King
Stephen II of Croatia becomes involved in an open conflict between factions of
Croatian nobles, who reassert their traditional rights in their own counties.
Spring –
Tzachas, a Seljuk Turkish military commander, establishes an independent maritime state centred in the
Ionian coastal city of
Smyrna (modern-day
İzmir). He proclaims himself emperor (basileus), and concludes an alliance with the
Pechenegs in
Thrace. Tzachas uses his fleet to blockade
Constantinople by sea, while the Pechenegs besiege the capital by land.[3]
April 29 –
Battle of Levounion: Emperor
Alexios I, supported by his allies, defeats the Pechenegs' 80,000 men (including women and children) at the
Evros River, near
Enos (modern
Turkey). The
Cumans and Byzantine forces fall upon the enemy camp, slaughtering all in their path. The Pechenegs are butchered so savagely, that they are almost wiped out.
Europe
Spring – King
Stephen II, the last member of the
Trpimirović Dynasty, dies without leaving an heir after a 2-year reign. War and unrest breaks out in
Croatia afterwards. King
Ladislaus I of Hungary, on instigation of his sister, Queen
Helena, intervenes in the conflict and occupies Croatia. He proclaims himself king, but is contested by the Croatian nobleman
Petar Snačić.
Summer – The
Norman invasion of Malta: A Norman fleet led by Count
Roger I (Bosso) arrives in
Malta. Roger disembarks his army, and besieges the island's capital Medina (modern-day
Mdina). The inhabitants negotiate peace terms (by promising to pay an annual
tribute) and swear an oath of loyalty to Roger. On the way back, the Normans sack the island
Gozo.
Summer – King
Malcolm III of Scotland invades the north of
England, and besieges
Durham. The Normans led by William II march north to oppose the Scots, but a conflict is averted. Malcolm is forced to accept the terms of the
Treaty of Abernethy (see
1072) and pays
homage to William.
Summer – Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) bribes one of
Kilij Arslan's (sultan of the
Sultanate of Rum) officials to recover
Sinope (the capital of
Paphlagonia), and neighbouring coastal regions. He uses the Byzantine fleet to defeat the Seljuk navy off the coast of
Cius in
Bithynia.[5]
Europe
January 14 –
Vratislaus II, the first king of
Bohemia, dies after a 6½-year reign and is succeeded by his brother
Conrad I who becomes duke and not king because Vratislaus has been elevated to the royal dignity 'for life' by Emperor
Henry IV (see
1085). Conrad dies
September 6 after a 8-month reign and is succeeded by his nephew
Bretislav II (the eldest son of Vratislaus).
Su Song, a Chinese statesman and
scientist, publishes his Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, a treatise outlining the construction and operation of his complex astronomical
clocktower, built in
Kaifeng. It also includes a celestial atlas of five
star maps.
Spring – Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary force under General
Tatikios to
Nicaea, in an attempt to re-capture the city from the Seljuk Turks. However, the arrival of
Barkiyaruq's army en route stops the Byzantines. Alexios sends reinforcements; short of supplies, the Seljuk Turks retreat.
Abu'l-Qasim, Seljuk governor of Nicaea, is defeated and forced to conclude a truce with Alexios.[12]
Duncan II (son of the late King
Malcolm III) invades England at the head of an army of Norman knights from
Scotland, aided by his half-brother
Edmund. He succeeds his uncle, King
Donald III (the Fair), as ruler of Scotland.[14]
November 12 – King Donald III mobilizes his army and kills Duncan II in battle in the
Lowlands. He re-takes the Scottish throne, Edmund sides with Donald as co-ruler and is named as heir as he has no children.
Sultan
Mahmud I dies after a 2-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
Barkiyaruq (one of the Seljuk prince who claim the throne) as ruler of the
Seljuk Empire.
Caliph of
Baghdad,
al-Muqtadi died on 3 February 1094 and he was succeeded by his nominated heir Ahmad (
al-Mustazhir).
Summer – The nomadic
Cumans cross the
Danube River and invade
Thrace, to support the pretender
Constantine Diogenes (son of the late Emperor
Romanos IV). The Cumans occupy the province of
Paristrion (located in the Lower Danube). Emperor Alexios I places Byzantine detachments to guard the passes over the
Balkan Mountains, but they are bypassed.
July –
Coloman (the Learned) begins to establish himself as ruler of
Hungary, following the death of his uncle, King
Ladislaus I (until
1116).
August 18 – King
Olaf I (Hunger) dies after a 9-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
Eric I (the Good) as ruler of
Denmark.
England
After attacking four Norwegian merchant ships (lying in the
River Tyne),
Robert Mowbray, earl of
Northumberland, is called for by King
William II (the Red) to explain his actions. Instead, Mowbray rises up in rebellion against William along with other Norman nobles. William leads an army and besieges
Bamburgh Castle, Mowbray is captured after fleeing the stronghold.
May – The People's Crusade, under Peter the Hermit, arrives at
Sopron. King
Coloman (the Learned) gives them permission to pass through
Hungary, and to use the markets. Peter and his followers (some 20,000 men and women) travel from
Budapest southwards supported by knights, while lumbering wagons carry stores and a chest of money that he has collected for the journey.
