The second of two main surveys of the
Hundred Rolls, an English
census seen as a follow-up to the
Domesday Book completed in
1086, is completed; it began in
1279.
Spring –
Siege of Berat: A Byzantine relief force under
Michael Tarchaneiotes arrives at the strategically important citadel of
Berat. Tarchaneiotes avoids a confrontation with the Angevines and relies on ambushes and raids instead. He manages to capture the Angevin commander,
Hugh of Sully, a few of Sully's guards escape and reach their camp – where they report his capture. Panic spreads among the Angevin troops at this news and they begin to flee towards
Avlon. The Byzantines take advantage of their disordered flight and attacks, joined by the troops in the besieged citadel. Tarchaneiotes takes an enormous booty, a small remnant of the Angevin army manages to cross the
Vjosa River and reach the safety of
Kanina.[10]
October 18 – Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) is excommunicated by Pope
Martin IV without any warning or provocation. Martin authorizes
Charles I, king of
Sicily, to make a
Crusade against Michael, who has re-established his rule in
Constantinople. Charles prepares an expedition in Sicily and assembles a fleet of 100 ships, and 300 more in
Naples,
Provence, and the Greek territories, which carry some 8,000 cavalrymen.[11]
Europe
June – Castilian forces led King
Alfonso X (the Wise) and accompanied by his sons, the Infantes
Sancho,
Peter and
John, invade the lowlands of
Granada. Sultan
Muhammad II sends a Moorish army, supported by many archers and cavalry, to repel them. Alfonso defeats the Moors in a battle near Granada's walls on
June 25, but after the failure of the negotiations that follow, he leaves Granada.[12]
September – Two Mongol armies (some 50,000 men) advance into
Syria. One, is commanded by
Abaqa Khan – who attacks the Mamluk fortresses along the
Euphrates frontier. The second one, led by his brother
Möngke Temür makes contact with
Leo III, king of
Cilician Armenia, and then marches down through
Aintab and
Aleppo into the
Orontes valley. Where he is joined by knights of the
Hospitaller Order and some French mercenaries. Meanwhile, Sultan
Qalawun assembles his Mamluk forces at
Damascus.[14]
October 29 –
Battle of Homs: In a pitched battle, Mamluk forces (some 30,000 men) led by Qalawun destroy the Mongol center, Möngke Temür is wounded and flees. He orders a retreat, followed by a disorganized army. The Armenian-Georgian auxiliaries under Leo III fight their way back northwards. The Mongol army recrosses the Euphrates without losses, the river remains the frontier between the Mongols and the
Mamluk Sultanate.[15]
Osman I, founder of the
Ottoman Empire, becomes bey of the
Söğüt tribe in central
Anatolia after the death of his father,
Ertuğrul Ghazi. Osman's accession to power is not peaceful, as he has to fight his relatives before he gets hold of the clan's leadership. One of Osman's major rivals is his uncle
Dündar Bey, who rebels against him.[16]
Asia
August 15 –
Battle of Kōan (or Second Battle of Hakata Bay): A second Mongol
invasion of Japan is foiled, as a large
typhoon – famously called a kamikaze, or divine wind – destroys much of the combined Mongol and Chinese fleet and forces, numbering over 140,000 men and 4,000 ships. Later,
Kublai Khan begins to gather forces to prepare for a third invasion attempt, but is distracted by events in
Southeast and
Central Asia.[17]
Kublai Khan orders the burning of sacred
Taoist texts, resulting in the reduction in number of volumes of the Daozang (Taoist Canon) from 4,565 to 1,120.
March – Welsh forces under Prince
Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother of
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, attack and take control of
Hawarden Castle. The garrison is massacred and Constable
Roger de Clifford is taken prisoner. Llywelyn who has sworn fealty to King
Edward I (Longshanks), joins Dafydd in his revolt against the English. Their actions lead to the final English conquest of
Wales, by Edward.
March 30 –
War of the Sicilian Vespers: A group of Sicilian conspirators begins an uprising against the rule of King
Charles I; over the next six weeks, thousands of French are killed. The rebellion forces Charles to abandon the planned crusade against the Byzantines, while still en route to the target city of
Constantinople and allows King
Peter III (the Great) to take over rule of the island from Charles (which in turn leads to Peter's
excommunication by Pope
Martin IV).
May 1 –
Battle of Forlì: A French expeditionary army under
Jean d'Eppe launches an assault on
Forlì and breaches the outer wall. While they plunder the suburbs,
Guido I da Montefeltro sends a small force out the gate on the opposite side of the city. In an ambush,
Guelph and Ghibelline forces defeat the main army of d'Eppe, who is forced to retreat to
Faenza. He requests Martin IV for more reinforcements, but this is refused.[19]
Summer – An Aragonese expeditionary army under Peter III lands in
North Africa in
Collo, in proclaimed support of a rebellion of the governor of
Constantine, Ibn Wazir. The revolt is suppressed by
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim I, ruler of the
Hafsid Sultanate. Peter, wary of the situation in
Sicily, sails off and fails to take advantage of the state of rebellion in North Africa. Ibrahim stabilizes his power and styles himself emir of the sultanate.[20]
June – The 24-year-old Prince
Sancho, heir to the throne of
Castile, assembles a coalition of nobles and starts a massive rebellion against his father, King
Alfonso X (the Wise). He dispatches his brothers into the realm to claim strategically important cities and castles. Only the cities of
Seville,
Murcia, and
Badajoz remain loyal to Alfonso, who becomes isolated politically and abandoned by most of his family.[21]
June 26 – King
Denis I (the Poet King) marries the 11-year-old
Elizabeth of Aragon, daughter of Peter III (the Great), in
Trancoso. Elizabeth received the towns of
Óbidos,
Abrantes, and
Porto de Mós as part of her dowry. Denis, known for his poetry, writes several poems and books himself, with topics of administration and
hunting. During his reign,
Lisbon becomes one of
Europe's centers of art and culture.
July – Alfonso X (the Wise) allies himself with
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq, ruler of the
Marinid Sultanate, who crosses the straits, and establishes a camp at
Zahara de la Sierra, in southern
Spain. Alfonso offers the Castilian royal crown of his father and grandfathers as a pledge of re-payment of a loan. Out of pity, Abu Yusuf gives him 100,000 gold dinars.[23]
August – Castilian forces under Sancho lay siege to Badajoz, who eventually retreat as the combined armies of Alfonso X (the Wise) relieve the city. Shortly after, Alfonso marches to
Córdoba and demands the key of the city. This is refused by
Diego López V de Haro, speaking on behalf of the magnates. Meanwhile, the Marinids plunder the
Guadalquivir valley.
August 30 – Peter III (the Great) traveling with his fleet on a military expedition against
Tunis, ends up in the Sicilian town of
Trapani, after he was asked by the inhabitants of
Palermo to help in the fight against Charles I.[24]
September or October –
Battle of Lake Hód: Hungarian forces led by King
Ladislaus IV successfully repel and defeat an invading Cuman army. Ladislaus receives the title "the Cuman" for his heroic victory.[26]
November – Castilian forces under Alfonso X (the Wise) reconquer Córdoba. Pope Martin IV issues a papal bull, forcing Sancho and his nobles to proclaim their allegiance to Alfonso ending the rebellion.
Dutch forces led by
Floris V, count of
Holland, attack and defeat the
West Frisians at the battle of
Vronen. He succeeds in retrieving the body of his father,
William II, some 26 years dead.
King
Stefan Dragutin breaks his leg while hunting and becomes ill. He abdicates the throne in favor of his younger brother,
Stefan Milutin, who becomes ruler of
Serbia (until
1321).
