The
Arba'a Rukun Mosque is completed in Mogadishu. The Arba'a Rukun Mosque (Arabic: أربع روكون), also known as Arba Rucun, is a mosque in the medieval district Shangani, Mogadishu, Somalia.[4]
May 21 – Kublai sends his envoy Hao Jing to negotiate with
Song Dynasty Chancellor Jia Sidao, after the small force left by Kublai south of the
Yangtze River is destroyed, by a Chinese army of the
Southern Song Dynasty. Chancellor Jia Sidao imprisons the entire embassy of Kublai. This slight will not be forgotten by Kublai, but he is unable to assault the Song, due to the civil war with his rival brother
Ariq Böke.[citation needed]
Croatia is divided into two sub-regions ruled by
ban: the Croatian region on the south and Slavonian region on the north, by King
Béla IV of Hungary.[16][17]
German
musical theoristFranco of Cologne publishes Ars Cantus Mensurabilis, in which he advances a new theory of musical notation, in which the length of a musical note is denoted by the shape of that note, a system still used today.[22][23]
July – Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends his general
Alexios Strategopoulos with a small advance force of 800 soldiers, most of them Cumans, to keep watch on the Bulgarians and scout the defending positions of the Latin forces in the surroundings of Constantinople. When they reach the village of
Selymbria, Strategopoulos is informed by local farmers that the entire Latin garrison and the Venetian fleet, are absent conducting a raid against the Nicaean island of
Daphnousia. He decides not to lose such a golden opportunity and makes plans (without the consent of Michael) to retake the capital.[30]
July 25 –
Reconquest of Constantinople: Alexios Strategopoulos and his men hide at a monastery near the city gates, before entering through a secret passage. After a short struggle, the guards who are completely taken by surprise are killed and the Venetian quarter is set ablaze. Panic spreads through the capital and Emperor
Baldwin II rushes out to save his life, evacuating along with many other Latins with the help of the Venetian fleet. Baldwin manages to escape to the still Latin-held parts of
Greece, but Constantinople is lost for good.[31]
August 15 – Michael VIII (Palaiologos) enters Constantinople in triumph and is crowned as emperor of the
Byzantine Empire at the
Hagia Sophia. To solidify his claim, the legitimate ruler,
John IV (Laskaris), is blinded on Michael's orders on his 11th birthday. He banishes him to a monastery and marries his two sisters to lesser Latin and Bulgarian nobles in an attempt to wipe out the
Laskarid Dynasty.[32]
Mongol Empire
Kublai Khan releases 75 Chinese merchants, who were captured along the border of the
Mongol Empire. By doing this, Kublai hopes to bolster his popularity and depend on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army receives more resources.[33]
June 12 – King
Henry III obtains a
papal bull to absolve himself from his oath to maintain the
Provisions of Oxford. He hires an army of 300 French knights as a bodyguard and takes up position in the
Tower of London. He dismisses the baronial officials (led by
Simon de Montfort) who wish the royal power to be modified by the principle of representation. This sets the stage for the
Second Barons' War.[35]
Berke–Hulagu War: Mongol forces under
Berke Khan, ruler of the
Golden Horde, raid territory in the
Caucasus belonging to his cousin
Hulagu Khan, ruler of the
Ilkhanate. Berke supports the Georgian rebels and allies with the Mamluks. He defeats the Ilkhanate forces on the
Terek River, together with the Mamluk army led by
Baibars (or Abu al-Futuh), saving
Palestine and
Arabia from Ilkhanate occupation.
September 14 – Castilian-Leonese forces led by Alfonso X (the Wise) conquer
Cádiz, the city has been under Moorish rule since
711. The Muslims are ousted, and Alfonso repopulates the region (also called the
Repoblación).[37]
The
Venetian Senate starts consolidating all of the city's outstanding debt into a single fund, later known as the Monte Vecchio. The holders of the newly created prestiti are promised a 5% annual coupon. These claims can be sold, and quickly (before
1320) give rise to the first recorded secondary market for financial assets, in
Medieval Europe.[38]
Religion
Richard of Chichester is
canonized as a saint; he is best known for authoring the prayer later adapted into the song Day by Day, in the musical Godspell.