May – The
Rhineland massacres: Members of the People's Crusade led by Count
Emicho destroy most of the Jewish communities along the
Rhine in a series of large
pogroms in
France and Germany. Thousands of Jews are massacred, driven to suicide, or forced to convert to
Christianity. Estimates of the number of Jewish men, women and children murdered are 2,000 to 12,000.[16]
May 8 – French members of the People's Crusade led by
Walter Sans Avoir enter Hungary, without incident they arrive at
Semlin, and cross the
Sava into Byzantine territory at
Belgrade. Meanwhile, Walter demands food but he is refused entry, and the crusaders are forced to pillage the countryside. Eventually Walter is allowed to carry on to
Niš, where he is provided with food.[17]
May 18–
26 – The
Worms massacre: Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho besiege
Worms in the
Rhineland before killing at least 800 Jews, despite the intervention of Bishop
Adalbert II. He tries to hide some of them in the bishop's palace, others chose to remain outside its walls. One of the victims is
Minna of Worms, an influential Jew among the Christian nobility.[18]
May 27 – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho massacre at least 1,000 Jews in
Mainz. Archbishop
Ruthard tries to hide some of them in the cellars of
Mainz Cathedral but the crusaders learn of this – and murder most of the Jews. Men, women, and children of all ages are slaughtered indiscriminately.
May 30 – Members of the People's Crusade led by the priest Folkmar from
Saxony persecute Jews in
Prague, despite the opposition of the local Catholic hierarchy. Local citizens try to hide them in their own houses. Later the Jews manage to escape to safety in neighboring villages, but are slaughtered by the hundreds.
June – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho set out up the
Main towards Hungary. Some followers break off from Emicho's army at Mainz and travel to
Metz – where many Jews are persecuted and murdered. They proceed down the Rhine, massacring the Jews at
Neuss,
Wevelinghofen, and
Xanten.[19]
June – The People's Crusade under Emicho are refused entry to Hungary on orders of Coloman, who sends troops to defend the bridge at
Wieselburg. Emicho decides to build an alternative bridge and crosses the
Danube. He besieges the fortress of Wieselburg, but is defeated and routed by the Hungarian army.[20]
June –
Siege of Semlin: The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at Semlin. Hearing rumors of an attack from the Hungarian count Guz of Semlin on the rearguard, Geoffrey Burel assaults the castle, captures it by surprise, and defeats the Hungarian army. He plunders its supplies, herds and horses.
June 26 – The People's Crusade (some 30,000 men) led by Peter the Hermit crosses the Sava (stealing boats from the local fishermen) but are attacked by
Pechenegs and Hungarian forces. The citizens of Belgrade flee and the crusaders pillage and burn the city. Peter travels for seven days, and arrives at
Niš.[21]
July – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit is defeated by the Byzantine army (mostly Hungarian and Bulgar mercenaries) in battle near Niš. The crusader supply train of some 2,000 wagons and Peter's treasury chest is captured by the Byzantines. About a quarter of the People's Crusade is lost.
July 12 – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit reaches
Sofia, where they meet envoys from
Constantinople with orders to keep them supplied along the road. At
Philippopolis the Greeks are so deeply moved by the suffering of Peter and his followers that the locals give them money, food and horses.[22]
August 1 – The
People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at
Constantinople. He is received by Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos), who gives him financial support. The crusaders commit endless thefts in the suburbs. Peter combines his forces with Walter Sans Avoir and camps outside Constantinople.
August 2–
6 – The People's Crusade reorganize their forces and gather supplies. Alexios I advises Peter the Hermit to wait for reinforcements but he ignores the advice. The People's army (some 30,000 men) is transported across the
Bosporus – by the Byzantine fleet to
Civetot (modern
Turkey).
August –
Hugh (the Great), count of
Vermandois (a brother of King
Philip I), departs to join the First Crusade. He travels with a
small army via the
Alps to
Rome. While sailing the
Adriatic Sea from
Bari to
Dyrrachium his fleet is reduced by shipwreck. Hugh's own ship is stranded on the shore near
Epirus.
August –
Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lower Lorraine, accompanied by his younger brother
Baldwin, sets off to join the First Crusade (called by Pope
Urban II) at the head of an army of some 40,000 men. He pledges his
allegiance to Emperor
Henry IV who issues an order not to harm Jewish communities.
September – French forces (7,000 infantry and 300 knights) led by
Geoffrey Burel raid around
Nicaea (the capital of the Rum
Seljuk Turks), plundering livestock and villages in the suburbs. They commit atrocities against local Christian peasants. Children are tortured and dismembered by the crusaders.[23]
September – German forces (5,000 infantry and 200 knights) led by Rainald of Breis raid the region of Nicaea. They advance eastward and assault the Seljuk garrison in the castle of
Xerigordos. They manage to capture; and, find it well stocked with provisions. The Greek Christians inside are spared.
September 29 –
Siege of Xerigordos: Sultan
Kilij Arslan I sends a Seljuk expeditionary force to assault and recapture the castle of Xerigordos. They cut off the water supply, and Rainald of Breis is forced to surrender. Many of the crusaders are killed but others convert to
Islam and become slaves.
October –
Robert II (Curthose), duke of
Normandy (a brother of King
William II), sets off to join the First Crusade. He assembles his army at
Pontarlier – and travels through
Italy to Rome. To raise money for the Crusade Robert
mortgages the Norman duchy to William, for the sum of 10,000 pennies.
October –
Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles), count of
Toulouse, sets off to join the First Crusade. He travels with his army, accompanied by his wife
Elvira and Bishop
Adhemar of Le Puy, via
Provence through the
Balkan route (along the coast of
Croatia). He arrives at Dyrrachium to march to
Thessaloniki.
October –
Bohemond I, Italo-Norman prince of
Taranto (the son of Duke
Robert Guiscard), departs to join the First Crusade. He crosses the Adriatic Sea from
Brindisi with his army (some 4,000 men), and arrives in
Vorë. While traveling, Bohemond gives strict orders not to plunder Byzantine villages.