The form for the
Trial of the Pyx, during which it is confirmed that newly
minted coins conform to required standards, is established.
The first evidence is discovered of the existence of consolidated public debt in
Bruges, confirming the expansion of use of
annuities, to fund government expenditure to the
Low Countries.[31]
Nature
The most recent eruption of
Larderello, a volcano in southern
Tuscany, is observed.
Technology
The technology of
watermarks is introduced by paper manufacturers of
Bologna, Italy.
July 8 –
Battle of Malta: An Aragonese fleet (some 20 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria attacks and defeats the Angevin ships in the
Grand Harbour, sent to help put down a rebellion on
Malta. Lauria lands his troops at the harbour and after two days raises his banner on the fortified city of
Mdina ("Old City").
The first regulated
Catalan Courts are reunited by King
Peter III, for the whole
Principality of Catalonia. It became one of the first medieval parliaments that bans the royal power to create legislation unilaterally.
King
Philip III of France ("the Bold") outlaws Jews from residence in the small villages and rural localities of
France, causing a mass migration.
February 13–
14 –
Battle of Thị Nại Bay: A Mongol-led
Yuan expeditionary force (some 5,000 men) lands on the beach, near
Champa's capital
Vijaya in
Vietnam. Despite being outnumbered, the Yuan invaders break the Cham defensive line and force King
Indravarman V to retreat to the
Western Highlands, where he wages a successful guerrilla campaign against the occupying Yuan forces.[40]
Mongol invasion of Burma: Mongol forces besiege the fortress at Ngasaunggyan on
September 23. The Burmese garrison withstands the siege for two months, but finally falls to the invaders on
December 3. The defeat breaks the morale of the Burmese defenses. Kaungsin, the next fortress in line, falls just six days later.[41]
The German city of
Goslar starts making efforts to redeem its already issued
annuities, a sure indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the 13th century crisis.[44]
Aragonese Crusade: The first French armies under King
Philip III (the Bold) and his 14-year-old son
Charles of Valois enter
Roussillon. They include 16,000 cavalry, 17,000 crossbowmen, and 100,000 infantry, along with 100 ships in south French ports. Though they have the support of
James II, ruler of
Majorca, the local populace rises against them.
Elne is valiantly defended by Aragonese troops, but the French occupy the city, and burn the cathedral, while the population is massacred.
April 4 – King
Alfonso X (the Wise) falls ill and dies after a 32-year reign at
Seville. He is succeeded by his 25-year-old son
Sancho IV (the Brave) who becomes ruler of
Castile and
León. Meanwhile, his nephew,
Alfonso de la Cerda, challenges his right to the Castilian throne. Pope
Martin IV excommunicates Sancho, he placed an interdict on his kingdom and refuses to acknowledge the marriage to his cousin, Queen
María de Molina.[45]
June 5 –
Battle of the Gulf of Naples: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 30 galleys) led by Admiral
Roger of Lauria surrounds and defeats the Neapolitan ships in the
Gulf of Naples. King
Charles II (the Lame) is captured during the battle, disorganized, the remnants of the Neapolitan fleet (between 15 and 18 galleys) flees back to
Naples.
King
Rudolf I imposes a
trade embargo on
Norway, due to the latter pillaging a German ship. The embargo cuts off vital supplies of grain, flour, vegetables and beer, causing a general
famine in Norway.[46]
March 3 –
Statute of Rhuddlan: King
Edward I (Longshanks) brings
Wales under direct rule after the
Welsh Wars (1277–1283). He appoints sheriffs and bailiffs for the northern territories while the southern areas are left under the control of the
Marcher Lords. English law is introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh are allowed to maintain their customary laws in some cases of property disputes.[48][49][50]
Edward I (Longshanks) arranges a
Round Table event and tournament at
Nefyn in Wales. He promises the Welsh that he will provide them with a
Prince of Wales.
King
Peter III (the Great) takes advantage of the weakness of the Hafsid Dynasty and raids the island of
Djerba. Aragonese forces massacre the population and occupy the island.
By topic
Art and Culture
Construction of
Beauvais Cathedral is interrupted by a partial collapse of the
choir; the event unnerves French masons working in the
Gothic style.
Aragonese Crusade: French forces led by King
Philip III (the Bold) entrench before
Girona, in an attempt to besiege the city. Despite strong resistance, the city is eventually taken on
September 7. Philip's son, the 15-year-old
Charles of Valois, is crowned as king of
Aragon (under the vassalage of the
Holy See) but without an actual crown. Shortly after, the French camp is racked by an epidemic of
dysentery and Philip is forced to retreat.[54]
May – King
Sancho IV (the Brave) assembles his army at Seville and sends the Castilian fleet (some 100 ships) led by Admiral
Benedetto I Zaccaria to blockade the mouth of the
Guadalquivir River. Meanwhile, a Marinid detachment of 1,000 cavalry moves against Seville, routing the Castilians send out to oppose them. Turning eastward against Carmona and
Alcalá de Guadaíra, the Marinids burn the suburbs, harvest and ruin orchards.
May 22 – Marinid forces under Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq prolong their siege at Jerez de la Frontera. He sends his son
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr with 5,000 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, some 13,000 infantry and 2,000 archers to raid Seville and its environs on
June 1. During June and early July, the Marinids assault daily Jerez while raiding parties pillage the countryside at Carmona,
Niebla, Écija, Seville and
Sanlúcar de Barrameda.[56]
August – Castilian forces led by Sancho IV (the Brave) march against the Marinids at Jerez de la Frontera. Meanwhile, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq with his army of 18,000 cavalry and faced with dwindling supplies, decides to lift the siege after five months, on
August 2. He withdraws his army to the safety of
Algeciras and opens negotiations with Sancho while the Castilian fleet arrives at
El Puerto de Santa Maria (or "The port of
Saint Mary").[57]
September 4 –
Battle of Les Formigues: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 40 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria defeats French and Genoese ships near the
Formigues Islands. According to
Johan Esteve de Bezers, a French
troubadour, all prisoners but one have their eyes gouged out, and that one is left with one eye to guide the others. After the battle, Roger captures about 15 to 20 French galleys, and others are sunk or burnt.
October 1 –
Battle of the Col de Panissars: Aragonese forces under King
Peter III (the Great) ambush and defeat a French expeditionary army while it was retreating over the
Pyrenees. The French troops are massacred by the Aragonese vanguard at the Panissar Pass, but spared the royal family. Philip III (the Bold) arrives with his fatigued remnants in
Perpignan, where he dies of dysentery on
October 5.
November 2 – Peter III (the Great) dies after a 9-year reign at
Vilafranca del Penedès. He is succeeded by his 20-year-old son
Alfonso III (the Liberal), who becomes king of
Aragon. Peter's other son
James II (the Just), is crowned ruler of
Sicily. His third son, the 13-year-old
Frederick, becomes co-ruler and
regent of Sicily.[58]
The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King
Edward I (Longshanks), defines the jurisdictions of church and state, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
Levant
April 17 – Mamluk forces under Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) appear with specially built war engines before the Crusader fortress of
Margat and begin a siege. For a month, the Mamluks can make no progress and the assaults on the stronghold are repelled. Qalawun then invites a delegation of
Knights Hospitaller to come and see the damage his engineers have done to the 'impregnable' fortifications. They understood they have no real choice and are forced to surrender on
May 25. The Hospitallers are allowed to retire with all their possessions, on horseback and fully armed. The rest of the garrison is promised a safe-conduct to
Tortosa – while Qalawun establishes a Mamluk garrison which he uses as a basis for further campaigns against the
Crusader States.[59]
Asia
June 24 –
Battle of Chương Dương: Joint forces of
Champa and
Đại Việt defeat the Mongol-led Yuan fleet on the
Red River. Most of the Yuan warships are burned during the battle, and the Mongol army retreats to
China in late June. The Vietnamese royal court returns to the capital in
Thang Long following a six-month conflict.[60]
The first record is made of an emission of
life annuities, by the city of
Lübeck. It is the first instance of issue of public debt in
Germany, and it confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt over north-western
Europe (see
1228).[61]
The
County of Champagne is integrated into the kingdom of
France; the region loses its haven characteristics for foreign merchants, and the
Fairs of Troyes quickly dwindle into economic insignificance.[62]
Religion
January 6 – Archbishop
Jakub Świnka organizes a synod in
Łęczyca. During the meeting, he orders all priests who are subject to his bishopric to deliver their sermons in Polish rather than German. This further unifies the
Catholic Church in
Poland and fosters a national identity.