Summer – Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (some 3,500 men) led by his half-brother,
Constantine Palaiologos, to the
Peloponnese in southern
Greece. The army is transported to
Monemvasia on Genoese ships, while a small Byzantine fleet is sent to harass the Latin island holdings in
Euboea and the
Cyclades. After arriving at Monemvasia, Constantine lays siege to
Lacedaemon (or Sparta), while the Byzantine fleet seizes the southern coast of
Laconia.[40]
Battle of Prinitza: Constantine Palaiologos marches the Byzantine army up the rivers
Eurotas and
Alfeios towards the Achaean capital,
Andravida. At a narrow pass at Prinitza (near
Ancient Olympia) in
Elis, the Byzantines are attacked by Achaean forces (some 300 horsemen) under
John of Katavas, who inflict a resounding defeat upon them; many Byzantine soldiers are killed. Constantine himself barely escapes with his life, and flees with the remainder of his army to the safety of
Mystras.[41][42]
Battle of Settepozzi: A Byzantine-Genoese fleet (some 50 galleys) is routed by the Venetians near
Spetses in the
Argolic Gulf, who capture four ships and inflict considerable casualties. Later, the Genoese that survive the battle managed to capture
Chania on
Crete. They receive orders to avoid direct confrontations with the Venetian fleet, but instead are engaged in raiding against the Venetian merchant convoys in the
Euripus Strait.[43]
Europe
July –
Scottish–Norwegian War: King
Haakon IV (the Old) assembles a fleet (some 120 warships), and sets sail to defend the
Hebrides, in an attempt to reassert Norwegian sovereignty over the
Western Isles of
Scotland. Haakon stops at the
Isle of Arran – where in August negotiations are started with the 21-year-old King
Alexander III. The talks are prolonged by the Scots until the autumn storms begin.[44]
December –
Magnus VI (the Law-mender) succeeds his father Haakon IV (the Old) as king of
Norway. The chieftains of the eastern part of
Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to Magnus – bringing a more complete end to the
Icelandic Commonwealth and the
Age of the Sturlungs.
Mindaugas (Mendog), the only Christian king of
Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin
Treniota. The country reverts to
paganism and loses its status as a kingdom. Treniota usurps the throne (until
1264).
Winter – King
Alfonso X (the Wise) conquers
Niebla from the Moors – terminating any Muslim presence in the western region of
Spain.[46]
England
Baronial forces led by
Robert de Ferrers and
Henry de Montfort lay siege to
Worcester. The attackers finally enter the city and are allowed to sack the city, The Jewish community is also targeted by the attackers. Most of them are killed. The Worcester massacre is part of a wider campaign by allies of
Simon de Montfort at the start of the
Second Barons' War.[47]
Levant
April 4 – Egyptian forces led by Sultan
Baibars (or Abu al-Futuh) attack
Acre, there is severe fighting outside the walls, in which the seneschal,
Geoffrey of Sergines, is badly wounded. Baibars is not yet ready to besiege the city and begins a major campaign to eliminate the Crusader kingdom of
Jerusalem, the county of
Tripoli and the principality of
Antioch.[48][49]
Edward (the Lord Edward), son and heir of King
Henry III, seizes £10,000, which had been deposited to the trust of the
Knights Templar in London, by foreign merchants and English magnates.[50]
The
Bonsignori firm gains the full market of the transfer of fiscal revenue, from the papal estates to
Rome.[51]
Spring –
Battle of Makryplagi:
Constantine Palaiologos, half-brother of Emperor
Michael III (Palaiologos), resumes operations against the
Principality of Achaea. He advances up in northern
Elis, and sets up his camp at a location called "St. Nicholas of Mesiskli". Prince
William II of Villehardouin with his own troops march to meet him and arrays his men ready for battle. The Byzantine vanguard under
Michael Kantakouzenos, ride forth from the Byzantine lines, but the force is ambushed and Michael is killed by the Achaeans. Constantine retreats and goes on to lay siege to the fortress of
Nikli. There, Turkish mercenaries (some 1,000 horsemen), confront him and demand that he pay them their arrears of 6 months. Constantine refuses, whereupon the Turkish troops desert to William. He decides to raise the siege and departs for
Constantinople. He leaves
Alexios Philes with a force and marches towards
Messenia, where he occupies the passes, situated near
Gardiki Castle. William, reinforced by the Turkish contingent, marches to Messenia to attack the Byzantines, despite their holding strong positions on the high ground. The first two attacks are beaten off, but during the third attack, the Byzantines flee in panic. Alexios, along with many Greek nobles, are captured.[52]
Europe
January 23 – King
Louis IX (the Saint) issues the
Mise of Amiens, a settlement between King
Henry III and his rebellious barons under
Simon de Montfort, heavily favouring the former – which leads to the
Second Barons' War.[53] At
Amiens, Henry accuses the barons of destroying his castles and laying waste to royal lands. For this he demands a compensation of some £300,000 and 200,000 marks, which is defended by Louis.[54]
August 14 –
Battle of Saseno: The Genoese fleet (16 galleys) manages to trick and capture an entire Venetian trade convoy near
Saseno Island off the coast of
Albania. The captured merchandise and ships are valued at more than 100,000
Genoese pounds, an enormous sum for the period, of which 30,000 goes into the Genoese treasury through the sale of the plunder.[57]
October 9 – Castilian forces under Alfonso X (the Wise) counter-attack and recapture Jerez de la Frontera, after a siege. The rebel-held towns of
Vejer de la Frontera,
Rota, and
Sanlúcar de Barrameda also fall to Alfonso. Muslims in the retaken towns are expelled and the mosques in Jerez are converted to churches. The region is settled by Christians from elsewhere.[58][59]
High Duke
Bolesław V (the Chaste) promulgates legal protection for Jewish communities in
Lesser Poland, including protection from kidnapping and forcible
baptism of Jewish children (approximate date).