October 21 –
Battle of Civetot: The Seljuk Turks led by Kilij Arslan I defeat the People's army (20,000 men) near Nicaea. The crusaders are slaughtered, and the camp at Civetot is captured. Only children are spared and sent into slavery. Around 3,000 manage to escape back to Constantinople.[24]
December – The last of the four planned Crusader armies arrives at Constantinople, bringing the total numbers to 60,000 infantry and knights. Curiously there isn't a single king among the Crusaders' leaders. At this time Philip I, William II, and Henry IV are all under
excommunication by Urban II.
December 25 – Godfrey of Bouillon is appointed the primary leader of the First Crusade, making it a largely French war in practice and causing the inhabitants of the
Holy Land to refer to Europeans generally as "Franks". Godfrey and the other leaders agree to take an oath of loyalty to Alexios I.
May 14 –
Siege of Nicaea: The Crusaders begin their campaign with the siege of
Nicaea (the capital of the
Sultanate of Rum), assigning their forces to different sections of the walls, which are well-defended with 200 towers. Towards the end, an advance party of the
Seljuk Turks is defeated by troops of
Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles) and
Robert II.[27]
June 19 – The Seljuk Turks surrender Nicaea to the Crusaders after a month siege. The Byzantines occupy the city; their commander
Manuel Boutoumites is named by Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) as doux of Nicaea. In the consternation the Crusaders are not allowed to plunder the city and are forced (again) to pledge their allegiance to Alexios.
July 1 –
Battle of Dorylaeum: The Crusaders defeat a Seljuk army led by
Kilij Arslan I, ruler of the Sultanate of Rum, who wants revenge for the capture of Nicaea. During the battle many Crusaders are killed but the Seljuk Turks are forced to flee and abandon their tents and treasure after being surprised by the arrival of a second Crusader army.
October 21 –
Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders arrive outside the city and begin the siege. They can not impose a complete blockade on Antioch. The Seljuk garrison comes out of the city to harass Crusader siege-lines and intercept supply convoys (supported by a Genoese fleet of 12 galleys) from
Saint Symeon and
Alexandretta (modern
Turkey).[28]
December 31 – Battle of Harenc: The Crusaders under the command of Bohemond I and Robert II defeat Seljuk forces from
Aleppo, which try to relieve besieged Antioch.[29]
Europe
April/May –
Battle of Gvozd Mountain: In an attempt to win the crown of the
Kingdom of Croatia, the Hungarian army crosses the
Drava River and invades Croatia. King
Peter II of Croatia moves his residency at
Knin Castle to defend his kingdom. The two armies meet each other near Gvozd Mountain (modern-day
Mala Kapela). After a fierce battle Peter, the last Croatian king, is defeated and killed by the Hungarians.
Summer – Almoravid forces launch a new campaign in
Al-Andalus (modern
Spain). Sultan
Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the
Almoravid Empire, is honored with the title of Amir al Muslimin ("Commander of the Muslims").[30]
King
Donald III (the Fair) is deposed by his nephew
Edgar (who is supported by King
William II) after a 4-year reign. Edgar (nicknamed Probus, "the Valliant") becomes ruler of
Scotland (until
1107).
England
William II orders the construction of
Westminster Hall near
Westminster Abbey in
London. The hall is designed to hold
banquets, ceremonies and coronations that take place in the Abbey nearby.
By topic
Religion
October –
Anselm, archbishop of
Canterbury, goes into
exile. Conflicts between him and William II result in Anselm leaving
England and heading for
Rome. William confiscates Anselm's land.
February 9 –
Battle of the Lake of Antioch: The Crusaders under
Bohemond I defeat a Seljuk relief force (some 12,000 men) led by Sultan
Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan of
Aleppo. Bohemond gathers 700 knights, and marches in the night to ambush the Seljuk Turks at the
Lake of Antioch (modern
Turkey). After several successful cavalry charges the Crusaders rout the Seljuk army, forcing Radwan to retreat back to Aleppo.[31]
March 10 –
Baldwin of Boulogne enters
Edessa, and is welcomed as liberator by the Armenian clergy. The local population massacres the Seljuk garrison and officials – or forces them to flee. Baldwin is acknowledged as their ruler (or doux). He assumes the title of count and establishes the first
crusader state. Baldwin marries
Arda of Armenia, daughter of Lord
Thoros of Marash, and consolidates his conquered territory.[32]
June 3 –
Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders under Bohemond I capture
Antioch after a 8-month siege. He established secret contact with
Firouz, an Armenian guard who controlled the "Tower of the Two Sisters". He opened the gates and Bohemond entered the city. Thousands of Christians are massacred along with Muslims. Bohemond is named Prince of Antioch (under protest) and creates the
Principality of Antioch.[28]
June 5 –
Battle of Antioch: Emir
Kerbogha, ruler (atabeg) of
Mosul, arrives at Antioch with a Seljuk army (35,000 men) to relieve the city. He lays siege to the Crusaders who have just captured the city themselves (although they do not have full control of it). A Byzantine relief force led by Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos turns back after Count
Stephen of Blois convinces them that the situation in Antioch is hopeless.[33]
June 28 – Following the
Holy Lance discovery by
Peter Bartholomew in Antioch, the Crusaders under Bohemond I (leaving only 200 men) sortie from the city and defeat the Seljuk army. Kerbogha is forced to withdraw to Mosul, the garrison in the citadel surrenders to Bohemond personally (who raises his
banner above the city) and the Crusaders occupy Antioch. The Crusade is delayed for the rest of the year.[34]
July 14 – Donation of Altavilla: Bohemond I grants commercial privileges and the right to use warehouses (fondaco) to the
Republic of Genoa. This marks the beginning of Italian merchant settlements in the
Levant.[35]
December 12 –
Siege of Ma'arra: The Crusaders capture the city of
Ma'arra after a month's siege and massacre part of the population. Short of supplies, the army is accused of widespread
cannibalism.