January 6 – The 17-year-old
Philip IV (the Fair) is crowned king of
France at
Reims. He settles the Aragonese conflict (see
1285), and intensifies his predecessors' efforts to reform and rationalize the administration of the realm. Philip persists in reforms, which strengthen the monarchy's position in
Europe. The
gabelle – a tax on
salt in the form of a
state monopoly – will become immensely unpopular and grossly unequal, but persist until
1790.[64]
June – King
Edward I (Longshanks) and Queen
Eleanor of Castile travel to France. There they pay homage to Philip IV (the Fair) and attend to other matters. Edward travels around in the duchy of
Gascony and orders the rebuilding of fortifications in the region (between 1286 and 1289).
Levant
June 4 – The 15-year-old
Henry II sails from
Cyprus and lands in
Acre, but is refused entry into the citadel. There, he stays for six weeks in the palace to negotiate an agreement to take over the city from the Angevins.[69]
August 15 – Henry II is crowned king of
Jerusalem at
Tyre. After the ceremony, he returns to Acre for the festivities. A few weeks later, Henry returns to Cyprus and appoints his uncle
Philip of Ibelin as
regent (
bailiff).[70]
In the
Lao kingdom of
Muang Sua, King Panya Leng is overthrown in a
coup d'état led by his son, Prince Panya Khamphong, which is likely to have been supported by the Mongol-led
Yuan Dynasty in
China.
January 17 – Aragonese forces led by King
Alfonso III (the Liberal) conquer the island of
Menorca. He signs the "Treaty of San Agayz" with Sultan
Abû 'Umar ibn Sa'îd on
January 21. Alfonso accepts a policy of free trade for merchants and their property. He also concludes an alliance against the Marinids with
Abu Said Uthman I, ruler of the Zayyanid
Kingdom of Tlemcen (modern
Algeria). He proposes to supply him with five to ten galleys (with food and other goods) in exchange for 500 elite Zayyanid horsemen.[72]
Alfonso III (the Liberal) is forced to make concessions to the nobility after an aristocratic uprising (called the
Union of Aragon). In particular, he grants his barons a "Bill of Rights", known as the Privilegium Generale. This leaves a heritage of disunity and further dissent among the nobility, who increasingly see little reason to respect the throne, and brings the
Crown of Aragon to the point of anarchy. Alfonso, who is not pleased with the anti-royalist movement, is forced to accept the Magna Carta (Great Charter).[73]
June –
Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, travels from
Constantinople to
Italy. There he arrives in Naples and witnesses a sea battle in the harbour between the Aragonese and the Angevin fleets. Bar Sauma goes to
Rome, but arrives too late to meet Pope
Honorius IV, who recently died. He instead is engaged in negotiations with the cardinals, who are in a conclave to elect a successor, and visits the
St. Peter's Basilica. Bar Sauma goes to
Genoa, where he receives a warm welcome.[74]
June 23 –
Battle of the Counts: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 50 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria defeat a larger Angevin fleet of 70 galleys near
Naples. After a
feigned retreat, Roger attacks the Angevin galleys from all sides. During the battle, which last much of the day, the Angevin fleet is scattered, leaving about 40 galleys to be captured, along with 5,000 prisoners. After the victory, without any authorization from King
James II, Roger makes a truce with the Neapolitans (who are allies of the Angevins).
September – Rabban Bar Sauma arrives in
Paris, and is received in an audience by King
Philip IV (the Fair). He spends one month at the royal court, during his stay, Philip himself escorts him around the
Sainte-Chapelle (or Holy Chapel) to see the collection of
Passion relics by late King
Louis IX (the Saint). Philip gives Bar Sauma many presents and sends one of his noblemen,
Gobert de Helleville, to return with him to Mongol lands. In response, he attempts to form a military alliance with
France and
England.[75]
December 14 – A huge storm and associated storm tide in the
North Sea and
English Channel, known as
St. Lucia's flood in the
Netherlands, kills thousands and reshapes the coastline of the Netherlands and
England. In the Netherlands, a fringing barrier between the North Sea and a shallow lake collapses, causing the fifth-largest flood in recorded history – which creates the
Zuider Zee inlet, and kills over 50,000 people. It also gives sea access to
Amsterdam, allowing its development as an important port city.
Winter –
Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongol forces (some 30,000 men) under
Talabuga Khan and
Nogai Khan, attack
Poland for the third time. The cities of
Lublin,
Sandomierz and
Sieradz are devastated by the invaders. Nogai Khan besieges
Kraków and launches an unsuccessful assault on the fortified city, suffering heavy casualties in the process.
England
February –
South England flood: A large storm hits the south coast, this has a powerful effect on the
Cinque Ports, two of which are hit (
Hastings and
New Romney). The storm destroys Old
Winchelsea on
Romney Marsh and nearby
Broomhill. The course of the
Rother River is diverted away from New Romney, which is almost destroyed, ending its role as a port; the Rother runs instead to the sea at
Rye – whose prospects as a port are enhanced. A cliff collapses at Hastings, ending its role as a trade harbor and demolishing a part of
Hastings Castle. New Winchelsea is established on higher ground.[76]
June 8 – Welsh forces led by
Rhys ap Maredudd revolt in
Wales against King
Edward I (Longshanks). Although Maredudd has assisted the English in the past, he accuses Edward of treating him unfairly over taxes. The rebels burn several towns, including
Swansea and
Carmarthen. They capture most of
Ystrad Tywi, heartland of
Deheubarth (the revolt will not be suppressed until
1288).
Summer – Edward I (Longshanks) replies to the Welsh rebellion by raising an army at
Gloucester commanded by
Edmund of Almain. The English forces besiege
Dryslwyn Castle, which lasts for three weeks before the castle falls after the curtain walls are undermined. Rhys ap Maredudd manages to escape and goes into hiding before the stronghold is finally captured in late September.
December – Parts of
Norfolk are flooded, the port of
Dunwich in
Suffolk is further devastated, and in
The Fens through the storm and the violence of the sea, the monastery of
Spalding and many churches are overthrown and destroyed: "The whole country in the
parts of Holland was, for the most part, turned into a standing pool so that an intolerable multitude of men, women and children were overwhelmed with the water, especially in the town of
Boston, a great part thereof was destroyed."[77]
Middle East
Spring –
Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the
Ilkhanate, sends an embassy under Rabban Bar Sauma with the mission of contracting a military alliance against the
Mamluk Sultanate and take the city of
Jerusalem. He travels with a large retinue (bearing gifts and letters) and 30 riding animals from
Tabriz through
Armenia to
Trebizond. Bar Sauma arrives in Constantinople and receives an audience with Emperor
Andronikos II (Palaiologos).[78]
March – Mamluk forces under Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) capture
Latakia, last remnant of the
Principality of Antioch. The city port falls easily into his hands, but the defenders retire to the citadel at the mouth of the harbour. Finally, Qalawun forces the Crusader garrison to surrender on
April 20.[79]
Winter – Two unidentified 'merchants' travel from
Alexandria to
Cairo to warn Qalawun of the economic dangers posed by Genoese domination in the eastern
Mediterranean, which leaves the Mamluk trade at their mercy. Qalawun accepts the invitation to intervene, and breaks the truce with Tripoli.[81]
May 14 –
Nayan, Mongol prince of the
Borjigin clan, revolts against the rule of
Kublai Khan. Kublai leads a punitive expedition against Nayan in
Manchuria and defeats his forces on
July 16.