British Isles
April 5 –
Battle of Northampton: English forces under
Roger Mortimer, advance over the water meadows south of
Northampton to attack its main gate with engines. Meanwhile, another party rides clockwise along the built-up area's western perimeter, looking for an easier entrance. While the townsmen entrust to hold up the initial attack, the outflanking detachment founds a breach in the garden wall of
St. Andrew's Priory, at the north of the town.
Simon de Montfort (the Younger), son of Simon de Montfort, reacts to the break-in – riding upon his horse with his squire, and some followers to contest the breach. But Simon is captured and throws the defenders into disarray. Simon de Montfort mounts a rearguard to relieve his son, but on
April 6 the castle falls.[62]
April 17–
19 – English rebels under Simon de Montfort beset
Rochester from two directions in a pincer movement from north and south. The garrison sortie burns the suburbs to deprive the rebels of cover. Initial assaults on the bridge the next morning are repulsed by
Roger de Leybourne. In the evening, however, supported by archers shooting across the river, Simon launches an amphibious assault, wind and current carrying his
fireship across to set fire to the bridge defenses. The rebels capture the castle's outer bailey and the garrison retires inside the keep on
April 19. Meanwhile, rebels under
Gilbert de Clare (the Red Earl) occupy the cathedral. The siege then boggs down, Simon receives reports of a relief force and orders to withdraw on
April 26.[63]
April – Gilbert de Clare (the Red Earl) leads a massacre of the Jews at
Canterbury, during the outbreak of the
Second Barons' War.[64] In the meantime, another of de Montfort's followers,
John FitzJohn, leads a massacre against the Jews in
London.[65] The Jewish communities of Northampton,
Winchester,
Cambridge, and
Lincoln are looted. The archæ (official chest of records) is destroyed or deposited at the headquarters of de Montfort's supporters at
Ely.[66]
May 14 –
Battle of Lewes: English rebels led by Simon de Montfort defeat Henry III and Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward), at
Lewes. Henry leaves the safety of
Lewes Castle and
St. Pancras Priory, to engage the rebels. Edward routes part of the rebel army (some 5,000 men) with a cavalry charge, but during the battle de Montfort's forces capture both Henry and Edward, making Simon the "uncrowned king of
England" for 15 months.[67]
May – Simon de Montfort marches on London but the drawbridge on
London Bridge has been raised by the
Lord Mayor. Simon has the support of the Londoners, who manage to lower the bridge allowing him into the city. Henry III is forced to pardon the rebel nobles and reinstates the
Provisions of Oxford. With Henry's power diminished, Simon announces that all debts owed to the Jews would be canceled.[68]
June – Simon de Montfort summons
Parliament in London to confirm new constitutional arrangements. Two knights are summoned for each county, and are allowed to comment on general matters of state – the first time this has occurred. In
France, Queen
Eleanor of Provence, wife of Henry III, makes plans for an invasion of England with the support of Louis IX (the Saint).[69]
The
Toluid Civil War ends:
Kublai Khan defeats his brother and
pretender to the title of "Great Khan",
Ariq Böke, who surrenders to Kublai on
August 24. He is imprisoned and with the Chinese support behind him, Kublai is acknowledged by the rulers of the western khanates and as sole ruler of the
Mongol Empire. He moves his capital from
Shangdu in
Inner Mongolia, to the Chinese city of
Dadu (modern-day
Beijing).
Asia
February – The Japanese era
Kōchō ends and the
Bun'ei era begins during the reign of the 14-year-old Emperor
Kameyama (until
1275).
August 4 –
Second Barons' War: The
Battle of Evesham is fought in
Worcestershire, with the army of Edward defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, resulting in the death of Montfort and many of his allies. This is sometimes considered the death of
chivalry in England.[74]
In the first major battle in five years (since the
Song Dynasty Chinese pushed the forces of
Kublai Khan back across the
Yangzi River, after
Möngke Khan's failed invasion in
1259), Kublai Khan engages the Chinese in
Sichuan province. Kublai gains a preliminary victory, and war booty of 146 captured Song Dynasty naval ships.[77]
January 2 –
Siege of Murcia: King
James I of Aragon (the Conqueror) marches with his army from
Orihuela and lays siege at
Murcia on the
Segura River. Skirmishes break out between the defenders and the Aragonese forces. The Muslim garrison, realizing that they are outnumbered and cut off from reinforcements, asks for terms. James offers to ask King
Alfonso X of Castile (the Wise) to restore the Murcians' legal rights (see
1244) from before the rebellion: self-government under Castilian suzerainty, freedom of worship, and preservation of lands and properties. They agree to this offer but request Alfonso's explicit agreement rather than just James' promise to ask him. James refuses to get Alfonso's agreement before the city surrenders. Finally, the Moors yield Murcia to James on
January 31. Seeing his standard on the walls, James enters the city on
February 3, accepting its surrender.[88]
February 26 –
Battle of Benevento: Guelph forces (some 12,000 men), led by
Charles of Anjou, brother of King
Louis IX (the Saint), defeat a combined German and Sicilian army under King
Manfred of Sicily, during a long-running power struggle in
Italy. Manfred takes up a strong position near