January 22 – The Crusaders, under Raymond IV, reach
Masyaf, where a treaty is agreed to. They decide to continue the march, rather than to capture or destroy the town. The next day the Crusaders enter the deserted town of
Rafaniyah, that provides them with much-needed supplies. Raymond moves into the
Buqaia Valley, and takes the strategic Kurdish fortress of Hosn al-Akrad (the future
Krak des Chevaliers castle).[38]
February – The Crusaders under
Godfrey of Bouillon set out from Antioch to
Latakia. They are joined by forces of Bohemond I and
Robert II, count of
Flanders. On their arrival, Bohemond decides to turn back to consolidate his power in Antioch. Godfrey and Robert move on to besiege the small sea-port of
Jabala. After two weeks, the Emir of Jabala makes a truce, and accepts the suzerainty of the Crusaders.[39]
February 14 – The Crusaders under Raymond IV besiege the fortified town of
Akkar – whose garrison is loyal to
Jalal al-Mulk Abu'l-Hasan, emir of
Tripoli (modern
Lebanon). On May 13 after a 3-month siege the investment of Akkar is raised and Raymond orders the camp to be struck. The Crusader host, finally joined by the forces of Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert II, resumes his march southwards to Tripoli.[40]
February 17 – Raymond IV sends a small part of his army under
Raymond Pilet to attack the port of
Tortosa on the Syrian coast. The Crusaders led many fires around the port to make believe their number is greater than it is. Fooled by the deception, the governor and the garrison flees by sea in the night leaving the port open for the Crusaders to capture. The port becomes strategically important for supplies.[41]
May – The Crusaders march past Tripoli, accompanied by guides provided by the emir who lead them safely through the towns of
Batroun and
Byblos. On May 19 they cross the
Dog River north of
Beirut into Fatimid territory. There local governors supply the Crusaders with tribute and food in return for no damage to the
agricultural area. The Fatimids keep no large troops in the north, except for small garrisons.[42]
May 20 – The Fatimid governor of
Sidon refuses to cooperate and his garrison attacks the Crusader host while they are looting local villages. The Fatimids are repulsed, the towns further south generally follow the example of Beirut. The Crusaders move on to
Tyre – Raymond IV decides to wait for two days to allow a force under
Baldwin of Le Bourg (supported by knights from Antioch) to catch up with him.[43]
May 26 – The Crusaders march to
Haifa and along the coast under
Mount Carmel to
Caesarea (modern
Israel), where they rest for four days in order to celebrate
Whitsun (Whit Sunday).
June 2–
6 – The Crusaders occupy
Arsuf and turn inland towards
Ramlah, where they reorganise for the march against Jerusalem. A Crusader force under Tancred liberates
Bethlehem.[44]
June 7 –
Siege of Jerusalem: The Crusaders reach the outskirts of Jerusalem, and begin the siege of the Holy City.
Iftikhar al-Dawla offers a peace agreement but this is refused.[45]
June 13 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Boullion launch their first assault on Jerusalem, while the Fatimid garrison and Jewish militia defend the northern wall at the
Damascus Gate.[46]
June 17 – A naval squadron of six Genoese ships led by
Guglielmo Embriaco (loaded with military materials) enters the port of
Jaffa; all except one are trapped by a larger Fatimid fleet.[47]
July 8 – The Crusaders attempt to take Jerusalem by storm but are repulsed. In a
procession they walk around the walls under leadership of priests in the hope the city would surrender.[48]
July 13 – The Crusader army (some 12,000 men) launch a final assault on Jerusalem. The attacks against the northern and southern wall are repulsed without establishing a foothold.[49]
The Crusaders breach the walls of Jerusalem after a two-pronged assault.
Iftikhar al-Dawla surrenders Jerusalem to Raymond IV in the
Tower of David with a great sum of treasure in return for his life. He is escorted out of the city with his bodyguard.[50]
August 10 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon (supported by 1,200–1,300 knights) assemble at
Yibna (
Ibelin) – close to the coast and almost halfway from Jaffa to
Ascalon.[52]
August 12 –
Battle of Ascalon: The Crusader army (some 10,000 men) decisively defeats the Fatimids who are sent to relieve Jerusalem. Vizier
Al-Afdal is forced to retreat to
Egypt.[53]
November – A Crusader army under Bohemond I travels south to begin a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They are accompanied by
Baldwin of Boulogne, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon.[54]
^Gilbert Meynier (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte; p. 83.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of the Crusades. Vol II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 96–97.
ISBN978-0-241-29876-3.
^Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160.
ISBN978-1-84884-215-1.
^
abPicard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 109.
ISBN2-7068-1398-9.
^Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160.
ISBN978-1-84884-215-1.
^Picard C. (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident au Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
^Potter, Philip J. (2009). Gothic Kings of Britain: The Lives of 31 Medieval Rulers (1016–1399), pp. 127–128. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland.
ISBN978-0-7864-4038-2.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 101.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Gerd Mentgen. Crusades in Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution (Vol 1), ed. Richard S. Levy, pp. 151–53.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 102.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Chazan, R. (1996). European Jwery and the First Crusade, p. 122. University of California Press.
ISBN978-0-520-20506-2.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 115.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 116–117.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 104.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 105.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 107–108.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 109.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 221.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 222.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 224.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 69–70. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 223.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 227–228.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 228.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 71. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 73. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 73–76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 236.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 237.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 242.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 83. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 250.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 251.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
King
Stephen II of Croatia becomes involved in an open conflict between factions of
Croatian nobles, who reassert their traditional rights in their own counties.
