Je–Tupi–Carib | |
---|---|
(proposed) | |
Geographic distribution | eastern South America, Caribbean |
Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
Subdivisions | |
Glottolog | None |
Je–Tupi–Carib (or TuKaJê [1]) is a proposed language family composed of the Macro-Je (or Macro-Gê), Tupian and Cariban languages of South America. Aryon Rodrigues (2000) based this proposal on shared morphological patterns. [2] [3] In an earlier proposal, Rodrigues (1985) had also proposed a Tupí-Cariban language family. [4]
The Je-Tupi-Carib proposal replaces earlier long-range hypotheses, e.g. Greenberg's phyla "Jê-Pano-Carib" (linking Macro-Je and Cariban to Panoan) and "Tupi-Arawak" (linking Tupian to Arawakan), [5] or Mason's "Macro-Tupí-Guaranían" family (1950: 236–238) which groups Tupian together with Bora–Witoto and Zaparoan. [6]
However, in some cases, similarities among the language families are clearly due to more recent linguistic diffusion, as with Tupian and Jê languages ( Timbira; Guajajara, Tembe, Guaja, Urubu-Ka'apor, etc.) in the lower Tocantins- Mearim area. [7] Linguistic diffusion among Jê, Tupian, Cariban, Arawakan, and Trumai languages is also evident among the languages of the Xingu Indigenous Park. [8]
Comparison of Proto-Macro-Jê (with W = Proto-Western Macro-Jê; E = Proto-Eastern Macro-Jê), Proto-Tupí, and Proto-Karib from Nikulin (2015): [9]: 91–96
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupí | Proto-Karib |
---|---|---|---|
‘we’ | *ka (W) | *oɾʸe / *oɾʸo= (excl.),*Vy= (?) (incl.) | *apina (excl.), *kɨwɨ-ɾə (incl.) |
‘two’ | *ɾey | not reconstructible | *atyəkə |
‘I’ | *iK=, *ba= (?) | *õn / *o= | *əwɨ-ɾə |
‘eye’ | *ⁿdʌm | *=eča | *=ənu |
‘you’ | *aC=, *ka= | *ẽn / *e= | *əmə-ɾə |
‘fire’ | *ʆɯm | *=atʸa | *wapoto (?) |
‘tongue’ | *ʆɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy / *ɲɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy | *kʸũ | *nuɾu |
‘stone’ | *kɾaT ~ *kɾaK | *wita | *təpu |
‘name’ | *(ʆi=)yit | *=et | *=ətetɨ |
‘hand’ | *ⁿbo | *po / *ⁿpo | *=əmiya |
‘to die’ | *tɯC | *pap | *ɾəməpə |
‘to drink’ | *ʆop / *yop | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ənɨɾɨ |
‘louse’ | *ⁿgot (E), *tit (W) (?) | *ⁿkɨp | *(w)ayamə |
‘moon’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E) | *wačɨ | *nunnə |
‘nail’ | *pṼ=ʆay | *po=ape / *ⁿpo=ape | *=amoti |
‘blood’ | *ʆVⁿbV / *yVⁿbV (W) | *=Vʔɨ | *munu (*mɨnu?) |
‘one’ | *piyit (E) | not reconstructible | *əwinə |
‘tooth’ | *ʆɔy / *yɔy | *=ãỹ | *=ə |
‘new’ | *tʌbⁿ | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘dry’ | *tVgⁿ | *ⁿkãŋ (Proto-TG-Awetí-Mawé) | *umɨna (?) |