December –
Battle of Pagan: Mongol-led Yuan forces (some 7,000 cavalry) led by
Temür Khan defeat King
Thihathu of the Pagan Kingdom. The kingdom disintegrates and anarchy ensues.
The Altar of St. James in
Pistoia Cathedral, Italy – a masterwork of the
silversmithing trade containing nearly a ton of silver – is begun; it will not be completed for nearly 200 years.
Economy
The Italian city of
Siena exacts a forced loan from its taxpayers for the first time, a common feature of medieval public finance.[84]
April 3 – Pope
Honorius IV dies after a 2-year
pontificate at Rome. During his reign, he tries to restore
Sicily to papal vassalage, but Honorius clashes with King
Peter III (the Great), who supports Sicilian independence.
A civil war breaks out on
Gotland between the burghers of
Visby and the rural farmers of Gotland, while the exact reason for this war is unknown, the most likely reason is the construction of a large wall around visby and the introduction of a toll which the farmers were forced to pay.[86]
Summer – Sultan
Muhammad II drives the rebellious
Banu Ashqilula from one stronghold to the next, where they are finally expelled from Granadan territory in
Al-Andalus (modern
Spain). Meanwhile, Muhammad manages through diplomatic intrigue, to turn the Castilian aristocracy against King
Sancho IV (the Brave). In response, King
Alfonso III (the Liberal) proclaims the 18-year-old
Alfonso de la Cerda as ruler of
Castile and
León.[87]
August 8 – Pope
Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against the 26-year-old King
Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects in
Hungary, and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of
Western Europe. Meanwhile, the Hungarian government loses more power because the clergy and most of the nobles rule the kingdom independently.[88][89]
The
Parliament of Scotland creates a law allowing women to propose marriage to men during
leap years; men who refuse such proposals are required to pay a fine to the spurned bride-to-be.
Levant
Spring –
Genoa orders Admiral
Benedetto Zaccaria to send five galleys to support Genoese suzerainty of
Tripoli. Princess
Lucia, sister of the late Count
Bohemond VII, arrives in
Acre, where the
Knights Hospitaller escort her to the frontier with Tripoli. The
commune refuses to accept her as new ruler and places the city under Genoese protection. After negotiations, Lucia offers to confirm Genoa's existing commercial privileges in Tripoli.[91]
The Flemish city of
Ghent seeks rights to start redeeming its already issued annuities. It is a clear indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the crisis of the 13th Century.[93]
March–April –
Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, arrives at Rome and is received by Nicholas IV, who gives him communion on
Palm Sunday.[94]
Technology
The oldest-known
bronzehandgun in the world is dated to this year, a Chinese gun found in
Acheng District, that was once used to suppress the rebellion of the Mongol prince
Nayan.
July 7 –
Battle of Copenhagen: A Norwegian expeditionary force under King
Eric II, supported by Danish outlaws, sets sail to
Copenhagen and attacks the city. But they are repelled and forced to withdraw to
Zealand.
Construction of
Conwy Castle in
Wales, ordered by Edward I (Longshanks), is completed.
Levant
February 9 – Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) marches the Mamluk army out of
Cairo, leaving his son
Al-Ashraf Khalil commanding Cairo's Citadel, supported by Viceroy
Baydara al-Mansuri. The army moves via
Salihiya, across
Sinai and through
Jordan to
Damascus. He orders the regional governors of
Syria to mobilize in Damascus, where many infantry volunteers have assembled.[97]
March – The 19-year-old King
Henry II sends his younger brother
Almalric, with a company of knights and 4 galleys to
Tripoli (modern
Lebanon). Meanwhile, many non-combatant citizens flee to
Cyprus. The Mamluk army arrives before Tripoli and begins the attack with siege engines, while building buches (wooden defensive structures) outside the city on
March 25.[98]
April 26 –
Siege of Tripoli: Mamluk forces under Qalawun (the Victorious) capture Tripoli after a month-long siege, thus extinguishing the
County of Tripoli. Qalawun orders the city to be razed to the ground, a widespread massacre kills every man found by the Mamluks, while the women and children are taken as slaves.[99]
July–August – Admiral
Benedetto Zaccaria, having escaped from Tripoli, starts a naval campaign against Mamluk shipping and raids
Tinnis in
Egypt. In response, Qalawun closes
Alexandria to Genoese merchants.[100]
In
Siena, twenty-three partners, including five members of the
Bonsignori family, re-create the
Gran Tavola, formerly the most successful European bank, which had ceased its operations after the death of its creator and manager,
Orlando Bonsignori, in
1273.[101]
Significant people
This section is empty. You can help by
adding to it. (March 2016)
^Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, p. 137. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.
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^Geanakoplos, Deno John (1959). Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258-1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations, pp. 341–42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
OCLC1011763434.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 81.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 149.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 327–328.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, pp. 13–14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN978-0-521-29163-7.
^Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present, p. 145. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-514366-9.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Kleinherz, Christopher (2004). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, p. 473. Routledge.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 163.
ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 82.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Morris, Marc (2008). A Great and Terrible King: Edward I and the Forging of Britain, p. 180. London: Hutchinson.
ISBN978-0-09-179684-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 83.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Chaytor, H.J. (1933). A History of Aragon and Catalonia, p. 103. London: Methuen.
ISBN978-0-404-01479-7.
^ Harris, Jonathan (2003). Byzantium and the Crusades, p. 180. London: Hambledon.
ISBN978-1-85285-298-6.
^Berend, Nora (2001). At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 147.
ISBN978-0-521-02720-5.
^Prestwich, Michael (1997). Edward I, pp. 191–92 (updated ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN0-300-07209-0.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 149.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill.
ISBN978-90-04-17565-5.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 86.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Gaprindashvili, Ghivi (1975). Ancient Monuments of Georgia: Vardzia, pp. 7–25 (in English, Russian and Georgian). Aurora Art Publishers, Leningrad.
ISBN978-1-135-68320-7.
^"Fires, Great", in The Insurance Cyclopeadia: Being an Historical Treasury of Events and Circumstances Connected with the Origin and Progress of Insurance, p. 27. Cornelius Walford, ed. (C. and E. Layton, 1876).
^Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 90–91.
ISBN0-7126-5616-2.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History. p. 149.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 329.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 161.
ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Delgado, James P. (2008). Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada, p. 158. Douglas & McIntyre.
ISBN978-0-520-25976-8.
^Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of South-East Asia, pp. 193–194. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN978-0-824-80368-1.
^Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of South-East Asia, pp. 127–128. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN978-0-824-80368-1.
^According to the earliest written record, of
1384, in the city records of
Hamelin. Harty, Sheila (1994). "Pied Piper Revisited". In Bridges, David; McLaughlin, Terence H. (eds.). Education And The Market Place. Routledge. p. 89.
ISBN0-7507-0348-2.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: Britain, 1066–1284, p. 511. London, UK: Penguin Books.