Spring –
Tzachas, a Seljuk Turkish military commander, establishes an independent maritime state centred in the
Ionian coastal city of
Smyrna (modern-day
İzmir). He proclaims himself emperor (basileus), and concludes an alliance with the
Pechenegs in
Thrace. Tzachas uses his fleet to blockade
Constantinople by sea, while the Pechenegs besiege the capital by land.[3]
April 29 –
Battle of Levounion: Emperor
Alexios I, supported by his allies, defeats the Pechenegs' 80,000 men (including women and children) at the
Evros River, near
Enos (modern
Turkey). The
Cumans and Byzantine forces fall upon the enemy camp, slaughtering all in their path. The Pechenegs are butchered so savagely, that they are almost wiped out.
Europe
Spring – King
Stephen II, the last member of the
Trpimirović Dynasty, dies without leaving an heir after a 2-year reign. War and unrest breaks out in
Croatia afterwards. King
Ladislaus I of Hungary, on instigation of his sister, Queen
Helena, intervenes in the conflict and occupies Croatia. He proclaims himself king, but is contested by the Croatian nobleman
Petar Snačić.
Summer – The
Norman invasion of Malta: A Norman fleet led by Count
Roger I (Bosso) arrives in
Malta. Roger disembarks his army, and besieges the island's capital Medina (modern-day
Mdina). The inhabitants negotiate peace terms (by promising to pay an annual
tribute) and swear an oath of loyalty to Roger. On the way back, the Normans sack the island
Gozo.
Summer – King
Malcolm III of Scotland invades the north of
England, and besieges
Durham. The Normans led by William II march north to oppose the Scots, but a conflict is averted. Malcolm is forced to accept the terms of the
Treaty of Abernethy (see
1072) and pays
homage to William.
Summer – Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) bribes one of
Kilij Arslan's (sultan of the
Sultanate of Rum) officials to recover
Sinope (the capital of
Paphlagonia), and neighbouring coastal regions. He uses the Byzantine fleet to defeat the Seljuk navy off the coast of
Cius in
Bithynia.[5]
Europe
January 14 –
Vratislaus II, the first king of
Bohemia, dies after a 6½-year reign and is succeeded by his brother
Conrad I who becomes duke and not king because Vratislaus has been elevated to the royal dignity 'for life' by Emperor
Henry IV (see
1085). Conrad dies
September 6 after a 8-month reign and is succeeded by his nephew
Bretislav II (the eldest son of Vratislaus).
Su Song, a Chinese statesman and
scientist, publishes his Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, a treatise outlining the construction and operation of his complex astronomical
clocktower, built in
Kaifeng. It also includes a celestial atlas of five
star maps.
Spring – Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary force under General
Tatikios to
Nicaea, in an attempt to re-capture the city from the Seljuk Turks. However, the arrival of
Barkiyaruq's army en route stops the Byzantines. Alexios sends reinforcements; short of supplies, the Seljuk Turks retreat.
Abu'l-Qasim, Seljuk governor of Nicaea, is defeated and forced to conclude a truce with Alexios.[12]
Duncan II (son of the late King
Malcolm III) invades England at the head of an army of Norman knights from
Scotland, aided by his half-brother
Edmund. He succeeds his uncle, King
Donald III (the Fair), as ruler of Scotland.[14]
November 12 – King Donald III mobilizes his army and kills Duncan II in battle in the
Lowlands. He re-takes the Scottish throne, Edmund sides with Donald as co-ruler and is named as heir as he has no children.
Sultan
Mahmud I dies after a 2-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
Barkiyaruq (one of the Seljuk prince who claim the throne) as ruler of the
Seljuk Empire.
Caliph of
Baghdad,
al-Muqtadi died on 3 February 1094 and he was succeeded by his nominated heir Ahmad (
al-Mustazhir).
Summer – The nomadic
Cumans cross the
Danube River and invade
Thrace, to support the pretender
Constantine Diogenes (son of the late Emperor
Romanos IV). The Cumans occupy the province of
Paristrion (located in the Lower Danube). Emperor Alexios I places Byzantine detachments to guard the passes over the
Balkan Mountains, but they are bypassed.
July –
Coloman (the Learned) begins to establish himself as ruler of
Hungary, following the death of his uncle, King
Ladislaus I (until
1116).
August 18 – King
Olaf I (Hunger) dies after a 9-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother
Eric I (the Good) as ruler of
Denmark.
England
After attacking four Norwegian merchant ships (lying in the
River Tyne),
Robert Mowbray, earl of
Northumberland, is called for by King
William II (the Red) to explain his actions. Instead, Mowbray rises up in rebellion against William along with other Norman nobles. William leads an army and besieges
Bamburgh Castle, Mowbray is captured after fleeing the stronghold.
May – The People's Crusade, under Peter the Hermit, arrives at
Sopron. King
Coloman (the Learned) gives them permission to pass through
Hungary, and to use the markets. Peter and his followers (some 20,000 men and women) travel from
Budapest southwards supported by knights, while lumbering wagons carry stores and a chest of money that he has collected for the journey.