‘liver’ | *ⁿbaT ~ *ⁿbaK | *pɨʔa | *=əɾe |
‘to eat’ | *ku(C) | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ətəku |
‘tail’ | *ⁿbɯn | *=uway | *=kɨ (N) |
‘this’ | *toC | not reconstructible | *tə |
‘hair’ | *ʆi(C) (W) | *=ap | *(=e)tipotɨ |
‘water’ | *ⁿbiVk (W) (*koy ‘river’ (E)) | *kʼɨ | *tuna |
‘nose’ | *ʆĩya(C) / *ɲĩya(C) | *ãpɨy | *=əwna |
‘not’ | *tɔ̃T ~ *tɔ̃K | *=ãm (suffix) | *=ɾa, *=pɨɾa |
‘mouth’ | *ʆaɾᵊ(-kɔy) / *yaɾᵊ(-kɔy) | *=ẽn | *mɨta |
‘ear’ | *ʆĩp=pV(C) / *ɲĩp=pV(C) (W) | *apɨ | *pana |
‘that’ | *nã (W) (?) | not reconstructible | *mə |
‘bird’ | *pɾɤy(ᵊ) (E) (?),*ⁿbVkɾa(C) (W) | not reconstructible | *toɾono |
‘bone’ | *ʆik / *yik | *kãŋ | *ye |
‘sun’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E), *kɾV(M)PV(W) | *ⁿkʷat | *titi |
‘tree’ | *kop | *kʼɨp | *yeye |
‘ashes’ | *ⁿbɾʌk | not reconstructible | *əɾuno |
‘to give’ | *ʆɔ̃p / *ɲɔ̃p | *=ũm | *utu |
‘rain’ | *ⁿdVy | *(ã)mãn | *konopo |
‘fish’ | *mĩKnũ (W) | *ɨp, *potʸ, *poɾʸɨp | *woto, *kana |
‘neck’ | *ʆok- / *yok- | *wut | *pɨmɨ (N) |
‘breast’ | *kɤp ~ *kɛp (E) (?) | *ⁿkãm | *manatɨ |
‘leaf’ | *ʆoyᵊ (E), *ʆaɾɔ(C) (W) | *=epʷ | *yaɾe |
‘to come’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *wut (cf. also *acʼem ‘to arrive’) | *ətepɨ |
‘to kill’ | *paT ~ *paK | *aku (?) | *wə |
‘foot’ | *paɾᵊ | *pɨ / *ⁿpɨ | *pupu |
‘to sit’ | *ɲɯ̃ p | *in | not reconstructible |
‘root’ | *ʆaɾet / *yaɾet | *=apo (TG, Mundurukú) | *mitɨ |
‘horn’ | *kop | not reconstructible | *ɾe(me)tɨ (N) |
‘to fly’ | *pɔ, *ʆɔ (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘to hear’ | *ⁿbak | *=eⁿtup | *əta |
‘skin,bark’ | *kɤ | *pe | *pi |
‘long’ | *ɾɯy | *peɾeC (?) | *mɨa |
‘meat’ | *ɲĩt | *ẽt | *punu |
‘road’ | *pɾɯt | *pe / *ape | *ətema |
‘to know’ | *ⁿbak | not reconstructible | *pu |
‘egg’ | *ⁿgɾɛ(C) | *=upiʔa | *pumo |
‘seed’ | *ʆɯm | not reconstructible | *epɨ (N) |
‘knee’ | *ʆVkɾã(ỹ) / *yVkɾã(ỹ) | *=pɨ̃ʔã (?) | *=ətyə=kumu (cf. Arara =pia=gumi / =pya=gumi) |
‘head’ | *kɾãỹ | *ʔa | *pu (N) |
‘to sleep’ | *ʆɔ̃tᵊ / *ɲɔ̃tᵊ | *kʸet | *wənɨkɨ |
‘to burn’ | *pokᵊ | *pɨkʼ | *iatu |
‘to bite’ | *pɾop ~ *pɾʌp | *čukʼu | *əte(ka) |
‘fat’ | *tɔbⁿ | *kʸap | *katɨ |
‘man’ | *ⁿbɯn | *aɨče | *wəkɨɾɨ (N) |
‘all’ | *=pV (?) | not reconstructible, cf. PTG *=pap ‘completive’ | not reconstructible |
‘snake’ | *kaŋã | *ⁿboy | *əkəyu |
‘to see’ | *ⁿbVp (?) | *cup | *əne |
‘heavy’ | *kuʆɯ(C) | *pocɨy | *əwoti- |
‘to go’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *co | *tə |
‘cold’ | *yiyi(C) (W) | *cik ~ *čik | *komiti |
‘cloud’ | *ⁿgVkᵊ (E) (?), *ⁿbVV (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘far’ | *ɾɯy | not reconstructible | *mɨa (N), *paki (S) |
