This is a list of
plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce
psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as
psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as
entheogens for millennia.[1][2]
The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.
Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.
The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of
medical and
recreational cannabis.[citation needed]
Tryptamines
Many of the psychedelic plants contain
dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other
tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (
Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an
MAOI and it needs to be extremely concentrated to be vaporized.
Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid
gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]
Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[20][21][22]
Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[9] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine
N-oxide[23]
Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[25] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[26] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[27] Alkaloids are present in the bark[28] and leaves.[29]
Acacia podalyriifolia, Tryptamine in the leaf,[9] 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts.[30] Although this species is claimed to contain 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark the reference for this is invalid as there is no reference to Acacia Podalyriffolia anywhere in the reference article. Additionally, well known and proven extraction techniques for DMT have failed to produce any DMT or alkaloids from fresh bark or the leaves on multiple sample taken at various seasons. Should DMT actually exist in this species of Acacia then it exists in extremely small amounts and have failed to produce any alkaloids with Acid/Base extraction techniques using HCl/Na(OH)2. On the same note, more academic research is definitely required into the DMT content of this and other Australian Acacia species with proper chemical analysis of sample.[citation needed]
Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), DMT;[6] 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT[55] DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers;
Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[61]
Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make
Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a
benzodiazepine receptorinverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive,
anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[96]
Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is
Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their
esters and
salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas
opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the
Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and
analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.
An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.
In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.
The plant contains a
latex that thickens into
opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids.[6] The main psychoactive alkaloids are:
Used by Chinese residents of Mexico during the early 20th century as a legal substitute for opium and currently smoked as a marijuana substitute.[citation needed]
Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against
gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or
lucid dreams due to its properties as an
oneirogen.[121]
Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of
Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.[citation needed]
Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[136]Nymphaea caerulea is unrelated to Nelumbo nucifera the Sacred Lotus, with Nymphaea in the
Nymphales, one of the oldest and most basal linegages of flowering plants and with Nelumbo in
Proteales one of the
core eudicots. Their morphological similarties being entirely
convergent evolution, however they apparently have convergently evolved similar biochemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids
nuciferine and
apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs.[citation needed]
These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical
Lotophagi in
Homer's
Odyssey.
Used in
aromatherapy, Nymphaea caerulea is purported to have a "divine" essence, bringing euphoria, heightened awareness and tranquility.[citation needed]
Other sources cite anti-spasmodic and sedative, purifying and calming properties.
Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with
synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to
cannabis.[158][159] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.[citation needed]
^Kohek, Maja; Sánchez Avilés, Constanza; Romaní, Oriol; Bouso, José Carlos (2021). "Ancient psychoactive plants in a global village: The ritual use of cannabis in a self-managed community in Catalonia". International Journal of Drug Policy. 98. Elsevier BV: 103390.
doi:
10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103390.
ISSN0955-3959.
PMID34340169.
^Meyer, B. N.; Helfrich, J. S.; Nichols, D. E.; McLaughlin, J. L.; Davis, D. V.; Cooks, R. G. (1983). "Cactus Alkaloids. LIII. Coryphanthine and O-Methyl-Candicine, Two New Quaternary Alkaloids from Coryphantha greenwoodii". Journal of Natural Products. 46 (5): 688–693.
doi:
10.1021/np50029a017.
^"Archived copy". users.lycaeum.org. Archived from
the original on 8 March 2001. Retrieved 17 January 2022.{{
cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link)
^Matsumoto K, Horie S, Ishikawa H, Takayama H, Aimi N, Ponglux D, Watanabe K (March 2004). "Antinociceptive effect of 7-hydroxymitragynine in mice: Discovery of an orally active opioid analgesic from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa". Life Sciences. 74 (17): 2143–2155.
doi:
10.1016/j.lfs.2003.09.054.
PMID14969718.
^Menzies, John R.W; Paterson, Stewart J.; Duwiejua, Mahama; Corbett, Alistair D. (1998). "Opioid activity of alkaloids extracted from Picralima nitida (Fam. Apocynaceae)". European Journal of Pharmacology. 350 (1): 101–108.
doi:
10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00232-5.
PMID9683021.
^Arens H, Borbe HO, Ulbrich B, Stöckigt J (December 1982). "Detection of pericine, a new CNS-active indole alkaloid from Picralima nitida cell suspension culture by opiate receptor binding studies". Planta Medica. 46 (4): 210–4.
doi:
10.1055/s-2007-971216.
PMID6298847.