Benevento. As the French infantry advances, he unleashes his Saracen archers and light cavalry, which scatters the French. But the Saracens leave themselves exposed to the French heavy cavalry, and are overwhelmed. Manfred orders his heavy cavalry (some 1,200 German mercenary knights) into the attack, but they are defeated by the Guelph forces, and take heavy losses. Manfred is killed, and Pope
Clement IV invests Charles as ruler of
Sicily and
Naples. Meanwhile,
Michael II, despot of
Epirus, invades
Albania, and recovers the lands that Manfred has taken from him.[89]
June – The
Mudéjar Revolt ends. The rebels make their formal submission to Alfonso X (the Wise). They recognize the error that the Moors of Murcia have committed against their overlord Alfonso. Representatives of the aljama, or municipal council, renew their allegiance and humbly beg for pardon, mercy and favour. With this, the Mudéjar uprising in the
Kingdom of Murcia is formally ended.[90]
June 23 –
Battle of Trapani: The Venetian fleet (24 galleys) led by Admiral
Jacopo Dondulo moves to
Marsala and attacks the larger Genoese fleet anchored at
Trapani, capturing all its ships. Some 1,200 Genoese drown and many are killed. Dondulo is acclaimed a hero on his return to
Venice in July. He is elected as
Captain General of the Sea, Venice's highest naval command position.[91]
July 23 –
Siege of Safed: Mamluk forces capture the castle of
Safed, defended by a garrison of 1,700 men (including some 500
Knights Templar), after a 6-week siege. Sultan
Baibars promises
safe conduct but when the Christians and Templars are on their way towards
Acre, they are seized and beheaded.[93]
October 28 – A Crusader advance guard is ambushed by the Egyptian garrison of Safed, while local Arabs attack the Crusader camp. The 13-year-old
Hugh II, ruler of
Cyprus, is advised to retire and withdraw with heavy losses. Meanwhile, Baibars campaigns in
Galilee and leads a lightning raid to
Tripoli.[94]
Asia
Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, father and uncle of
Marco Polo, reach the Mongol capital
Khanbaliq (modern-day
Beijing), setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition 5 years later.
Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message, requesting that Clement IV dispatch western scholars to teach in the
Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
America
In the modern-day
United States, a period of drought begins in the
Four Corners Region (this period is up until the year
1299), putting an end to the ancient
Puebloans Civilization.
By topic
Economics
In
France, the
goldécu (or crown) and
silvergrosh coins are minted for the first time during the reign of Louis IX (the Saint).
Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to
Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of
mathematics,
optics,
alchemy,
astronomy,
astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a
magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The
1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at
Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around
1220.[100][101]
The leadership of
Vienna forces
Jews to wear Pileum cornutum, a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the
yellow badges Jews are already forced to wear.[102]
Spain attempts an invasion of
Morocco, but the Muslim empire
Marinid Sultanate successfully defend against the invasion, and drive out Spanish forces.[107]
New election procedures for the election of the
doge are established in
Venice, in order to reduce the influence of powerful individual families and possibly to prevent the popular
Lorenzo Tiepolo from becoming elected.[115]
Pope Clement IV dies; the following
papal election fails to choose a new pope for almost three years, precipitating the later creation of stringent rules governing the electoral procedures.[116]
Kublai Khan sends an emissary to the
Kamakura shogunate of Japan, demanding an acknowledgment of suzerainty and payment of
tribute; the Japanese refuse, starting a diplomatic back-and-forth, lasting until the
Mongols attempt to invade in
1274.[123]
June 19 – King
Louis IX (the Saint) orders all Jews found in public, without an identifying
yellow badge, to be fined ten
livres of silver. He also confiscates goods from the Jewish population to fund the
Eighth Crusade.
September – An Aragonese contingent under King
James I (the Conqueror) sails from
Barcelona to the
Holy Land but is caught in a storm and badly damaged. One squadron reaches
Acre, but later returns to
Aragon.
Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward) obtains the right to levy a twentieth of the value of the Church's wealth to finance the
Ninth Crusade. That sum turns out to be insufficient, and Edward has to borrow to reach his target.[128]
Pierre de Maricourt, French mathematician and writer, performs a series of experiments with
magnetic poles and proposes that a machine can be run forever in perpetual motion using the properties of magnets.
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^Stanton, Charles D. (2015). Medieval Maritime Warfare, p. 165. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword.
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^Streitz, N.; Rizk, A.; Andre, J.; André, J. (1990).
"Links and Structures in Hypertext Databases for Law". Hypertext: Concepts, Systems and Applications: Proceedings of the First European Conference on Hypertext, INRIA, France, November 1990. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 194.
ISBN9780521405171.
^Small, Carola M. (2004).
"Battle of Tagliacozzo". In Kleinhenz, Christopher (ed.). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. New York and London: Routledge. p. 1068.
ISBN9781135948801.
^Bary, Wm. Theodore de; Gluck, Carol; Tiedemann, Arthur; Varley, Paul (2002).
"The Mongol Invasion of Japan". Sources of Japanese Tradition (Second: From Earliest Times to 1600 ed.). New York and Chichester, UK: Columbia University Press. p. 280.