ISBN0-140-14824-8.
^Davies, R. R. (2000). The Age of Conquest: Wales, 1063–1415, p. 368. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
ISBN0-19-820878-2.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Álgérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. pp. 161-63.
ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Hallam, Elizabeth M. (1980). Capetian France: 987–1328, p. 356. Longman.
ISBN978-0-582-40428-1.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 90.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, pp. 90–91.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 91.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 330–31.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Stone, Zofia (2017). Genghis Khan: A Biography, p. 76. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd.
ISBN978-93-86367-11-2.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill.
ISBN978-90-04-17565-5.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 332.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte;;. p. 158.
ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 95.
ISBN978-08122-2302-6.
^Chaytor, Henry John (1933). A History of Aragon and Catalonia, p. 126. London: Methuen.
^Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. BRILL. pp. 385–386.
ISBN978-90-04-28529-3.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 337.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 337–338.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 339.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 163.
ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, p. 195. Translation: Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Walter, Ingeborg (1969). "Boccamazza, Giovanni". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, p. 169. Volume 11: Boccadibue–Bonetti (in Italian). Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.
ISBN978-8-81200032-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, pp. 95–96.
ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526, p. 109. Tauris Publishers.
ISBN1-86064-061-3.
^Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary, p. 84. Atlantisz Publishing House.
ISBN963-9165-37-9.
^Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century, p. 246. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN978-1-107-60474-2.
^David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 17.
ISBN978-1-84176-862-5.
^Elleman, Bruce A. (2012). China as a Sea Power, 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, pp. 236–237. Naval War College: NUS Press,
ISBN9789971695057.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Rabban Bar Sauma". Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 767. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^Kelly de Vries & Niccolo Capponi (2018). Osprey: Campaldino 1289 - The battle that made Dante, pp. 51–86.
ISBN978-1--4728-3128-6.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 46.
ISBN978-1-84176-862-5.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 340.
ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Miller, William (1921). "The Zaccaria of Phocaea and Chios (1275-1329)". Essays on the Latin Orient, p. 284. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
OCLC457893641.
^Bowsky, William (1981). A medieval Italian commune: Siena under the Nine, 1287-1355. University of California Press.
ISBN0-520-04256-5.
^Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1997) [1976].
History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1. Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
ISBN9780521291637.
The second of two main surveys of the
Hundred Rolls, an English
census seen as a follow-up to the
Domesday Book completed in
1086, is completed; it began in
1279.
Spring –
Siege of Berat: A Byzantine relief force under
Michael Tarchaneiotes arrives at the strategically important citadel of
Berat. Tarchaneiotes avoids a confrontation with the Angevines and relies on ambushes and raids instead. He manages to capture the Angevin commander,
Hugh of Sully, a few of Sully's guards escape and reach their camp – where they report his capture. Panic spreads among the Angevin troops at this news and they begin to flee towards
Avlon. The Byzantines take advantage of their disordered flight and attacks, joined by the troops in the besieged citadel. Tarchaneiotes takes an enormous booty, a small remnant of the Angevin army manages to cross the
Vjosa River and reach the safety of
Kanina.[10]
October 18 – Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) is excommunicated by Pope
Martin IV without any warning or provocation. Martin authorizes
Charles I, king of
Sicily, to make a
Crusade against Michael, who has re-established his rule in
Constantinople. Charles prepares an expedition in Sicily and assembles a fleet of 100 ships, and 300 more in
Naples,
Provence, and the Greek territories, which carry some 8,000 cavalrymen.[11]
Europe
June – Castilian forces led King
Alfonso X (the Wise) and accompanied by his sons, the Infantes
Sancho,
Peter and
John, invade the lowlands of
Granada. Sultan
Muhammad II sends a Moorish army, supported by many archers and cavalry, to repel them. Alfonso defeats the Moors in a battle near Granada's walls on
June 25, but after the failure of the negotiations that follow, he leaves Granada.[12]
September – Two Mongol armies (some 50,000 men) advance into
Syria. One, is commanded by
Abaqa Khan – who attacks the Mamluk fortresses along the
Euphrates frontier. The second one, led by his brother
Möngke Temür makes contact with
Leo III, king of
Cilician Armenia, and then marches down through
Aintab and
Aleppo into the
Orontes valley. Where he is joined by knights of the
Hospitaller Order and some French mercenaries. Meanwhile, Sultan
Qalawun assembles his Mamluk forces at
Damascus.[14]
October 29 –
Battle of Homs: In a pitched battle, Mamluk forces (some 30,000 men) led by Qalawun destroy the Mongol center, Möngke Temür is wounded and flees. He orders a retreat, followed by a disorganized army. The Armenian-Georgian auxiliaries under Leo III fight their way back northwards. The Mongol army recrosses the Euphrates without losses, the river remains the frontier between the Mongols and the
Mamluk Sultanate.[15]
Osman I, founder of the
Ottoman Empire, becomes bey of the
Söğüt tribe in central
Anatolia after the death of his father,
Ertuğrul Ghazi. Osman's accession to power is not peaceful, as he has to fight his relatives before he gets hold of the clan's leadership. One of Osman's major rivals is his uncle
Dündar Bey, who rebels against him.[16]
Asia
August 15 –
Battle of Kōan (or Second Battle of Hakata Bay): A second Mongol
invasion of Japan is foiled, as a large
typhoon – famously called a kamikaze, or divine wind – destroys much of the combined Mongol and Chinese fleet and forces, numbering over 140,000 men and 4,000 ships. Later,
Kublai Khan begins to gather forces to prepare for a third invasion attempt, but is distracted by events in
Southeast and
Central Asia.[17]
Kublai Khan orders the burning of sacred
Taoist texts, resulting in the reduction in number of volumes of the Daozang (Taoist Canon) from 4,565 to 1,120.
March – Welsh forces under Prince
Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother of
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, attack and take control of
Hawarden Castle. The garrison is massacred and Constable
Roger de Clifford is taken prisoner. Llywelyn who has sworn fealty to King
Edward I (Longshanks), joins Dafydd in his revolt against the English. Their actions lead to the final English conquest of
Wales, by Edward.
March 30 –
War of the Sicilian Vespers: A group of Sicilian conspirators begins an uprising against the rule of King
Charles I; over the next six weeks, thousands of French are killed. The rebellion forces Charles to abandon the planned crusade against the Byzantines, while still en route to the target city of
Constantinople and allows King
Peter III (the Great) to take over rule of the island from Charles (which in turn leads to Peter's
excommunication by Pope
Martin IV).
May 1 –
Battle of Forlì: A French expeditionary army under
Jean d'Eppe launches an assault on
Forlì and breaches the outer wall. While they plunder the suburbs,
Guido I da Montefeltro sends a small force out the gate on the opposite side of the city. In an ambush,
Guelph and Ghibelline forces defeat the main army of d'Eppe, who is forced to retreat to
Faenza. He requests Martin IV for more reinforcements, but this is refused.[19]
Summer – An Aragonese expeditionary army under Peter III lands in
North Africa in
Collo, in proclaimed support of a rebellion of the governor of
Constantine, Ibn Wazir. The revolt is suppressed by
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim I, ruler of the
Hafsid Sultanate. Peter, wary of the situation in
Sicily, sails off and fails to take advantage of the state of rebellion in North Africa. Ibrahim stabilizes his power and styles himself emir of the sultanate.[20]
June – The 24-year-old Prince
Sancho, heir to the throne of
Castile, assembles a coalition of nobles and starts a massive rebellion against his father, King
Alfonso X (the Wise). He dispatches his brothers into the realm to claim strategically important cities and castles. Only the cities of
Seville,
Murcia, and
Badajoz remain loyal to Alfonso, who becomes isolated politically and abandoned by most of his family.[21]
June 26 – King
Denis I (the Poet King) marries the 11-year-old
Elizabeth of Aragon, daughter of Peter III (the Great), in
Trancoso. Elizabeth received the towns of
Óbidos,
Abrantes, and
Porto de Mós as part of her dowry. Denis, known for his poetry, writes several poems and books himself, with topics of administration and
hunting. During his reign,
Lisbon becomes one of
Europe's centers of art and culture.