‘good’ | *ⁿbɛȶᵊ (E) | not reconstructible | *kuɾe |
‘mountain’ | *kɾãỹ | *cuʔa ~ *čuʔa | *(w)ɨpɨ |
‘wind’ | *kokᵊ | *ɨpʷɨtu | *apitetune |
‘belly’ | *tikᵊ (E) | *=ɨʔe ~ *=eʔo (?) | *waku (N) |
Jê-Tupí-Cariban basic vocabulary listed by Nikulin (2019): [10]
Nikulin (2023) identifies the following cognates in Macro-Jê and Tupian as further evidence for a Macro-Jê–Tupian family. [11]
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupian |
---|---|---|
3rd person non-coreferential prefix | *i- / *c- | *i- / *c- |
‘meat, flesh’ | *ĩt / *-ñĩt | *ẽT / *-jẽT |
‘to stand’ | *ja (nonfinite *-ja-m) | *-ja or *-ʔãP |
‘name’ | *-jet | *-jeT |
‘father’ | *-jo₂m | *-joP |
‘pus’ | *-jo₂w° | *-joP ‘fish roe, pus’ |
‘tooth’ | *-juñ° | *-jãC |
‘to ingest’ (‘to eat/drink’) | *-ko₂ | *-ꝁo |
‘tree, tree-like object (leg, horn, bone)’ | *(-)ky₁m° | *(-)ꝁɯP |
‘liver’ | *-mbâ | *-pɨ(-)ʔa / *mbɨ(-)ʔa |
‘smoke’ | *-ñĩjə̂k | *-jĩːK |
‘feces’ | *-ñV˜ t° | *-jV˜ T |
‘earth’ | *ŋgyN° | *ꝁɯC |
‘arm’ | *-pa ‘arm, branch’ | *-pə / *mbə ‘hand, vine-like’, *-pə-ʔa / *mbə-ʔa ‘arm’ |
‘foot’ | *-pâr° | *-pɨ / *mbɨ |
‘to burn, to set on fire’ | *(-)py₁k° ~ *(-)py₁ŋ° | *-pɯK |
3rd person coreferential prefix | *ta- | *tə- |
‘to give’ | *-ũp | *-õP |
‘to go up, to rise’ | *-we(C) | *-we(ː)P |
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Tupian |
---|---|---|
‘hole’ | *-kuñ° | Proto- Mundurukuan *-kã̰j |
‘ripe’ | *-ndêp° | Tuparí -tep |
‘to kill’ | *-wĩ | Karo -wĩ |
Gloss | Proto-Tupian | Macro-Jê |
---|---|---|
‘bitter’ | *-ðəP | Proto- Cerrado *-ndap ‘sour, bitter’ |
‘to do, to say, to be like this’ | *-ꝁe | Proto- Southern Jê *kê / *ke |
‘white’ | *-ǩɨT | Proto- Cerrado *-kaː |
‘husband’ | *-mẽT | Proto-Macro-Jê *-mbi₂n (Eastern) |
‘I’ | *o- | Proto- Cerrado *wa |
‘to wake up’ | *-paK | Proto- Jabutian *-pa |
‘heavy’ | *-pətɨC | Maxakalí -ptux |
‘to go’, ‘to come’ | *-tẽP ‘to exit’, *-ʔatẽP ‘to arrive’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *tẽ (nonfinite *-tẽ-m or *-tẽ-n) ‘to go, to come’ (Eastern) |
‘to arrive’ | *-wɯC ‘to go out, to arrive’ | Proto- Cerrado *wôc, nonfinite *-wôc |
Gloss | Macro-Jê | Tupian |
---|---|---|
‘bat’ | Proto- Goyaz *nĵêp | Proto-Tupian *jɯP (Kepkiriwat and Mondé) |
‘to dig’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-kut (Eastern only) | Proto- Mundurukuan *-ɟ e-kot |
‘to enter’ | Proto-Jê *ŋgê₂ (plural only) | Proto-Tupian *-ke ~ *-ǩe (Eastern) |
‘to pierce’ | Proto- Cerrado *-pôk (sg.), *-japôk (pl.) | Proto- Tupi–Guaranian *-puK |
‘son’ | Proto- Chiquitano *´-tsay | Proto- Tuparian *-jaʔɨP or Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-caʔɨT |