ISBN9780231518055.
^Walford, Cornelius (1879) The famines of the world: past and present London, page 55,
OCLC38724391
^Lomnitz, Cinna (1974) Global Tectonics and Earthquake Risk Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co., Amsterdam,
ISBN0-444-41076-7
^Delph, Ronald K. (2007). Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F. (eds.).
Encyclopedia of World History. Facts on File Library of World History. Infobase Publishing. p. 326.
ISBN978-0-8160-6386-4.
^Runciman, Steven (1999) [1951].
A History of the Crusades. Vol. III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid: Cambridge University Press Archive. pp. 305–314.
ISBN978-0-521-34772-3.
The
Arba'a Rukun Mosque is completed in Mogadishu. The Arba'a Rukun Mosque (Arabic: أربع روكون), also known as Arba Rucun, is a mosque in the medieval district Shangani, Mogadishu, Somalia.[4]
May 21 – Kublai sends his envoy Hao Jing to negotiate with
Song Dynasty Chancellor Jia Sidao, after the small force left by Kublai south of the
Yangtze River is destroyed, by a Chinese army of the
Southern Song Dynasty. Chancellor Jia Sidao imprisons the entire embassy of Kublai. This slight will not be forgotten by Kublai, but he is unable to assault the Song, due to the civil war with his rival brother
Ariq Böke.[citation needed]
Croatia is divided into two sub-regions ruled by
ban: the Croatian region on the south and Slavonian region on the north, by King
Béla IV of Hungary.[16][17]
German
musical theoristFranco of Cologne publishes Ars Cantus Mensurabilis, in which he advances a new theory of musical notation, in which the length of a musical note is denoted by the shape of that note, a system still used today.[22][23]
July – Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends his general
Alexios Strategopoulos with a small advance force of 800 soldiers, most of them Cumans, to keep watch on the Bulgarians and scout the defending positions of the Latin forces in the surroundings of Constantinople. When they reach the village of
Selymbria, Strategopoulos is informed by local farmers that the entire Latin garrison and the Venetian fleet, are absent conducting a raid against the Nicaean island of
Daphnousia. He decides not to lose such a golden opportunity and makes plans (without the consent of Michael) to retake the capital.[30]
July 25 –
Reconquest of Constantinople: Alexios Strategopoulos and his men hide at a monastery near the city gates, before entering through a secret passage. After a short struggle, the guards who are completely taken by surprise are killed and the Venetian quarter is set ablaze. Panic spreads through the capital and Emperor
Baldwin II rushes out to save his life, evacuating along with many other Latins with the help of the Venetian fleet. Baldwin manages to escape to the still Latin-held parts of
Greece, but Constantinople is lost for good.[31]
August 15 – Michael VIII (Palaiologos) enters Constantinople in triumph and is crowned as emperor of the
Byzantine Empire at the
Hagia Sophia. To solidify his claim, the legitimate ruler,
John IV (Laskaris), is blinded on Michael's orders on his 11th birthday. He banishes him to a monastery and marries his two sisters to lesser Latin and Bulgarian nobles in an attempt to wipe out the
Laskarid Dynasty.[32]
Mongol Empire
Kublai Khan releases 75 Chinese merchants, who were captured along the border of the
Mongol Empire. By doing this, Kublai hopes to bolster his popularity and depend on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army receives more resources.[33]
June 12 – King
Henry III obtains a
papal bull to absolve himself from his oath to maintain the
Provisions of Oxford. He hires an army of 300 French knights as a bodyguard and takes up position in the
Tower of London. He dismisses the baronial officials (led by
Simon de Montfort) who wish the royal power to be modified by the principle of representation. This sets the stage for the
Second Barons' War.[35]
Berke–Hulagu War: Mongol forces under
Berke Khan, ruler of the
Golden Horde, raid territory in the
Caucasus belonging to his cousin
Hulagu Khan, ruler of the
Ilkhanate. Berke supports the Georgian rebels and allies with the Mamluks. He defeats the Ilkhanate forces on the
Terek River, together with the Mamluk army led by
Baibars (or Abu al-Futuh), saving
Palestine and
Arabia from Ilkhanate occupation.
September 14 – Castilian-Leonese forces led by Alfonso X (the Wise) conquer
Cádiz, the city has been under Moorish rule since
711. The Muslims are ousted, and Alfonso repopulates the region (also called the
Repoblación).[37]
The
Venetian Senate starts consolidating all of the city's outstanding debt into a single fund, later known as the Monte Vecchio. The holders of the newly created prestiti are promised a 5% annual coupon. These claims can be sold, and quickly (before
1320) give rise to the first recorded secondary market for financial assets, in
Medieval Europe.[38]
Religion
Richard of Chichester is
canonized as a saint; he is best known for authoring the prayer later adapted into the song Day by Day, in the musical Godspell.