July – Alfonso X (the Wise) allies himself with
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq, ruler of the
Marinid Sultanate, who crosses the straits, and establishes a camp at
Zahara de la Sierra, in southern
Spain. Alfonso offers the Castilian royal crown of his father and grandfathers as a pledge of re-payment of a loan. Out of pity, Abu Yusuf gives him 100,000 gold dinars.[23]
August – Castilian forces under Sancho lay siege to Badajoz, who eventually retreat as the combined armies of Alfonso X (the Wise) relieve the city. Shortly after, Alfonso marches to
Córdoba and demands the key of the city. This is refused by
Diego López V de Haro, speaking on behalf of the magnates. Meanwhile, the Marinids plunder the
Guadalquivir valley.
August 30 – Peter III (the Great) traveling with his fleet on a military expedition against
Tunis, ends up in the Sicilian town of
Trapani, after he was asked by the inhabitants of
Palermo to help in the fight against Charles I.[24]
September or October –
Battle of Lake Hód: Hungarian forces led by King
Ladislaus IV successfully repel and defeat an invading Cuman army. Ladislaus receives the title "the Cuman" for his heroic victory.[26]
November – Castilian forces under Alfonso X (the Wise) reconquer Córdoba. Pope Martin IV issues a papal bull, forcing Sancho and his nobles to proclaim their allegiance to Alfonso ending the rebellion.
Dutch forces led by
Floris V, count of
Holland, attack and defeat the
West Frisians at the battle of
Vronen. He succeeds in retrieving the body of his father,
William II, some 26 years dead.
King
Stefan Dragutin breaks his leg while hunting and becomes ill. He abdicates the throne in favor of his younger brother,
Stefan Milutin, who becomes ruler of
Serbia (until
1321).
The form for the
Trial of the Pyx, during which it is confirmed that newly
minted coins conform to required standards, is established.
The first evidence is discovered of the existence of consolidated public debt in
Bruges, confirming the expansion of use of
annuities, to fund government expenditure to the
Low Countries.[31]
Nature
The most recent eruption of
Larderello, a volcano in southern
Tuscany, is observed.
Technology
The technology of
watermarks is introduced by paper manufacturers of
Bologna, Italy.
July 8 –
Battle of Malta: An Aragonese fleet (some 20 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria attacks and defeats the Angevin ships in the
Grand Harbour, sent to help put down a rebellion on
Malta. Lauria lands his troops at the harbour and after two days raises his banner on the fortified city of
Mdina ("Old City").
The first regulated
Catalan Courts are reunited by King
Peter III, for the whole
Principality of Catalonia. It became one of the first medieval parliaments that bans the royal power to create legislation unilaterally.
King
Philip III of France ("the Bold") outlaws Jews from residence in the small villages and rural localities of
France, causing a mass migration.
February 13–
14 –
Battle of Thị Nại Bay: A Mongol-led
Yuan expeditionary force (some 5,000 men) lands on the beach, near
Champa's capital
Vijaya in
Vietnam. Despite being outnumbered, the Yuan invaders break the Cham defensive line and force King
Indravarman V to retreat to the
Western Highlands, where he wages a successful guerrilla campaign against the occupying Yuan forces.[40]
Mongol invasion of Burma: Mongol forces besiege the fortress at Ngasaunggyan on
September 23. The Burmese garrison withstands the siege for two months, but finally falls to the invaders on
December 3. The defeat breaks the morale of the Burmese defenses. Kaungsin, the next fortress in line, falls just six days later.[41]
The German city of
Goslar starts making efforts to redeem its already issued
annuities, a sure indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the 13th century crisis.[44]
Aragonese Crusade: The first French armies under King
Philip III (the Bold) and his 14-year-old son
Charles of Valois enter
Roussillon. They include 16,000 cavalry, 17,000 crossbowmen, and 100,000 infantry, along with 100 ships in south French ports. Though they have the support of
James II, ruler of
Majorca, the local populace rises against them.
Elne is valiantly defended by Aragonese troops, but the French occupy the city, and burn the cathedral, while the population is massacred.
April 4 – King
Alfonso X (the Wise) falls ill and dies after a 32-year reign at
Seville. He is succeeded by his 25-year-old son
Sancho IV (the Brave) who becomes ruler of
Castile and
León. Meanwhile, his nephew,
Alfonso de la Cerda, challenges his right to the Castilian throne. Pope
Martin IV excommunicates Sancho, he placed an interdict on his kingdom and refuses to acknowledge the marriage to his cousin, Queen
María de Molina.[45]
June 5 –
Battle of the Gulf of Naples: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 30 galleys) led by Admiral
Roger of Lauria surrounds and defeats the Neapolitan ships in the
Gulf of Naples. King
Charles II (the Lame) is captured during the battle, disorganized, the remnants of the Neapolitan fleet (between 15 and 18 galleys) flees back to
Naples.
King
Rudolf I imposes a
trade embargo on
Norway, due to the latter pillaging a German ship. The embargo cuts off vital supplies of grain, flour, vegetables and beer, causing a general
famine in Norway.[46]
March 3 –
Statute of Rhuddlan: King
Edward I (Longshanks) brings
Wales under direct rule after the
Welsh Wars (1277–1283). He appoints sheriffs and bailiffs for the northern territories while the southern areas are left under the control of the
Marcher Lords. English law is introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh are allowed to maintain their customary laws in some cases of property disputes.[48][49][50]
Edward I (Longshanks) arranges a
Round Table event and tournament at
Nefyn in Wales. He promises the Welsh that he will provide them with a
Prince of Wales.
King
Peter III (the Great) takes advantage of the weakness of the Hafsid Dynasty and raids the island of
Djerba. Aragonese forces massacre the population and occupy the island.
By topic
Art and Culture
Construction of
Beauvais Cathedral is interrupted by a partial collapse of the
choir; the event unnerves French masons working in the
Gothic style.
Aragonese Crusade: French forces led by King
Philip III (the Bold) entrench before
Girona, in an attempt to besiege the city. Despite strong resistance, the city is eventually taken on
September 7. Philip's son, the 15-year-old
Charles of Valois, is crowned as king of
Aragon (under the vassalage of the
Holy See) but without an actual crown. Shortly after, the French camp is racked by an epidemic of
dysentery and Philip is forced to retreat.[54]
May – King
Sancho IV (the Brave) assembles his army at Seville and sends the Castilian fleet (some 100 ships) led by Admiral
Benedetto I Zaccaria to blockade the mouth of the
Guadalquivir River. Meanwhile, a Marinid detachment of 1,000 cavalry moves against Seville, routing the Castilians send out to oppose them. Turning eastward against Carmona and
Alcalá de Guadaíra, the Marinids burn the suburbs, harvest and ruin orchards.