May – The
Rhineland massacres: Members of the People's Crusade led by Count
Emicho destroy most of the Jewish communities along the
Rhine in a series of large
pogroms in
France and Germany. Thousands of Jews are massacred, driven to suicide, or forced to convert to
Christianity. Estimates of the number of Jewish men, women and children murdered are 2,000 to 12,000.[16]
May 8 – French members of the People's Crusade led by
Walter Sans Avoir enter Hungary, without incident they arrive at
Semlin, and cross the
Sava into Byzantine territory at
Belgrade. Meanwhile, Walter demands food but he is refused entry, and the crusaders are forced to pillage the countryside. Eventually Walter is allowed to carry on to
Niš, where he is provided with food.[17]
May 18–
26 – The
Worms massacre: Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho besiege
Worms in the
Rhineland before killing at least 800 Jews, despite the intervention of Bishop
Adalbert II. He tries to hide some of them in the bishop's palace, others chose to remain outside its walls. One of the victims is
Minna of Worms, an influential Jew among the Christian nobility.[18]
May 27 – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho massacre at least 1,000 Jews in
Mainz. Archbishop
Ruthard tries to hide some of them in the cellars of
Mainz Cathedral but the crusaders learn of this – and murder most of the Jews. Men, women, and children of all ages are slaughtered indiscriminately.
May 30 – Members of the People's Crusade led by the priest Folkmar from
Saxony persecute Jews in
Prague, despite the opposition of the local Catholic hierarchy. Local citizens try to hide them in their own houses. Later the Jews manage to escape to safety in neighboring villages, but are slaughtered by the hundreds.
June – Members of the People's Crusade under Emicho set out up the
Main towards Hungary. Some followers break off from Emicho's army at Mainz and travel to
Metz – where many Jews are persecuted and murdered. They proceed down the Rhine, massacring the Jews at
Neuss,
Wevelinghofen, and
Xanten.[19]
June – The People's Crusade under Emicho are refused entry to Hungary on orders of Coloman, who sends troops to defend the bridge at
Wieselburg. Emicho decides to build an alternative bridge and crosses the
Danube. He besieges the fortress of Wieselburg, but is defeated and routed by the Hungarian army.[20]
June –
Siege of Semlin: The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at Semlin. Hearing rumors of an attack from the Hungarian count Guz of Semlin on the rearguard, Geoffrey Burel assaults the castle, captures it by surprise, and defeats the Hungarian army. He plunders its supplies, herds and horses.
June 26 – The People's Crusade (some 30,000 men) led by Peter the Hermit crosses the Sava (stealing boats from the local fishermen) but are attacked by
Pechenegs and Hungarian forces. The citizens of Belgrade flee and the crusaders pillage and burn the city. Peter travels for seven days, and arrives at
Niš.[21]
July – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit is defeated by the Byzantine army (mostly Hungarian and Bulgar mercenaries) in battle near Niš. The crusader supply train of some 2,000 wagons and Peter's treasury chest is captured by the Byzantines. About a quarter of the People's Crusade is lost.
July 12 – The People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit reaches
Sofia, where they meet envoys from
Constantinople with orders to keep them supplied along the road. At
Philippopolis the Greeks are so deeply moved by the suffering of Peter and his followers that the locals give them money, food and horses.[22]
August 1 – The
People's Crusade led by Peter the Hermit arrives at
Constantinople. He is received by Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos), who gives him financial support. The crusaders commit endless thefts in the suburbs. Peter combines his forces with Walter Sans Avoir and camps outside Constantinople.
August 2–
6 – The People's Crusade reorganize their forces and gather supplies. Alexios I advises Peter the Hermit to wait for reinforcements but he ignores the advice. The People's army (some 30,000 men) is transported across the
Bosporus – by the Byzantine fleet to
Civetot (modern
Turkey).
August –
Hugh (the Great), count of
Vermandois (a brother of King
Philip I), departs to join the First Crusade. He travels with a
small army via the
Alps to
Rome. While sailing the
Adriatic Sea from
Bari to
Dyrrachium his fleet is reduced by shipwreck. Hugh's own ship is stranded on the shore near
Epirus.
August –
Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lower Lorraine, accompanied by his younger brother
Baldwin, sets off to join the First Crusade (called by Pope
Urban II) at the head of an army of some 40,000 men. He pledges his
allegiance to Emperor
Henry IV who issues an order not to harm Jewish communities.
September – French forces (7,000 infantry and 300 knights) led by
Geoffrey Burel raid around
Nicaea (the capital of the Rum
Seljuk Turks), plundering livestock and villages in the suburbs. They commit atrocities against local Christian peasants. Children are tortured and dismembered by the crusaders.[23]
September – German forces (5,000 infantry and 200 knights) led by Rainald of Breis raid the region of Nicaea. They advance eastward and assault the Seljuk garrison in the castle of
Xerigordos. They manage to capture; and, find it well stocked with provisions. The Greek Christians inside are spared.
September 29 –
Siege of Xerigordos: Sultan
Kilij Arslan I sends a Seljuk expeditionary force to assault and recapture the castle of Xerigordos. They cut off the water supply, and Rainald of Breis is forced to surrender. Many of the crusaders are killed but others convert to
Islam and become slaves.
October –
Robert II (Curthose), duke of
Normandy (a brother of King
William II), sets off to join the First Crusade. He assembles his army at
Pontarlier – and travels through
Italy to Rome. To raise money for the Crusade Robert
mortgages the Norman duchy to William, for the sum of 10,000 pennies.
October –
Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles), count of
Toulouse, sets off to join the First Crusade. He travels with his army, accompanied by his wife
Elvira and Bishop
Adhemar of Le Puy, via
Provence through the
Balkan route (along the coast of
Croatia). He arrives at Dyrrachium to march to
Thessaloniki.
October –
Bohemond I, Italo-Norman prince of
Taranto (the son of Duke
Robert Guiscard), departs to join the First Crusade. He crosses the Adriatic Sea from
Brindisi with his army (some 4,000 men), and arrives in
Vorë. While traveling, Bohemond gives strict orders not to plunder Byzantine villages.