‘sour’ | Proto-Jê *-jôK ‘sour, salty’ | Karitiana -syk |
‘sweet’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-jə̂ñ (Eastern) | Tuparí -hoy |
Non-cognate lookalikes or loans are identified by Nikulin (2023) as:
Nikulin (2019) suggests a Macro-Chaco hypothesis linking Jê-Tupí-Cariban (including Karirian and Bororoan) with Mataco-Guaicuruan (possibly including Zamucoan): [10]
In addition to likely shared morphology, there are also various possible Macro-Chaco shared basic vocabulary items, listed below. [10]
Reconstructed pronominal affixes of the protolanguages of the Macro-Chaco families are given in the following table:[ citation needed]
GLOSS |
Macro- Tupí |
Macro- Gê |
Proto- Carib |
Mataco- Guaicurú |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st singular |
wi-, o-, ɨ- *a-, *sʲe- [TG] |
*ʔi-, yo- | *ɨwɨ (ind.) *ʧi- (A) |
*y- |
2nd singular |
*e- (A) *né- [TG](O) |
*ʔa-, gʷa- | *m(ɨ)- (A) *a(y)- (O) |
*a- |
3rd singular |
*o- [TG](A) *i-, *ts- [TG](O) |
*i-, ɛ- | *kiʧɨ- (A) *k(i)- (O) |
*i- |
1st plural |
*ku- | *qo- | ||
2nd plural |
*pe(ye)- | *ka- | *qa- | |
3rd plural |
In this table the forms marked with (A) refer to ergative/agentive case, and the forms marked with (O) are referred to absolutive/patient/experiencer case.
Je–Tupi–Carib | |
---|---|
(proposed) | |
Geographic distribution | eastern South America, Caribbean |
Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
Subdivisions | |
Glottolog | None |
Je–Tupi–Carib (or TuKaJê [1]) is a proposed language family composed of the Macro-Je (or Macro-Gê), Tupian and Cariban languages of South America. Aryon Rodrigues (2000) based this proposal on shared morphological patterns. [2] [3] In an earlier proposal, Rodrigues (1985) had also proposed a Tupí-Cariban language family. [4]
The Je-Tupi-Carib proposal replaces earlier long-range hypotheses, e.g. Greenberg's phyla "Jê-Pano-Carib" (linking Macro-Je and Cariban to Panoan) and "Tupi-Arawak" (linking Tupian to Arawakan), [5] or Mason's "Macro-Tupí-Guaranían" family (1950: 236–238) which groups Tupian together with Bora–Witoto and Zaparoan. [6]
However, in some cases, similarities among the language families are clearly due to more recent linguistic diffusion, as with Tupian and Jê languages ( Timbira; Guajajara, Tembe, Guaja, Urubu-Ka'apor, etc.) in the lower Tocantins- Mearim area. [7] Linguistic diffusion among Jê, Tupian, Cariban, Arawakan, and Trumai languages is also evident among the languages of the Xingu Indigenous Park. [8]
