humans, Neuropsin is encoded by the
OPN5 gene. In the human retina, its function is unknown. In the mouse, it photo-entrains the retina and cornea at least ex vivo.[100]
RGR-opsins, also known as
Retinal G protein coupled receptors are expressed in the
retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and
Müller cells.[104] They preferentially bind all-trans-retinal in the dark instead of 11-cis-retinal.[41] RGR-opsins were thought to be photoisomerases[44] but instead, they regulate retinoid traffic and production.[66][105] In particular, they speed up light-independently the production of 11-cis-retinol (a precursor of 11-cis-retinal) from all-trans-retinyl-esters.[106] However, the all-trans-retinyl-esters are made available light-dependently by RGR-opsins. Whether RGR-opsins regulate this via a G-protein or another signaling mechanism is unknown.[107] The cattle RGR-opsin absorbs maximally at different wavelengths depending on the pH-value. At high pH it absorbs maximally blue (469 nm) light and at low pH it absorbs maximally UV (370 nm) light.[108]
Peropsin
Peropsin, a visual pigment-like receptor, is a
protein that in humans is encoded by the RRHgene.[109]
Microbial and animal opsins are also called type 1 and type 2 opsins respectively. Both types are called opsins, because at one time it was thought that they were related: Both are seven-transmembrane receptors and bind covalently
retinal as chromophore, which turns them into
photoreceptors sensing light. However, both types are not related on the sequence level.[113]
In fact, the sequence identity between animal and mirobial opsins is no greater than could be accounted for by random chance. However, in recent years new methods have been developed specific to deep
phylogeny. As a result, several studies have found evidence of a possible phylogenetic relationship between the two.[114][35][115] However, this does not necessarily mean that the last common ancestor of microbial and animal opsins was itself light sensitive: All animal opsins arose (by gene duplication and divergence) late in the history of the large
G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)
gene family, which itself arose after the divergence of plants, fungi, choanflagellates and sponges from the earliest animals. The retinal chromophore is found solely in the opsin branch of this large gene family, meaning its occurrence elsewhere represents
convergent evolution, not
homology. Microbial rhodopsins are, by sequence, very different from any of the GPCR families.[116] According to one hypothesis, both microbial and animal opsins belong to the transporter-opsin-G protein-coupled receptor (TOG) superfamily, a proposed clade that includes
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), Ion-translocating
microbial rhodopsin (MR), and seven others.[117]
Most microbial opsins are
ion channels or
pumps instead of proper receptors and do not bind to a
G protein. Microbal opsins are found in all three domains of life:
Archaea,
Bacteria, and
Eukaryota. In Eukaryota, microbial opsins are found mainly in unicellular organisms such as green algae, and in fungi. In most complex multicellular eukaryotes, microbial opsins have been replaced with other light-sensitive molecules such as
cryptochrome and
phytochrome in plants, and animal opsins in
animals.[118]
Microbial opsins are often known by the rhodopsin form of the molecule, i.e., rhodopsin (in the broad sense) = opsin + chromophore. Among the many kinds of microbial opsins are the
proton pumpsbacteriorhodopsin (BR) and xanthorhodopsin (xR), the
chloride pumphalorhodopsin (HR), the photosensors sensory rhodopsin I (SRI) and
sensory rhodopsin II (SRII), as well as
proteorhodopsin (PR),
Neurospora opsin I (NOPI), Chlamydomonas sensory rhodopsins A (CSRA), Chlamydomonas sensory rhodopsins B (CSRB),
channelrhodopsin (ChR), and
archaerhodopsin (Arch).[119]
Several microbal opsins, such as
proteo- and
bacteriorhodopsin, are used by various bacterial groups to harvest energy from light to carry out metabolic processes using a non-
chlorophyll-based pathway. Beside that,
halorhodopsins of
Halobacteria and
channelrhodopsins of some algae, e.g.
Volvox, serve them as
light-gated ion channels, amongst others also for
phototactic purposes. Sensory rhodopsins exist in Halobacteria that induce a phototactic response by interacting with
transducer membrane-embedded proteins that have no relation to G proteins.[120]
Microbal opsins (like
channelrhodopsin,
halorhodopsin, and
archaerhodopsin) are used in
optogenetics to switch on or off neuronal activity. Microbal opsins are preferred if the neuronal activity should be modulated at higher frequency, because they respond faster than animal opsins. This is because microbal opsins are ion channels or proton/
ion pumps and thus are activated by light directly, while animal opsins activate G-proteins, which then activate
effector enzymes that produce metabolites to open ion channels.[121]
^Oroshnik W (June 1956). "The Synthesis and Configuration of Neo-B Vitamin A and Neoretinine b". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (11): 2651–2652.
doi:
10.1021/ja01592a095.
^Hargrave PA, McDowell JH, Curtis DR, Wang JK, Juszczak E, Fong SL, et al. (1983). "The structure of bovine rhodopsin". Biophysics of Structure and Mechanism. 9 (4): 235–244.
doi:
10.1007/BF00535659.
PMID6342691.
S2CID20407577.
^Ballesteros JA, Weinstein H (1995). "Integrated methods for the construction of three-dimensional models and computational probing of structure-function relations in G protein-coupled receptors". Methods in Neurosciences. 25: 366–428.
doi:
10.1016/S1043-9471(05)80049-7.
ISBN978-0-12-185295-5.
^Nagata T, Koyanagi M, Tsukamoto H, Terakita A (January 2010). "Identification and characterization of a protostome homologue of peropsin from a jumping spider". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 196 (1): 51–59.
doi:
10.1007/s00359-009-0493-9.
PMID19960196.
S2CID22879394.
^Mazna P, Grycova L, Balik A, Zemkova H, Friedlova E, Obsilova V, et al. (November 2008). "The role of proline residues in the structure and function of human MT2 melatonin receptor". Journal of Pineal Research. 45 (4): 361–372.
doi:
10.1111/j.1600-079X.2008.00598.x.
PMID18544139.
S2CID6202186.
^Philp AR, Garcia-Fernandez JM, Soni BG, Lucas RJ, Bellingham J, Foster RG (June 2000). "Vertebrate ancient (VA) opsin and extraretinal photoreception in the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 203 (Pt 12): 1925–1936.
doi:
10.1242/jeb.203.12.1925.
PMID10821749.
^
abcHalford S, Freedman MS, Bellingham J, Inglis SL, Poopalasundaram S, Soni BG, et al. (March 2001). "Characterization of a novel human opsin gene with wide tissue expression and identification of embedded and flanking genes on chromosome 1q43". Genomics. 72 (2): 203–208.
doi:
10.1006/geno.2001.6469.
PMID11401433.