October 21 –
Battle of Civetot: The Seljuk Turks led by Kilij Arslan I defeat the People's army (20,000 men) near Nicaea. The crusaders are slaughtered, and the camp at Civetot is captured. Only children are spared and sent into slavery. Around 3,000 manage to escape back to Constantinople.[24]
December – The last of the four planned Crusader armies arrives at Constantinople, bringing the total numbers to 60,000 infantry and knights. Curiously there isn't a single king among the Crusaders' leaders. At this time Philip I, William II, and Henry IV are all under
excommunication by Urban II.
December 25 – Godfrey of Bouillon is appointed the primary leader of the First Crusade, making it a largely French war in practice and causing the inhabitants of the
Holy Land to refer to Europeans generally as "Franks". Godfrey and the other leaders agree to take an oath of loyalty to Alexios I.
May 14 –
Siege of Nicaea: The Crusaders begin their campaign with the siege of
Nicaea (the capital of the
Sultanate of Rum), assigning their forces to different sections of the walls, which are well-defended with 200 towers. Towards the end, an advance party of the
Seljuk Turks is defeated by troops of
Raymond IV (Saint-Gilles) and
Robert II.[27]
June 19 – The Seljuk Turks surrender Nicaea to the Crusaders after a month siege. The Byzantines occupy the city; their commander
Manuel Boutoumites is named by Emperor
Alexios I (Komnenos) as doux of Nicaea. In the consternation the Crusaders are not allowed to plunder the city and are forced (again) to pledge their allegiance to Alexios.
July 1 –
Battle of Dorylaeum: The Crusaders defeat a Seljuk army led by
Kilij Arslan I, ruler of the Sultanate of Rum, who wants revenge for the capture of Nicaea. During the battle many Crusaders are killed but the Seljuk Turks are forced to flee and abandon their tents and treasure after being surprised by the arrival of a second Crusader army.
October 21 –
Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders arrive outside the city and begin the siege. They can not impose a complete blockade on Antioch. The Seljuk garrison comes out of the city to harass Crusader siege-lines and intercept supply convoys (supported by a Genoese fleet of 12 galleys) from
Saint Symeon and
Alexandretta (modern
Turkey).[28]
December 31 – Battle of Harenc: The Crusaders under the command of Bohemond I and Robert II defeat Seljuk forces from
Aleppo, which try to relieve besieged Antioch.[29]
Europe
April/May –
Battle of Gvozd Mountain: In an attempt to win the crown of the
Kingdom of Croatia, the Hungarian army crosses the
Drava River and invades Croatia. King
Peter II of Croatia moves his residency at
Knin Castle to defend his kingdom. The two armies meet each other near Gvozd Mountain (modern-day
Mala Kapela). After a fierce battle Peter, the last Croatian king, is defeated and killed by the Hungarians.
Summer – Almoravid forces launch a new campaign in
Al-Andalus (modern
Spain). Sultan
Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the
Almoravid Empire, is honored with the title of Amir al Muslimin ("Commander of the Muslims").[30]
King
Donald III (the Fair) is deposed by his nephew
Edgar (who is supported by King
William II) after a 4-year reign. Edgar (nicknamed Probus, "the Valliant") becomes ruler of
Scotland (until
1107).
England
William II orders the construction of
Westminster Hall near
Westminster Abbey in
London. The hall is designed to hold
banquets, ceremonies and coronations that take place in the Abbey nearby.
By topic
Religion
October –
Anselm, archbishop of
Canterbury, goes into
exile. Conflicts between him and William II result in Anselm leaving
England and heading for
Rome. William confiscates Anselm's land.
February 9 –
Battle of the Lake of Antioch: The Crusaders under
Bohemond I defeat a Seljuk relief force (some 12,000 men) led by Sultan
Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan of
Aleppo. Bohemond gathers 700 knights, and marches in the night to ambush the Seljuk Turks at the
Lake of Antioch (modern
Turkey). After several successful cavalry charges the Crusaders rout the Seljuk army, forcing Radwan to retreat back to Aleppo.[31]
March 10 –
Baldwin of Boulogne enters
Edessa, and is welcomed as liberator by the Armenian clergy. The local population massacres the Seljuk garrison and officials – or forces them to flee. Baldwin is acknowledged as their ruler (or doux). He assumes the title of count and establishes the first
crusader state. Baldwin marries
Arda of Armenia, daughter of Lord
Thoros of Marash, and consolidates his conquered territory.[32]
June 3 –
Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders under Bohemond I capture
Antioch after a 8-month siege. He established secret contact with
Firouz, an Armenian guard who controlled the "Tower of the Two Sisters". He opened the gates and Bohemond entered the city. Thousands of Christians are massacred along with Muslims. Bohemond is named Prince of Antioch (under protest) and creates the
Principality of Antioch.[28]
June 5 –
Battle of Antioch: Emir
Kerbogha, ruler (atabeg) of
Mosul, arrives at Antioch with a Seljuk army (35,000 men) to relieve the city. He lays siege to the Crusaders who have just captured the city themselves (although they do not have full control of it). A Byzantine relief force led by Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos turns back after Count
Stephen of Blois convinces them that the situation in Antioch is hopeless.[33]
June 28 – Following the
Holy Lance discovery by
Peter Bartholomew in Antioch, the Crusaders under Bohemond I (leaving only 200 men) sortie from the city and defeat the Seljuk army. Kerbogha is forced to withdraw to Mosul, the garrison in the citadel surrenders to Bohemond personally (who raises his
banner above the city) and the Crusaders occupy Antioch. The Crusade is delayed for the rest of the year.[34]
July 14 – Donation of Altavilla: Bohemond I grants commercial privileges and the right to use warehouses (fondaco) to the
Republic of Genoa. This marks the beginning of Italian merchant settlements in the
Levant.[35]
December 12 –
Siege of Ma'arra: The Crusaders capture the city of
Ma'arra after a month's siege and massacre part of the population. Short of supplies, the army is accused of widespread
cannibalism.