Comparison of Proto-Macro-Jê (with W = Proto-Western Macro-Jê; E = Proto-Eastern Macro-Jê), Proto-Tupí, and Proto-Karib from Nikulin (2015): [9]: 91–96
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupí | Proto-Karib |
---|---|---|---|
‘we’ | *ka (W) | *oɾʸe / *oɾʸo= (excl.),*Vy= (?) (incl.) | *apina (excl.), *kɨwɨ-ɾə (incl.) |
‘two’ | *ɾey | not reconstructible | *atyəkə |
‘I’ | *iK=, *ba= (?) | *õn / *o= | *əwɨ-ɾə |
‘eye’ | *ⁿdʌm | *=eča | *=ənu |
‘you’ | *aC=, *ka= | *ẽn / *e= | *əmə-ɾə |
‘fire’ | *ʆɯm | *=atʸa | *wapoto (?) |
‘tongue’ | *ʆɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy / *ɲɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy | *kʸũ | *nuɾu |
‘stone’ | *kɾaT ~ *kɾaK | *wita | *təpu |
‘name’ | *(ʆi=)yit | *=et | *=ətetɨ |
‘hand’ | *ⁿbo | *po / *ⁿpo | *=əmiya |
‘to die’ | *tɯC | *pap | *ɾəməpə |
‘to drink’ | *ʆop / *yop | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ənɨɾɨ |
‘louse’ | *ⁿgot (E), *tit (W) (?) | *ⁿkɨp | *(w)ayamə |
‘moon’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E) | *wačɨ | *nunnə |
‘nail’ | *pṼ=ʆay | *po=ape / *ⁿpo=ape | *=amoti |
‘blood’ | *ʆVⁿbV / *yVⁿbV (W) | *=Vʔɨ | *munu (*mɨnu?) |
‘one’ | *piyit (E) | not reconstructible | *əwinə |
‘tooth’ | *ʆɔy / *yɔy | *=ãỹ | *=ə |
‘new’ | *tʌbⁿ | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘dry’ | *tVgⁿ | *ⁿkãŋ (Proto-TG-Awetí-Mawé) | *umɨna (?) |
‘liver’ | *ⁿbaT ~ *ⁿbaK | *pɨʔa | *=əɾe |
‘to eat’ | *ku(C) | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ətəku |
‘tail’ | *ⁿbɯn | *=uway | *=kɨ (N) |
‘this’ | *toC | not reconstructible | *tə |
‘hair’ | *ʆi(C) (W) | *=ap | *(=e)tipotɨ |
‘water’ | *ⁿbiVk (W) (*koy ‘river’ (E)) | *kʼɨ | *tuna |
‘nose’ | *ʆĩya(C) / *ɲĩya(C) | *ãpɨy | *=əwna |
‘not’ | *tɔ̃T ~ *tɔ̃K | *=ãm (suffix) | *=ɾa, *=pɨɾa |
‘mouth’ | *ʆaɾᵊ(-kɔy) / *yaɾᵊ(-kɔy) | *=ẽn | *mɨta |
‘ear’ | *ʆĩp=pV(C) / *ɲĩp=pV(C) (W) | *apɨ | *pana |
‘that’ | *nã (W) (?) | not reconstructible | *mə |
‘bird’ | *pɾɤy(ᵊ) (E) (?),*ⁿbVkɾa(C) (W) | not reconstructible | *toɾono |
‘bone’ | *ʆik / *yik | *kãŋ | *ye |
‘sun’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E), *kɾV(M)PV(W) | *ⁿkʷat | *titi |
‘tree’ | *kop | *kʼɨp | *yeye |
‘ashes’ | *ⁿbɾʌk | not reconstructible | *əɾuno |
‘to give’ | *ʆɔ̃p / *ɲɔ̃p | *=ũm | *utu |
‘rain’ | *ⁿdVy | *(ã)mãn | *konopo |
‘fish’ | *mĩKnũ (W) | *ɨp, *potʸ, *poɾʸɨp | *woto, *kana |
‘neck’ | *ʆok- / *yok- | *wut | *pɨmɨ (N) |
‘breast’ | *kɤp ~ *kɛp (E) (?) | *ⁿkãm | *manatɨ |
‘leaf’ | *ʆoyᵊ (E), *ʆaɾɔ(C) (W) | *=epʷ | *yaɾe |
‘to come’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *wut (cf. also *acʼem ‘to arrive’) | *ətepɨ |
‘to kill’ | *paT ~ *paK | *aku (?) | *wə |
‘foot’ | *paɾᵊ | *pɨ / *ⁿpɨ | *pupu |