Summer – Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (some 3,500 men) led by his half-brother,
Constantine Palaiologos, to the
Peloponnese in southern
Greece. The army is transported to
Monemvasia on Genoese ships, while a small Byzantine fleet is sent to harass the Latin island holdings in
Euboea and the
Cyclades. After arriving at Monemvasia, Constantine lays siege to
Lacedaemon (or Sparta), while the Byzantine fleet seizes the southern coast of
Laconia.[40]
Battle of Prinitza: Constantine Palaiologos marches the Byzantine army up the rivers
Eurotas and
Alfeios towards the Achaean capital,
Andravida. At a narrow pass at Prinitza (near
Ancient Olympia) in
Elis, the Byzantines are attacked by Achaean forces (some 300 horsemen) under
John of Katavas, who inflict a resounding defeat upon them; many Byzantine soldiers are killed. Constantine himself barely escapes with his life, and flees with the remainder of his army to the safety of
Mystras.[41][42]
Battle of Settepozzi: A Byzantine-Genoese fleet (some 50 galleys) is routed by the Venetians near
Spetses in the
Argolic Gulf, who capture four ships and inflict considerable casualties. Later, the Genoese that survive the battle managed to capture
Chania on
Crete. They receive orders to avoid direct confrontations with the Venetian fleet, but instead are engaged in raiding against the Venetian merchant convoys in the
Euripus Strait.[43]
Europe
July –
Scottish–Norwegian War: King
Haakon IV (the Old) assembles a fleet (some 120 warships), and sets sail to defend the
Hebrides, in an attempt to reassert Norwegian sovereignty over the
Western Isles of
Scotland. Haakon stops at the
Isle of Arran – where in August negotiations are started with the 21-year-old King
Alexander III. The talks are prolonged by the Scots until the autumn storms begin.[44]
December –
Magnus VI (the Law-mender) succeeds his father Haakon IV (the Old) as king of
Norway. The chieftains of the eastern part of
Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to Magnus – bringing a more complete end to the
Icelandic Commonwealth and the
Age of the Sturlungs.
Mindaugas (Mendog), the only Christian king of
Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin
Treniota. The country reverts to
paganism and loses its status as a kingdom. Treniota usurps the throne (until
1264).
Winter – King
Alfonso X (the Wise) conquers
Niebla from the Moors – terminating any Muslim presence in the western region of
Spain.[46]
England
Baronial forces led by
Robert de Ferrers and
Henry de Montfort lay siege to
Worcester. The attackers finally enter the city and are allowed to sack the city, The Jewish community is also targeted by the attackers. Most of them are killed. The Worcester massacre is part of a wider campaign by allies of
Simon de Montfort at the start of the
Second Barons' War.[47]
Levant
April 4 – Egyptian forces led by Sultan
Baibars (or Abu al-Futuh) attack
Acre, there is severe fighting outside the walls, in which the seneschal,
Geoffrey of Sergines, is badly wounded. Baibars is not yet ready to besiege the city and begins a major campaign to eliminate the Crusader kingdom of
Jerusalem, the county of
Tripoli and the principality of
Antioch.[48][49]
Edward (the Lord Edward), son and heir of King
Henry III, seizes £10,000, which had been deposited to the trust of the
Knights Templar in London, by foreign merchants and English magnates.[50]
The
Bonsignori firm gains the full market of the transfer of fiscal revenue, from the papal estates to
Rome.[51]
Spring –
Battle of Makryplagi:
Constantine Palaiologos, half-brother of Emperor
Michael III (Palaiologos), resumes operations against the
Principality of Achaea. He advances up in northern
Elis, and sets up his camp at a location called "St. Nicholas of Mesiskli". Prince
William II of Villehardouin with his own troops march to meet him and arrays his men ready for battle. The Byzantine vanguard under
Michael Kantakouzenos, ride forth from the Byzantine lines, but the force is ambushed and Michael is killed by the Achaeans. Constantine retreats and goes on to lay siege to the fortress of
Nikli. There, Turkish mercenaries (some 1,000 horsemen), confront him and demand that he pay them their arrears of 6 months. Constantine refuses, whereupon the Turkish troops desert to William. He decides to raise the siege and departs for
Constantinople. He leaves
Alexios Philes with a force and marches towards
Messenia, where he occupies the passes, situated near
Gardiki Castle. William, reinforced by the Turkish contingent, marches to Messenia to attack the Byzantines, despite their holding strong positions on the high ground. The first two attacks are beaten off, but during the third attack, the Byzantines flee in panic. Alexios, along with many Greek nobles, are captured.[52]
Europe
January 23 – King
Louis IX (the Saint) issues the
Mise of Amiens, a settlement between King
Henry III and his rebellious barons under
Simon de Montfort, heavily favouring the former – which leads to the
Second Barons' War.[53] At
Amiens, Henry accuses the barons of destroying his castles and laying waste to royal lands. For this he demands a compensation of some £300,000 and 200,000 marks, which is defended by Louis.[54]
August 14 –
Battle of Saseno: The Genoese fleet (16 galleys) manages to trick and capture an entire Venetian trade convoy near
Saseno Island off the coast of
Albania. The captured merchandise and ships are valued at more than 100,000
Genoese pounds, an enormous sum for the period, of which 30,000 goes into the Genoese treasury through the sale of the plunder.[57]
October 9 – Castilian forces under Alfonso X (the Wise) counter-attack and recapture Jerez de la Frontera, after a siege. The rebel-held towns of
Vejer de la Frontera,
Rota, and
Sanlúcar de Barrameda also fall to Alfonso. Muslims in the retaken towns are expelled and the mosques in Jerez are converted to churches. The region is settled by Christians from elsewhere.[58][59]
High Duke
Bolesław V (the Chaste) promulgates legal protection for Jewish communities in
Lesser Poland, including protection from kidnapping and forcible
baptism of Jewish children (approximate date).