January 22 – The Crusaders, under Raymond IV, reach
Masyaf, where a treaty is agreed to. They decide to continue the march, rather than to capture or destroy the town. The next day the Crusaders enter the deserted town of
Rafaniyah, that provides them with much-needed supplies. Raymond moves into the
Buqaia Valley, and takes the strategic Kurdish fortress of Hosn al-Akrad (the future
Krak des Chevaliers castle).[38]
February – The Crusaders under
Godfrey of Bouillon set out from Antioch to
Latakia. They are joined by forces of Bohemond I and
Robert II, count of
Flanders. On their arrival, Bohemond decides to turn back to consolidate his power in Antioch. Godfrey and Robert move on to besiege the small sea-port of
Jabala. After two weeks, the Emir of Jabala makes a truce, and accepts the suzerainty of the Crusaders.[39]
February 14 – The Crusaders under Raymond IV besiege the fortified town of
Akkar – whose garrison is loyal to
Jalal al-Mulk Abu'l-Hasan, emir of
Tripoli (modern
Lebanon). On May 13 after a 3-month siege the investment of Akkar is raised and Raymond orders the camp to be struck. The Crusader host, finally joined by the forces of Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert II, resumes his march southwards to Tripoli.[40]
February 17 – Raymond IV sends a small part of his army under
Raymond Pilet to attack the port of
Tortosa on the Syrian coast. The Crusaders led many fires around the port to make believe their number is greater than it is. Fooled by the deception, the governor and the garrison flees by sea in the night leaving the port open for the Crusaders to capture. The port becomes strategically important for supplies.[41]
May – The Crusaders march past Tripoli, accompanied by guides provided by the emir who lead them safely through the towns of
Batroun and
Byblos. On May 19 they cross the
Dog River north of
Beirut into Fatimid territory. There local governors supply the Crusaders with tribute and food in return for no damage to the
agricultural area. The Fatimids keep no large troops in the north, except for small garrisons.[42]
May 20 – The Fatimid governor of
Sidon refuses to cooperate and his garrison attacks the Crusader host while they are looting local villages. The Fatimids are repulsed, the towns further south generally follow the example of Beirut. The Crusaders move on to
Tyre – Raymond IV decides to wait for two days to allow a force under
Baldwin of Le Bourg (supported by knights from Antioch) to catch up with him.[43]
May 26 – The Crusaders march to
Haifa and along the coast under
Mount Carmel to
Caesarea (modern
Israel), where they rest for four days in order to celebrate
Whitsun (Whit Sunday).
June 2–
6 – The Crusaders occupy
Arsuf and turn inland towards
Ramlah, where they reorganise for the march against Jerusalem. A Crusader force under Tancred liberates
Bethlehem.[44]
June 7 –
Siege of Jerusalem: The Crusaders reach the outskirts of Jerusalem, and begin the siege of the Holy City.
Iftikhar al-Dawla offers a peace agreement but this is refused.[45]
June 13 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Boullion launch their first assault on Jerusalem, while the Fatimid garrison and Jewish militia defend the northern wall at the
Damascus Gate.[46]
June 17 – A naval squadron of six Genoese ships led by
Guglielmo Embriaco (loaded with military materials) enters the port of
Jaffa; all except one are trapped by a larger Fatimid fleet.[47]
July 8 – The Crusaders attempt to take Jerusalem by storm but are repulsed. In a
procession they walk around the walls under leadership of priests in the hope the city would surrender.[48]
July 13 – The Crusader army (some 12,000 men) launch a final assault on Jerusalem. The attacks against the northern and southern wall are repulsed without establishing a foothold.[49]
The Crusaders breach the walls of Jerusalem after a two-pronged assault.
Iftikhar al-Dawla surrenders Jerusalem to Raymond IV in the
Tower of David with a great sum of treasure in return for his life. He is escorted out of the city with his bodyguard.[50]
August 10 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon (supported by 1,200–1,300 knights) assemble at
Yibna (
Ibelin) – close to the coast and almost halfway from Jaffa to
Ascalon.[52]
August 12 –
Battle of Ascalon: The Crusader army (some 10,000 men) decisively defeats the Fatimids who are sent to relieve Jerusalem. Vizier
Al-Afdal is forced to retreat to
Egypt.[53]
November – A Crusader army under Bohemond I travels south to begin a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They are accompanied by
Baldwin of Boulogne, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon.[54]
^Gilbert Meynier (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte; p. 83.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of the Crusades. Vol II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 96–97.
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^Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160.
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abPicard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 109.
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^Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 160.
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^Picard C. (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident au Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
^Potter, Philip J. (2009). Gothic Kings of Britain: The Lives of 31 Medieval Rulers (1016–1399), pp. 127–128. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland.
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^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 101.
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^Gerd Mentgen. Crusades in Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution (Vol 1), ed. Richard S. Levy, pp. 151–53.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 102.
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^Chazan, R. (1996). European Jwery and the First Crusade, p. 122. University of California Press.
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^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 115.
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^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 116–117.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 104.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 105.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 107–108.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 109.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 221.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 222.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 224.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 69–70. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 223.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 227–228.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 228.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 71. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 73. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, pp. 73–76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 76. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 236.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 237.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 242.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99 - Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 83. Osprey Publishing: Campaign 132.
ISBN978-1-84176-515-0.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 250.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.
^Steven Runciman (1951). A History of the Crusades. Vol I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 251.
ISBN978-0-141-98550-3.