May 22 – Marinid forces under Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq prolong their siege at Jerez de la Frontera. He sends his son
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr with 5,000 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, some 13,000 infantry and 2,000 archers to raid Seville and its environs on
June 1. During June and early July, the Marinids assault daily Jerez while raiding parties pillage the countryside at Carmona,
Niebla, Écija, Seville and
Sanlúcar de Barrameda.[56]
August – Castilian forces led by Sancho IV (the Brave) march against the Marinids at Jerez de la Frontera. Meanwhile, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq with his army of 18,000 cavalry and faced with dwindling supplies, decides to lift the siege after five months, on
August 2. He withdraws his army to the safety of
Algeciras and opens negotiations with Sancho while the Castilian fleet arrives at
El Puerto de Santa Maria (or "The port of
Saint Mary").[57]
September 4 –
Battle of Les Formigues: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 40 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria defeats French and Genoese ships near the
Formigues Islands. According to
Johan Esteve de Bezers, a French
troubadour, all prisoners but one have their eyes gouged out, and that one is left with one eye to guide the others. After the battle, Roger captures about 15 to 20 French galleys, and others are sunk or burnt.
October 1 –
Battle of the Col de Panissars: Aragonese forces under King
Peter III (the Great) ambush and defeat a French expeditionary army while it was retreating over the
Pyrenees. The French troops are massacred by the Aragonese vanguard at the Panissar Pass, but spared the royal family. Philip III (the Bold) arrives with his fatigued remnants in
Perpignan, where he dies of dysentery on
October 5.
November 2 – Peter III (the Great) dies after a 9-year reign at
Vilafranca del Penedès. He is succeeded by his 20-year-old son
Alfonso III (the Liberal), who becomes king of
Aragon. Peter's other son
James II (the Just), is crowned ruler of
Sicily. His third son, the 13-year-old
Frederick, becomes co-ruler and
regent of Sicily.[58]
The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King
Edward I (Longshanks), defines the jurisdictions of church and state, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
Levant
April 17 – Mamluk forces under Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) appear with specially built war engines before the Crusader fortress of
Margat and begin a siege. For a month, the Mamluks can make no progress and the assaults on the stronghold are repelled. Qalawun then invites a delegation of
Knights Hospitaller to come and see the damage his engineers have done to the 'impregnable' fortifications. They understood they have no real choice and are forced to surrender on
May 25. The Hospitallers are allowed to retire with all their possessions, on horseback and fully armed. The rest of the garrison is promised a safe-conduct to
Tortosa – while Qalawun establishes a Mamluk garrison which he uses as a basis for further campaigns against the
Crusader States.[59]
Asia
June 24 –
Battle of Chương Dương: Joint forces of
Champa and
Đại Việt defeat the Mongol-led Yuan fleet on the
Red River. Most of the Yuan warships are burned during the battle, and the Mongol army retreats to
China in late June. The Vietnamese royal court returns to the capital in
Thang Long following a six-month conflict.[60]
The first record is made of an emission of
life annuities, by the city of
Lübeck. It is the first instance of issue of public debt in
Germany, and it confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt over north-western
Europe (see
1228).[61]
The
County of Champagne is integrated into the kingdom of
France; the region loses its haven characteristics for foreign merchants, and the
Fairs of Troyes quickly dwindle into economic insignificance.[62]
Religion
January 6 – Archbishop
Jakub Świnka organizes a synod in
Łęczyca. During the meeting, he orders all priests who are subject to his bishopric to deliver their sermons in Polish rather than German. This further unifies the
Catholic Church in
Poland and fosters a national identity.
January 6 – The 17-year-old
Philip IV (the Fair) is crowned king of
France at
Reims. He settles the Aragonese conflict (see
1285), and intensifies his predecessors' efforts to reform and rationalize the administration of the realm. Philip persists in reforms, which strengthen the monarchy's position in
Europe. The
gabelle – a tax on
salt in the form of a
state monopoly – will become immensely unpopular and grossly unequal, but persist until
1790.[64]
June – King
Edward I (Longshanks) and Queen
Eleanor of Castile travel to France. There they pay homage to Philip IV (the Fair) and attend to other matters. Edward travels around in the duchy of
Gascony and orders the rebuilding of fortifications in the region (between 1286 and 1289).
Levant
June 4 – The 15-year-old
Henry II sails from
Cyprus and lands in
Acre, but is refused entry into the citadel. There, he stays for six weeks in the palace to negotiate an agreement to take over the city from the Angevins.[69]
August 15 – Henry II is crowned king of
Jerusalem at
Tyre. After the ceremony, he returns to Acre for the festivities. A few weeks later, Henry returns to Cyprus and appoints his uncle
Philip of Ibelin as
regent (
bailiff).[70]
In the
Lao kingdom of
Muang Sua, King Panya Leng is overthrown in a
coup d'état led by his son, Prince Panya Khamphong, which is likely to have been supported by the Mongol-led
Yuan Dynasty in
China.
January 17 – Aragonese forces led by King
Alfonso III (the Liberal) conquer the island of
Menorca. He signs the "Treaty of San Agayz" with Sultan
Abû 'Umar ibn Sa'îd on
January 21. Alfonso accepts a policy of free trade for merchants and their property. He also concludes an alliance against the Marinids with
Abu Said Uthman I, ruler of the Zayyanid
Kingdom of Tlemcen (modern
Algeria). He proposes to supply him with five to ten galleys (with food and other goods) in exchange for 500 elite Zayyanid horsemen.[72]
Alfonso III (the Liberal) is forced to make concessions to the nobility after an aristocratic uprising (called the
Union of Aragon). In particular, he grants his barons a "Bill of Rights", known as the Privilegium Generale. This leaves a heritage of disunity and further dissent among the nobility, who increasingly see little reason to respect the throne, and brings the
Crown of Aragon to the point of anarchy. Alfonso, who is not pleased with the anti-royalist movement, is forced to accept the Magna Carta (Great Charter).[73]
June –
Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, travels from
Constantinople to
Italy. There he arrives in Naples and witnesses a sea battle in the harbour between the Aragonese and the Angevin fleets. Bar Sauma goes to
Rome, but arrives too late to meet Pope
Honorius IV, who recently died. He instead is engaged in negotiations with the cardinals, who are in a conclave to elect a successor, and visits the
St. Peter's Basilica. Bar Sauma goes to
Genoa, where he receives a warm welcome.[74]
June 23 –
Battle of the Counts: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 50 galleys) under Admiral
Roger of Lauria defeat a larger Angevin fleet of 70 galleys near
Naples. After a
feigned retreat, Roger attacks the Angevin galleys from all sides. During the battle, which last much of the day, the Angevin fleet is scattered, leaving about 40 galleys to be captured, along with 5,000 prisoners. After the victory, without any authorization from King
James II, Roger makes a truce with the Neapolitans (who are allies of the Angevins).
September – Rabban Bar Sauma arrives in
Paris, and is received in an audience by King
Philip IV (the Fair). He spends one month at the royal court, during his stay, Philip himself escorts him around the
Sainte-Chapelle (or Holy Chapel) to see the collection of
Passion relics by late King
Louis IX (the Saint). Philip gives Bar Sauma many presents and sends one of his noblemen,
Gobert de Helleville, to return with him to Mongol lands. In response, he attempts to form a military alliance with
France and
England.[75]
December 14 – A huge storm and associated storm tide in the
North Sea and
English Channel, known as
St. Lucia's flood in the
Netherlands, kills thousands and reshapes the coastline of the Netherlands and
England. In the Netherlands, a fringing barrier between the North Sea and a shallow lake collapses, causing the fifth-largest flood in recorded history – which creates the
Zuider Zee inlet, and kills over 50,000 people. It also gives sea access to
Amsterdam, allowing its development as an important port city.
Winter –
Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongol forces (some 30,000 men) under
Talabuga Khan and
Nogai Khan, attack
Poland for the third time. The cities of
Lublin,
Sandomierz and
Sieradz are devastated by the invaders. Nogai Khan besieges
Kraków and launches an unsuccessful assault on the fortified city, suffering heavy casualties in the process.