‘to sit’ | *ɲɯ̃ p | *in | not reconstructible |
‘root’ | *ʆaɾet / *yaɾet | *=apo (TG, Mundurukú) | *mitɨ |
‘horn’ | *kop | not reconstructible | *ɾe(me)tɨ (N) |
‘to fly’ | *pɔ, *ʆɔ (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘to hear’ | *ⁿbak | *=eⁿtup | *əta |
‘skin,bark’ | *kɤ | *pe | *pi |
‘long’ | *ɾɯy | *peɾeC (?) | *mɨa |
‘meat’ | *ɲĩt | *ẽt | *punu |
‘road’ | *pɾɯt | *pe / *ape | *ətema |
‘to know’ | *ⁿbak | not reconstructible | *pu |
‘egg’ | *ⁿgɾɛ(C) | *=upiʔa | *pumo |
‘seed’ | *ʆɯm | not reconstructible | *epɨ (N) |
‘knee’ | *ʆVkɾã(ỹ) / *yVkɾã(ỹ) | *=pɨ̃ʔã (?) | *=ətyə=kumu (cf. Arara =pia=gumi / =pya=gumi) |
‘head’ | *kɾãỹ | *ʔa | *pu (N) |
‘to sleep’ | *ʆɔ̃tᵊ / *ɲɔ̃tᵊ | *kʸet | *wənɨkɨ |
‘to burn’ | *pokᵊ | *pɨkʼ | *iatu |
‘to bite’ | *pɾop ~ *pɾʌp | *čukʼu | *əte(ka) |
‘fat’ | *tɔbⁿ | *kʸap | *katɨ |
‘man’ | *ⁿbɯn | *aɨče | *wəkɨɾɨ (N) |
‘all’ | *=pV (?) | not reconstructible, cf. PTG *=pap ‘completive’ | not reconstructible |
‘snake’ | *kaŋã | *ⁿboy | *əkəyu |
‘to see’ | *ⁿbVp (?) | *cup | *əne |
‘heavy’ | *kuʆɯ(C) | *pocɨy | *əwoti- |
‘to go’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *co | *tə |
‘cold’ | *yiyi(C) (W) | *cik ~ *čik | *komiti |
‘cloud’ | *ⁿgVkᵊ (E) (?), *ⁿbVV (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
‘far’ | *ɾɯy | not reconstructible | *mɨa (N), *paki (S) |
‘good’ | *ⁿbɛȶᵊ (E) | not reconstructible | *kuɾe |
‘mountain’ | *kɾãỹ | *cuʔa ~ *čuʔa | *(w)ɨpɨ |
‘wind’ | *kokᵊ | *ɨpʷɨtu | *apitetune |
‘belly’ | *tikᵊ (E) | *=ɨʔe ~ *=eʔo (?) | *waku (N) |
Jê-Tupí-Cariban basic vocabulary listed by Nikulin (2019): [10]
Nikulin (2023) identifies the following cognates in Macro-Jê and Tupian as further evidence for a Macro-Jê–Tupian family. [11]
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupian |
---|---|---|
3rd person non-coreferential prefix | *i- / *c- | *i- / *c- |
‘meat, flesh’ | *ĩt / *-ñĩt | *ẽT / *-jẽT |
‘to stand’ | *ja (nonfinite *-ja-m) | *-ja or *-ʔãP |
‘name’ | *-jet | *-jeT |
‘father’ | *-jo₂m | *-joP |
‘pus’ | *-jo₂w° | *-joP ‘fish roe, pus’ |
‘tooth’ | *-juñ° | *-jãC |
‘to ingest’ (‘to eat/drink’) | *-ko₂ | *-ꝁo |
‘tree, tree-like object (leg, horn, bone)’ | *(-)ky₁m° | *(-)ꝁɯP |
‘liver’ | *-mbâ | *-pɨ(-)ʔa / *mbɨ(-)ʔa |
‘smoke’ | *-ñĩjə̂k | *-jĩːK |
‘feces’ | *-ñV˜ t° | *-jV˜ T |
‘earth’ | *ŋgyN° | *ꝁɯC |
‘arm’ | *-pa ‘arm, branch’ | *-pə / *mbə ‘hand, vine-like’, *-pə-ʔa / *mbə-ʔa ‘arm’ |
‘foot’ | *-pâr° | *-pɨ / *mbɨ |
‘to burn, to set on fire’ | *(-)py₁k° ~ *(-)py₁ŋ° | *-pɯK |
3rd person coreferential prefix | *ta- | *tə- |
‘to give’ | *-ũp | *-õP |
‘to go up, to rise’ | *-we(C) | *-we(ː)P |
Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Tupian |
---|---|---|
‘hole’ | *-kuñ° | Proto- Mundurukuan *-kã̰j |
‘ripe’ | *-ndêp° | Tuparí -tep |
‘to kill’ | *-wĩ | Karo -wĩ |
Gloss | Proto-Tupian | Macro-Jê |
---|---|---|
‘bitter’ | *-ðəP | Proto- Cerrado *-ndap ‘sour, bitter’ |
‘to do, to say, to be like this’ | *-ꝁe | Proto- Southern Jê *kê / *ke |
‘white’ | *-ǩɨT | Proto- Cerrado *-kaː |
‘husband’ | *-mẽT | Proto-Macro-Jê *-mbi₂n (Eastern) |
‘I’ | *o- | Proto- Cerrado *wa |
‘to wake up’ | *-paK | Proto- Jabutian *-pa |
‘heavy’ | *-pətɨC | Maxakalí -ptux |
‘to go’, ‘to come’ | *-tẽP ‘to exit’, *-ʔatẽP ‘to arrive’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *tẽ (nonfinite *-tẽ-m or *-tẽ-n) ‘to go, to come’ (Eastern) |
‘to arrive’ | *-wɯC ‘to go out, to arrive’ | Proto- Cerrado *wôc, nonfinite *-wôc |
Gloss | Macro-Jê | Tupian |
---|---|---|
‘bat’ | Proto- Goyaz *nĵêp | Proto-Tupian *jɯP (Kepkiriwat and Mondé) |
‘to dig’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-kut (Eastern only) | Proto- Mundurukuan *-ɟ e-kot |
‘to enter’ | Proto-Jê *ŋgê₂ (plural only) | Proto-Tupian *-ke ~ *-ǩe (Eastern) |
‘to pierce’ | Proto- Cerrado *-pôk (sg.), *-japôk (pl.) | Proto- Tupi–Guaranian *-puK |
‘son’ | Proto- Chiquitano *´-tsay | Proto- Tuparian *-jaʔɨP or Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-caʔɨT |
‘sour’ | Proto-Jê *-jôK ‘sour, salty’ | Karitiana -syk |
‘sweet’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-jə̂ñ (Eastern) | Tuparí -hoy |
Non-cognate lookalikes or loans are identified by Nikulin (2023) as:
Nikulin (2019) suggests a Macro-Chaco hypothesis linking Jê-Tupí-Cariban (including Karirian and Bororoan) with Mataco-Guaicuruan (possibly including Zamucoan): [10]
In addition to likely shared morphology, there are also various possible Macro-Chaco shared basic vocabulary items, listed below. [10]
Reconstructed pronominal affixes of the protolanguages of the Macro-Chaco families are given in the following table:[ citation needed]
GLOSS |
Macro- Tupí |
Macro- Gê |
Proto- Carib |
Mataco- Guaicurú |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st singular |
wi-, o-, ɨ- *a-, *sʲe- [TG] |
*ʔi-, yo- | *ɨwɨ (ind.) *ʧi- (A) |
*y- |
2nd singular |
*e- (A) *né- [TG](O) |
*ʔa-, gʷa- | *m(ɨ)- (A) *a(y)- (O) |
*a- |
3rd singular |
*o- [TG](A) *i-, *ts- [TG](O) |
*i-, ɛ- | *kiʧɨ- (A) *k(i)- (O) |
*i- |
1st plural |
*ku- | *qo- | ||
2nd plural |
*pe(ye)- | *ka- | *qa- | |
3rd plural |
In this table the forms marked with (A) refer to ergative/agentive case, and the forms marked with (O) are referred to absolutive/patient/experiencer case.