S2CID7758884.
^Roberts MF, Wink M (30 June 1998). Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications. Springer. pp. 68–69.
ISBN978-0-306-45465-3.
^Verotta L, Pilati T, Tatò M, Elisabetsky E, Amador TA, Nunes DS (March 1998). "Pyrrolidinoindoline Alkaloids from Psychotria colorata1". Journal of Natural Products. 61 (3): 392–6.
doi:
10.1021/np9701642.
PMID9548883.
^Mitaine, A. C.; Mesbah, K; Richard, B; Petermann, C; Arrazola, S; Moretti, C; Zèches-Hanrot, M; Men-Olivier, L. L. (1996). "Alkaloids from Aspidosperma species from Bolivia". Planta Medica. 62 (5): 458–61.
doi:
10.1055/s-2006-957939.
PMID17252481.
S2CID260251185.
^Halpern, J.H. (2004). "Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 102 (2): 131–138.
doi:
10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.03.003.
PMID15163594.
S2CID30734515. Although LSD does not occur in nature, a close analogue, lysergic acid amide (LSA, ergine) is found in the seeds of Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian baby woodrose)
^Hui KM, Wang XH, Xue H (2000). "Interaction of flavones from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis with the benzodiazepine site". Planta Med. 66 (1): 91–3.
doi:
10.1055/s-0029-1243121.
PMID10705749.
S2CID260249283.
^J. F. Sobiecki (2008). "A review of plants used in divination in southern Africa and their psychoactive effects". Southern African Humanities. 20: 333–351.
S2CID37305695.
^Duke, James A. (2017-10-24). Handbook of Phytochemical Constituent Grass, Herbs and Other Economic Plants: Herbal Reference Library (2 ed.). New York: Routledge.
ISBN978-0-203-75262-3.
^Cornara, L.; Fortuna-Perez, A. P.; Bruni, I.; Salis, A.; Damonte, G.; Borghesi, B.; Clericuzio, M. (2018-09-01). "Zornia latifolia: a smart drug being adulterated by Stylosanthes guianensis". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 132 (5): 1321–1331.
doi:
10.1007/s00414-018-1774-z.
hdl:11449/164509.
ISSN1437-1596.
PMID29362872.
S2CID12630518.
This is a list of
plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce
psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as
psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as
entheogens for millennia.[1][2]
The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.
Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.
The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of
medical and
recreational cannabis.[citation needed]
Tryptamines
Many of the psychedelic plants contain
dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other
tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (
Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an
MAOI and it needs to be extremely concentrated to be vaporized.
Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid
gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]
Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[20][21][22]
Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[9] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine
N-oxide[23]
Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[25] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[26] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[27] Alkaloids are present in the bark[28] and leaves.[29]
Acacia podalyriifolia, Tryptamine in the leaf,[9] 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts.[30] Although this species is claimed to contain 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark the reference for this is invalid as there is no reference to Acacia Podalyriffolia anywhere in the reference article. Additionally, well known and proven extraction techniques for DMT have failed to produce any DMT or alkaloids from fresh bark or the leaves on multiple sample taken at various seasons. Should DMT actually exist in this species of Acacia then it exists in extremely small amounts and have failed to produce any alkaloids with Acid/Base extraction techniques using HCl/Na(OH)2. On the same note, more academic research is definitely required into the DMT content of this and other Australian Acacia species with proper chemical analysis of sample.[citation needed]
Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), DMT;[6] 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT[55] DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers;
Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[61]
Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make
Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a
benzodiazepine receptorinverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive,
anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[96]
Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is
Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their
esters and
salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas
opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the
Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and
analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.
An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.
In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.
The plant contains a
latex that thickens into
opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids.[6] The main psychoactive alkaloids are:
Used by Chinese residents of Mexico during the early 20th century as a legal substitute for opium and currently smoked as a marijuana substitute.[citation needed]
Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against
gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or
lucid dreams due to its properties as an
oneirogen.[121]
Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of
Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.[citation needed]
Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[136]Nymphaea caerulea is unrelated to Nelumbo nucifera the Sacred Lotus, with Nymphaea in the
Nymphales, one of the oldest and most basal linegages of flowering plants and with Nelumbo in
Proteales one of the
core eudicots. Their morphological similarties being entirely
convergent evolution, however they apparently have convergently evolved similar biochemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids
nuciferine and
apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs.[citation needed]
These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical
Lotophagi in
Homer's
Odyssey.