British Isles
April 5 –
Battle of Northampton: English forces under
Roger Mortimer, advance over the water meadows south of
Northampton to attack its main gate with engines. Meanwhile, another party rides clockwise along the built-up area's western perimeter, looking for an easier entrance. While the townsmen entrust to hold up the initial attack, the outflanking detachment founds a breach in the garden wall of
St. Andrew's Priory, at the north of the town.
Simon de Montfort (the Younger), son of Simon de Montfort, reacts to the break-in – riding upon his horse with his squire, and some followers to contest the breach. But Simon is captured and throws the defenders into disarray. Simon de Montfort mounts a rearguard to relieve his son, but on
April 6 the castle falls.[62]
April 17–
19 – English rebels under Simon de Montfort beset
Rochester from two directions in a pincer movement from north and south. The garrison sortie burns the suburbs to deprive the rebels of cover. Initial assaults on the bridge the next morning are repulsed by
Roger de Leybourne. In the evening, however, supported by archers shooting across the river, Simon launches an amphibious assault, wind and current carrying his
fireship across to set fire to the bridge defenses. The rebels capture the castle's outer bailey and the garrison retires inside the keep on
April 19. Meanwhile, rebels under
Gilbert de Clare (the Red Earl) occupy the cathedral. The siege then boggs down, Simon receives reports of a relief force and orders to withdraw on
April 26.[63]
April – Gilbert de Clare (the Red Earl) leads a massacre of the Jews at
Canterbury, during the outbreak of the
Second Barons' War.[64] In the meantime, another of de Montfort's followers,
John FitzJohn, leads a massacre against the Jews in
London.[65] The Jewish communities of Northampton,
Winchester,
Cambridge, and
Lincoln are looted. The archæ (official chest of records) is destroyed or deposited at the headquarters of de Montfort's supporters at
Ely.[66]
May 14 –
Battle of Lewes: English rebels led by Simon de Montfort defeat Henry III and Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward), at
Lewes. Henry leaves the safety of
Lewes Castle and
St. Pancras Priory, to engage the rebels. Edward routes part of the rebel army (some 5,000 men) with a cavalry charge, but during the battle de Montfort's forces capture both Henry and Edward, making Simon the "uncrowned king of
England" for 15 months.[67]
May – Simon de Montfort marches on London but the drawbridge on
London Bridge has been raised by the
Lord Mayor. Simon has the support of the Londoners, who manage to lower the bridge allowing him into the city. Henry III is forced to pardon the rebel nobles and reinstates the
Provisions of Oxford. With Henry's power diminished, Simon announces that all debts owed to the Jews would be canceled.[68]
June – Simon de Montfort summons
Parliament in London to confirm new constitutional arrangements. Two knights are summoned for each county, and are allowed to comment on general matters of state – the first time this has occurred. In
France, Queen
Eleanor of Provence, wife of Henry III, makes plans for an invasion of England with the support of Louis IX (the Saint).[69]
The
Toluid Civil War ends:
Kublai Khan defeats his brother and
pretender to the title of "Great Khan",
Ariq Böke, who surrenders to Kublai on
August 24. He is imprisoned and with the Chinese support behind him, Kublai is acknowledged by the rulers of the western khanates and as sole ruler of the
Mongol Empire. He moves his capital from
Shangdu in
Inner Mongolia, to the Chinese city of
Dadu (modern-day
Beijing).
Asia
February – The Japanese era
Kōchō ends and the
Bun'ei era begins during the reign of the 14-year-old Emperor
Kameyama (until
1275).
