Puyuma | |
---|---|
Pinuyumayan | |
Native to | Taiwan |
Ethnicity | Puyuma people |
Native speakers | 8,500 (2002) [1] |
Austronesian
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 |
pyu |
Glottolog |
puyu1239 |
ELP | Puyuma |
Linguasphere | 30-JAA-a |
(red) Puyuma | |
Puyuma is classified as Vulnerable by the
UNESCO
Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |
The Puyuma language or Pinuyumayan ( Chinese: 卑南語; pinyin: Bēinányǔ), is the language of the Puyuma, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family. Most speakers are older adults.
Puyuma is one of the more divergent of the Austronesian languages and falls outside reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian.
The internal classification of Puyuma dialects below is from Ting (1978). Nanwang Puyuma is considered to be the relatively phonologically conservative but grammatically innovative, as in it preserves proto-Puyuma voiced plosives but syncretizes the use of both oblique and genitive case. [2]
Puyuma-speaking villages are: [3]
Puyuma has 18 consonants and 4 vowels:
Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | ||||
Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | ʈ ⟨tr⟩ | k | ʔ ⟨’⟩ | |
Voiced | b | d | ɖ ⟨dr⟩ | ɡ | |||
Fricative | s | ||||||
Trill | r | ||||||
Approximant | l ⟨lr⟩ | ɭ ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | w |
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Mid | ə ⟨e⟩ | ||
Open | a |
Note that Teng uses ⟨lr⟩ for / ɭ/ and ⟨l⟩ for / l/, unlike in official version. The official orthography is used in this article.
Puyuma verbs have four types of focus: [5]
There are three verbal aspects: [5]
There are two modes: [5]
Affixes include: [5]
Active | Patient | Locative | Causative | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Realis | Unmarked | tremakaw | trakawaw | trakaway | trakawanay |
Progressive | trematrakaw | tratrakawaw | tratrakaway | tratrakawanay | |
Durative | trematratrakaw | tratratrakawaw | tratratrakaway | tratratrakawanay | |
Irrealis | tratrakaw | tratrakawi | tratrakawan | ||
Imperative | trakaw | trakawi | trakawu | trakawan | |
Hortative | tremakawa | — |
Puyuma has a verb-initial word order.
Articles include: [7]
The Puyuma personal pronouns are: [8]
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative [9] | Oblique: Direct |
Oblique: Indirect |
Oblique: Non-Subject |
Neutral |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
1p. (incl.) | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
1p. (excl.) | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | – |
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative (Subject) |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) |
Genitive |
---|---|---|---|
1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
3s. | – | tu= | tu= |
1p. (incl.) | =ta | ta= | ta= |
1p. (excl.) | =mi | niam= | mi= |
2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
3p. | – | tu= | tu= |
The Puyuma affixes are: [10]
Puyuma | |
---|---|
Pinuyumayan | |
Native to | Taiwan |
Ethnicity | Puyuma people |
Native speakers | 8,500 (2002) [1] |
Austronesian
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 |
pyu |
Glottolog |
puyu1239 |
ELP | Puyuma |
Linguasphere | 30-JAA-a |
(red) Puyuma | |
Puyuma is classified as Vulnerable by the
UNESCO
Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |
The Puyuma language or Pinuyumayan ( Chinese: 卑南語; pinyin: Bēinányǔ), is the language of the Puyuma, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family. Most speakers are older adults.
Puyuma is one of the more divergent of the Austronesian languages and falls outside reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian.
The internal classification of Puyuma dialects below is from Ting (1978). Nanwang Puyuma is considered to be the relatively phonologically conservative but grammatically innovative, as in it preserves proto-Puyuma voiced plosives but syncretizes the use of both oblique and genitive case. [2]
Puyuma-speaking villages are: [3]
Puyuma has 18 consonants and 4 vowels:
Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | ||||
Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | ʈ ⟨tr⟩ | k | ʔ ⟨’⟩ | |
Voiced | b | d | ɖ ⟨dr⟩ | ɡ | |||
Fricative | s | ||||||
Trill | r | ||||||
Approximant | l ⟨lr⟩ | ɭ ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | w |
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Mid | ə ⟨e⟩ | ||
Open | a |
Note that Teng uses ⟨lr⟩ for / ɭ/ and ⟨l⟩ for / l/, unlike in official version. The official orthography is used in this article.
Puyuma verbs have four types of focus: [5]
There are three verbal aspects: [5]
There are two modes: [5]
Affixes include: [5]
Active | Patient | Locative | Causative | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Realis | Unmarked | tremakaw | trakawaw | trakaway | trakawanay |
Progressive | trematrakaw | tratrakawaw | tratrakaway | tratrakawanay | |
Durative | trematratrakaw | tratratrakawaw | tratratrakaway | tratratrakawanay | |
Irrealis | tratrakaw | tratrakawi | tratrakawan | ||
Imperative | trakaw | trakawi | trakawu | trakawan | |
Hortative | tremakawa | — |
Puyuma has a verb-initial word order.
Articles include: [7]
The Puyuma personal pronouns are: [8]
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative [9] | Oblique: Direct |
Oblique: Indirect |
Oblique: Non-Subject |
Neutral |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
1p. (incl.) | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
1p. (excl.) | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | – |
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative (Subject) |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) |
Genitive |
---|---|---|---|
1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
3s. | – | tu= | tu= |
1p. (incl.) | =ta | ta= | ta= |
1p. (excl.) | =mi | niam= | mi= |
2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
3p. | – | tu= | tu= |
The Puyuma affixes are: [10]