Used in
aromatherapy, Nymphaea caerulea is purported to have a "divine" essence, bringing euphoria, heightened awareness and tranquility.[citation needed]
Other sources cite anti-spasmodic and sedative, purifying and calming properties.
Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with
synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to
cannabis.[158][159] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.[citation needed]
^Kohek, Maja; Sánchez Avilés, Constanza; Romaní, Oriol; Bouso, José Carlos (2021). "Ancient psychoactive plants in a global village: The ritual use of cannabis in a self-managed community in Catalonia". International Journal of Drug Policy. 98. Elsevier BV: 103390.
doi:
10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103390.
ISSN0955-3959.
PMID34340169.
^Meyer, B. N.; Helfrich, J. S.; Nichols, D. E.; McLaughlin, J. L.; Davis, D. V.; Cooks, R. G. (1983). "Cactus Alkaloids. LIII. Coryphanthine and O-Methyl-Candicine, Two New Quaternary Alkaloids from Coryphantha greenwoodii". Journal of Natural Products. 46 (5): 688–693.
doi:
10.1021/np50029a017.
^"Archived copy". users.lycaeum.org. Archived from
the original on 8 March 2001. Retrieved 17 January 2022.{{
cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link)
^Matsumoto K, Horie S, Ishikawa H, Takayama H, Aimi N, Ponglux D, Watanabe K (March 2004). "Antinociceptive effect of 7-hydroxymitragynine in mice: Discovery of an orally active opioid analgesic from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa". Life Sciences. 74 (17): 2143–2155.
doi:
10.1016/j.lfs.2003.09.054.
PMID14969718.
^Menzies, John R.W; Paterson, Stewart J.; Duwiejua, Mahama; Corbett, Alistair D. (1998). "Opioid activity of alkaloids extracted from Picralima nitida (Fam. Apocynaceae)". European Journal of Pharmacology. 350 (1): 101–108.
doi:
10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00232-5.
PMID9683021.
^Arens H, Borbe HO, Ulbrich B, Stöckigt J (December 1982). "Detection of pericine, a new CNS-active indole alkaloid from Picralima nitida cell suspension culture by opiate receptor binding studies". Planta Medica. 46 (4): 210–4.
doi:
10.1055/s-2007-971216.
PMID6298847.
S2CID7758884.
^Roberts MF, Wink M (30 June 1998). Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications. Springer. pp. 68–69.
ISBN978-0-306-45465-3.
^Verotta L, Pilati T, Tatò M, Elisabetsky E, Amador TA, Nunes DS (March 1998). "Pyrrolidinoindoline Alkaloids from Psychotria colorata1". Journal of Natural Products. 61 (3): 392–6.
doi:
10.1021/np9701642.
PMID9548883.
^Mitaine, A. C.; Mesbah, K; Richard, B; Petermann, C; Arrazola, S; Moretti, C; Zèches-Hanrot, M; Men-Olivier, L. L. (1996). "Alkaloids from Aspidosperma species from Bolivia". Planta Medica. 62 (5): 458–61.
doi:
10.1055/s-2006-957939.
PMID17252481.
S2CID260251185.
^Halpern, J.H. (2004). "Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 102 (2): 131–138.
doi:
10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.03.003.
PMID15163594.
S2CID30734515. Although LSD does not occur in nature, a close analogue, lysergic acid amide (LSA, ergine) is found in the seeds of Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian baby woodrose)
^Hui KM, Wang XH, Xue H (2000). "Interaction of flavones from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis with the benzodiazepine site". Planta Med. 66 (1): 91–3.
doi:
10.1055/s-0029-1243121.
PMID10705749.
S2CID260249283.
^J. F. Sobiecki (2008). "A review of plants used in divination in southern Africa and their psychoactive effects". Southern African Humanities. 20: 333–351.
S2CID37305695.
^Duke, James A. (2017-10-24). Handbook of Phytochemical Constituent Grass, Herbs and Other Economic Plants: Herbal Reference Library (2 ed.). New York: Routledge.
ISBN978-0-203-75262-3.
^Cornara, L.; Fortuna-Perez, A. P.; Bruni, I.; Salis, A.; Damonte, G.; Borghesi, B.; Clericuzio, M. (2018-09-01). "Zornia latifolia: a smart drug being adulterated by Stylosanthes guianensis". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 132 (5): 1321–1331.
doi:
10.1007/s00414-018-1774-z.
hdl:11449/164509.
ISSN1437-1596.
PMID29362872.
S2CID12630518.