August 4 –
Second Barons' War: The
Battle of Evesham is fought in
Worcestershire, with the army of Edward defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, resulting in the death of Montfort and many of his allies. This is sometimes considered the death of
chivalry in England.[74]
In the first major battle in five years (since the
Song Dynasty Chinese pushed the forces of
Kublai Khan back across the
Yangzi River, after
Möngke Khan's failed invasion in
1259), Kublai Khan engages the Chinese in
Sichuan province. Kublai gains a preliminary victory, and war booty of 146 captured Song Dynasty naval ships.[77]
January 2 –
Siege of Murcia: King
James I of Aragon (the Conqueror) marches with his army from
Orihuela and lays siege at
Murcia on the
Segura River. Skirmishes break out between the defenders and the Aragonese forces. The Muslim garrison, realizing that they are outnumbered and cut off from reinforcements, asks for terms. James offers to ask King
Alfonso X of Castile (the Wise) to restore the Murcians' legal rights (see
1244) from before the rebellion: self-government under Castilian suzerainty, freedom of worship, and preservation of lands and properties. They agree to this offer but request Alfonso's explicit agreement rather than just James' promise to ask him. James refuses to get Alfonso's agreement before the city surrenders. Finally, the Moors yield Murcia to James on
January 31. Seeing his standard on the walls, James enters the city on
February 3, accepting its surrender.[88]
February 26 –
Battle of Benevento: Guelph forces (some 12,000 men), led by
Charles of Anjou, brother of King
Louis IX (the Saint), defeat a combined German and Sicilian army under King
Manfred of Sicily, during a long-running power struggle in
Italy. Manfred takes up a strong position near
Benevento. As the French infantry advances, he unleashes his Saracen archers and light cavalry, which scatters the French. But the Saracens leave themselves exposed to the French heavy cavalry, and are overwhelmed. Manfred orders his heavy cavalry (some 1,200 German mercenary knights) into the attack, but they are defeated by the Guelph forces, and take heavy losses. Manfred is killed, and Pope
Clement IV invests Charles as ruler of
Sicily and
Naples. Meanwhile,
Michael II, despot of
Epirus, invades
Albania, and recovers the lands that Manfred has taken from him.[89]
June – The
Mudéjar Revolt ends. The rebels make their formal submission to Alfonso X (the Wise). They recognize the error that the Moors of Murcia have committed against their overlord Alfonso. Representatives of the aljama, or municipal council, renew their allegiance and humbly beg for pardon, mercy and favour. With this, the Mudéjar uprising in the
Kingdom of Murcia is formally ended.[90]
June 23 –
Battle of Trapani: The Venetian fleet (24 galleys) led by Admiral
Jacopo Dondulo moves to
Marsala and attacks the larger Genoese fleet anchored at
Trapani, capturing all its ships. Some 1,200 Genoese drown and many are killed. Dondulo is acclaimed a hero on his return to
Venice in July. He is elected as
Captain General of the Sea, Venice's highest naval command position.[91]
July 23 –
Siege of Safed: Mamluk forces capture the castle of
Safed, defended by a garrison of 1,700 men (including some 500
Knights Templar), after a 6-week siege. Sultan
Baibars promises
safe conduct but when the Christians and Templars are on their way towards
Acre, they are seized and beheaded.[93]
October 28 – A Crusader advance guard is ambushed by the Egyptian garrison of Safed, while local Arabs attack the Crusader camp. The 13-year-old
Hugh II, ruler of
Cyprus, is advised to retire and withdraw with heavy losses. Meanwhile, Baibars campaigns in
Galilee and leads a lightning raid to
Tripoli.[94]
Asia
Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, father and uncle of
Marco Polo, reach the Mongol capital
Khanbaliq (modern-day
Beijing), setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition 5 years later.
Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message, requesting that Clement IV dispatch western scholars to teach in the
Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
America
In the modern-day
United States, a period of drought begins in the
Four Corners Region (this period is up until the year
1299), putting an end to the ancient
Puebloans Civilization.
By topic
Economics
In
France, the
goldécu (or crown) and
silvergrosh coins are minted for the first time during the reign of Louis IX (the Saint).
Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to
Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of
mathematics,
optics,
alchemy,
astronomy,
astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a
magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The
1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at
Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around
1220.[100][101]
The leadership of
Vienna forces
Jews to wear Pileum cornutum, a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the
yellow badges Jews are already forced to wear.[102]
Spain attempts an invasion of
Morocco, but the Muslim empire
Marinid Sultanate successfully defend against the invasion, and drive out Spanish forces.[107]
New election procedures for the election of the
doge are established in
Venice, in order to reduce the influence of powerful individual families and possibly to prevent the popular
Lorenzo Tiepolo from becoming elected.[115]
Pope Clement IV dies; the following
papal election fails to choose a new pope for almost three years, precipitating the later creation of stringent rules governing the electoral procedures.[116]
Kublai Khan sends an emissary to the
Kamakura shogunate of Japan, demanding an acknowledgment of suzerainty and payment of
tribute; the Japanese refuse, starting a diplomatic back-and-forth, lasting until the
Mongols attempt to invade in
1274.[123]
June 19 – King
Louis IX (the Saint) orders all Jews found in public, without an identifying
yellow badge, to be fined ten
livres of silver. He also confiscates goods from the Jewish population to fund the
Eighth Crusade.
September – An Aragonese contingent under King
James I (the Conqueror) sails from
Barcelona to the
Holy Land but is caught in a storm and badly damaged. One squadron reaches
Acre, but later returns to
Aragon.
Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward) obtains the right to levy a twentieth of the value of the Church's wealth to finance the
Ninth Crusade. That sum turns out to be insufficient, and Edward has to borrow to reach his target.[128]
Pierre de Maricourt, French mathematician and writer, performs a series of experiments with
magnetic poles and proposes that a machine can be run forever in perpetual motion using the properties of magnets.
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^Stanton, Charles D. (2015). Medieval Maritime Warfare, p. 164. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen and Sword.
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^Doubleday, Simon R. (2015). The Wise King: A Christian Prince, Muslim Spain, and the Birth of the Renaissance, p. 121. Basic Books.
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