England
February –
South England flood: A large storm hits the south coast, this has a powerful effect on the
Cinque Ports, two of which are hit (
Hastings and
New Romney). The storm destroys Old
Winchelsea on
Romney Marsh and nearby
Broomhill. The course of the
Rother River is diverted away from New Romney, which is almost destroyed, ending its role as a port; the Rother runs instead to the sea at
Rye – whose prospects as a port are enhanced. A cliff collapses at Hastings, ending its role as a trade harbor and demolishing a part of
Hastings Castle. New Winchelsea is established on higher ground.[76]
June 8 – Welsh forces led by
Rhys ap Maredudd revolt in
Wales against King
Edward I (Longshanks). Although Maredudd has assisted the English in the past, he accuses Edward of treating him unfairly over taxes. The rebels burn several towns, including
Swansea and
Carmarthen. They capture most of
Ystrad Tywi, heartland of
Deheubarth (the revolt will not be suppressed until
1288).
Summer – Edward I (Longshanks) replies to the Welsh rebellion by raising an army at
Gloucester commanded by
Edmund of Almain. The English forces besiege
Dryslwyn Castle, which lasts for three weeks before the castle falls after the curtain walls are undermined. Rhys ap Maredudd manages to escape and goes into hiding before the stronghold is finally captured in late September.
December – Parts of
Norfolk are flooded, the port of
Dunwich in
Suffolk is further devastated, and in
The Fens through the storm and the violence of the sea, the monastery of
Spalding and many churches are overthrown and destroyed: "The whole country in the
parts of Holland was, for the most part, turned into a standing pool so that an intolerable multitude of men, women and children were overwhelmed with the water, especially in the town of
Boston, a great part thereof was destroyed."[77]
Middle East
Spring –
Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the
Ilkhanate, sends an embassy under Rabban Bar Sauma with the mission of contracting a military alliance against the
Mamluk Sultanate and take the city of
Jerusalem. He travels with a large retinue (bearing gifts and letters) and 30 riding animals from
Tabriz through
Armenia to
Trebizond. Bar Sauma arrives in Constantinople and receives an audience with Emperor
Andronikos II (Palaiologos).[78]
March – Mamluk forces under Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) capture
Latakia, last remnant of the
Principality of Antioch. The city port falls easily into his hands, but the defenders retire to the citadel at the mouth of the harbour. Finally, Qalawun forces the Crusader garrison to surrender on
April 20.[79]
Winter – Two unidentified 'merchants' travel from
Alexandria to
Cairo to warn Qalawun of the economic dangers posed by Genoese domination in the eastern
Mediterranean, which leaves the Mamluk trade at their mercy. Qalawun accepts the invitation to intervene, and breaks the truce with Tripoli.[81]
May 14 –
Nayan, Mongol prince of the
Borjigin clan, revolts against the rule of
Kublai Khan. Kublai leads a punitive expedition against Nayan in
Manchuria and defeats his forces on
July 16.
December –
Battle of Pagan: Mongol-led Yuan forces (some 7,000 cavalry) led by
Temür Khan defeat King
Thihathu of the Pagan Kingdom. The kingdom disintegrates and anarchy ensues.
The Altar of St. James in
Pistoia Cathedral, Italy – a masterwork of the
silversmithing trade containing nearly a ton of silver – is begun; it will not be completed for nearly 200 years.
Economy
The Italian city of
Siena exacts a forced loan from its taxpayers for the first time, a common feature of medieval public finance.[84]
April 3 – Pope
Honorius IV dies after a 2-year
pontificate at Rome. During his reign, he tries to restore
Sicily to papal vassalage, but Honorius clashes with King
Peter III (the Great), who supports Sicilian independence.
A civil war breaks out on
Gotland between the burghers of
Visby and the rural farmers of Gotland, while the exact reason for this war is unknown, the most likely reason is the construction of a large wall around visby and the introduction of a toll which the farmers were forced to pay.[86]
Summer – Sultan
Muhammad II drives the rebellious
Banu Ashqilula from one stronghold to the next, where they are finally expelled from Granadan territory in
Al-Andalus (modern
Spain). Meanwhile, Muhammad manages through diplomatic intrigue, to turn the Castilian aristocracy against King
Sancho IV (the Brave). In response, King
Alfonso III (the Liberal) proclaims the 18-year-old
Alfonso de la Cerda as ruler of
Castile and
León.[87]
August 8 – Pope
Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against the 26-year-old King
Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects in
Hungary, and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of
Western Europe. Meanwhile, the Hungarian government loses more power because the clergy and most of the nobles rule the kingdom independently.[88][89]
The
Parliament of Scotland creates a law allowing women to propose marriage to men during
leap years; men who refuse such proposals are required to pay a fine to the spurned bride-to-be.
Levant
Spring –
Genoa orders Admiral
Benedetto Zaccaria to send five galleys to support Genoese suzerainty of
Tripoli. Princess
Lucia, sister of the late Count
Bohemond VII, arrives in
Acre, where the
Knights Hospitaller escort her to the frontier with Tripoli. The
commune refuses to accept her as new ruler and places the city under Genoese protection. After negotiations, Lucia offers to confirm Genoa's existing commercial privileges in Tripoli.[91]
The Flemish city of
Ghent seeks rights to start redeeming its already issued annuities. It is a clear indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the crisis of the 13th Century.[93]
March–April –
Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, arrives at Rome and is received by Nicholas IV, who gives him communion on
Palm Sunday.[94]
Technology
The oldest-known
bronzehandgun in the world is dated to this year, a Chinese gun found in
Acheng District, that was once used to suppress the rebellion of the Mongol prince
Nayan.
July 7 –
Battle of Copenhagen: A Norwegian expeditionary force under King
Eric II, supported by Danish outlaws, sets sail to
Copenhagen and attacks the city. But they are repelled and forced to withdraw to
Zealand.
Construction of
Conwy Castle in
Wales, ordered by Edward I (Longshanks), is completed.
Levant
February 9 – Sultan
Qalawun (the Victorious) marches the Mamluk army out of
Cairo, leaving his son
Al-Ashraf Khalil commanding Cairo's Citadel, supported by Viceroy
Baydara al-Mansuri. The army moves via
Salihiya, across
Sinai and through
Jordan to
Damascus. He orders the regional governors of
Syria to mobilize in Damascus, where many infantry volunteers have assembled.[97]
March – The 19-year-old King
Henry II sends his younger brother
Almalric, with a company of knights and 4 galleys to
Tripoli (modern
Lebanon). Meanwhile, many non-combatant citizens flee to
Cyprus. The Mamluk army arrives before Tripoli and begins the attack with siege engines, while building buches (wooden defensive structures) outside the city on
March 25.[98]
April 26 –
Siege of Tripoli: Mamluk forces under Qalawun (the Victorious) capture Tripoli after a month-long siege, thus extinguishing the
County of Tripoli. Qalawun orders the city to be razed to the ground, a widespread massacre kills every man found by the Mamluks, while the women and children are taken as slaves.[99]
July–August – Admiral
Benedetto Zaccaria, having escaped from Tripoli, starts a naval campaign against Mamluk shipping and raids
Tinnis in
Egypt. In response, Qalawun closes
Alexandria to Genoese merchants.[100]
In
Siena, twenty-three partners, including five members of the
Bonsignori family, re-create the
Gran Tavola, formerly the most successful European bank, which had ceased its operations after the death of its creator and manager,
Orlando Bonsignori, in
1273.[101]
Significant people
This section is empty. You can help by
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