Aarskog–Scott syndrome – (AAS) A rare, inherited (X-linked) disease characterized by short stature, facial abnormalities, skeletal and genital anomalies.[1]
Abdomen – The part of the body between the
chest and
pelvis, which contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs.
Abductor pollicis longus muscle – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist.
Abscess – A collection of
pus that has built up within the tissue of the body.[2]
Accommodation – the process by which the
eye focuses on an object.
Accommodation reflex – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa).
Adaptive immune system – also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall
immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate
pathogens or prevent their growth.
Alzheimer's disease – (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic
neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.[15][16] It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of
dementia.[15][16] The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (
short-term memory loss).[15]
Anatomy – is the branch of
biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.[19] Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things.
Ankle – The ankle, or the talocrural region,[21] is the region where the
foot and the
leg meet.[22] The ankle includes three
joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the
subtalar joint, and the
inferior tibiofibular joint.[23][24][25] The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and
plantarflexion of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.[21][26]
Appendix – The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the
cecum, from which it
develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the
colon, located at the junction of the
small and the
large intestines. The term "
vermiform" comes from
Latin and means "worm-shaped." The appendix used to be considered a
vestigial organ, but this view has changed over the past decades.[31]
Arm – is the part of the
upper limb between the
glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the
elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the
forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the
hand. Anatomically the
shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term brachium may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.[32][33][34]
Arteriole – is a small-diameter
blood vessel in the
microcirculation that extends and branches out from an
artery and leads to
capillaries.[35] Arterioles have
muscular walls (usually only one to two layers of
smooth muscle) and are the primary site of
vascular resistance. The greatest change in blood pressure and velocity of blood flow occurs at the transition of arterioles to capillaries.
Axilla – (also, armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the
joint where the
arm connects to the
shoulder. It also provides the under-arm
sweat gland.
Back – The human back is the large
posterior area of the
human body, rising from the top of the
buttocks to the back of the
neck and the shoulders. It is the
surface of the body opposite from the
chest. The
vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the
shoulders at the top and the
pelvis at the bottom.
Back pain – is
pain felt in the
back. It is divided into
neck pain (cervical),
middle back pain (thoracic),
lower back pain (lumbar) or
coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected.[54] The lumbar area is the most common area for pain, as it supports most of the weight in the upper body.[55] Episodes of back pain may be
acute, sub-acute, or
chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the
arms and
hands as well as the
legs or
feet, and may include
numbness,[54] or weakness in the legs and arms.
Barotrauma – is injury caused by a pressure difference between tissues and a gas filled space.
Basal
Anatomy: In the direction of the base. Antonym apical.
Beta cell – Beta cells (β cells) are a type of
cell found in
pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete
insulin. Beta cells make up 50-70% of the cells in human islets.[56] In patients with
type I or
type II diabetes, beta-cell mass and function are diminished, leading to insufficient insulin secretion and hyperglycemia.[57]
Biceps – also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large
muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the
scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the
shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and
supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).[58]
Biceps brachii – The biceps, also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large
muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the
scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the
shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and
supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).[58]
Binge eating disorder – (BED), is an
eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent
binge eating episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without subsequent purging episodes (e.g. vomiting). BED is a recently described condition,[59] which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in
bulimia nervosa but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and
food addiction, and biological and environmental risk factors.[60] Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum.[61]
Biological engineering – or bioengineering, or bio-engineering, is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products.[62] Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and applied sciences,[63] such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics,
bioinformatics, separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies.
Biostatistics – are the application of
statistics to a wide range of topics in
biology. It encompasses the design of biological
experiments, especially in
medicine,
pharmacy,
agriculture and
fishery; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. A major branch is medical biostatistics, which is exclusively concerned with medicine and health.[66]
Bone – is a
rigidorgan that constitutes part of the
vertebrateskeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce
red and
white blood cells, store
minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable
mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple
functions.
Bone marrow – is a semi-solid
tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of
bones.[75] Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or
hematopoiesis.[76] It is composed of
hematopoietic cells,
marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis.[77] On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb).[78]
Brain – The human brain is the central
organ of the human
nervous system, and with the
spinal cord makes up the
central nervous system. The brain consists of the
cerebrum, the
brainstem and the
cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the
body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the
sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the
skull bones of the
head.
Breast – The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper
ventral region of the
torso of
primates. In females, it serves as the
mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed
infants.[83] Both females and males develop breasts from the same
embryological tissues. At
puberty,
estrogens, in conjunction with
growth hormone, cause
breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates. Breast development in other primate females generally only occurs with pregnancy.
Bronchiole – The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the
nose or
mouth to the
alveoli (air sacs) of the
lungs, in which branches no longer contain
cartilage or
glands in their
submucosa. They are branches of the
bronchi, and are part of the
conducting zone of the
respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.
Bronchus – A bronchi is a passage of airway in the
respiratory system that conducts
air into the
lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the
trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. These are the widest and enter the
lungs at each
hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.[88][89] The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as
bronchioles. No
gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
Bruit – also called vascular murmur,[90] is the abnormal sound generated by
turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery.[91]
Bulimia nervosa – also known as simply bulimia, is an
eating disorder characterized by
binge eating followed by purging.[92] Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time.[92] Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed.[92]
Buttocks – are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the
gluteus maximus and
gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to be taken off the feet while sitting.
Cancer – is a group of diseases involving abnormal
cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.[95][96] These contrast with
benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.[96]
Carotid artery, internal – The internal carotid artery is a major paired
artery, one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy. They arise from the
common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and
external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as face, scalp, skull, and
meninges.
Carpal bones – Are the eight small
bones that make up the
wrist (or carpus) that connects the
hand to the
forearm. In
human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist.[107]
Cartilage – is a resilient and smooth
elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long
bones at the
joints, and is a structural component of the
rib cage, the
ear, the
nose, the
bronchial tubes, the
intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as
bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than
muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of
chondrin.
Catheter – Is a thin
tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications.
Celiac disease – another way of spelling coeliac disease
Cerebellum – (Latin for "little brain"), is a major feature of the
hindbrain of all
vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the
cerebrum, in some animals such as the
mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger.[111] In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in
motor control. It may also be involved in some
cognitive functions such as
attention and
language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses,[112] but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to
coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from
sensory systems of the
spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity.[113] Cerebellar damage produces disorders in
fine movement,
equilibrium,
posture, and
motor learning in humans.[113]
Cervix – or cervix uteri, is the lower part of the
uterus in the
human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during
pregnancy. The narrow, central
cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the
uterine cavity and the
lumen of the
vagina. The opening into the uterus is called the
internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the
external os. The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina.
Cheek – The cheeks constitute the area of the
face below the
eyes and between the
nose and the left or right
ear. "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the
buccal nerve. The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the
vestibule or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the
mouth.
Chronic fatigue syndrome – (CFS), also referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is a medical condition characterized by
long-term fatigue and other persistent symptoms that limit a person's ability to carry out ordinary daily activities.[118][119]
Ciliary sulcus – The space between the anterior surface of the
ciliary body of the eye and the posterior surface of the base of the iris. It is one of the sites for
intraocular lens implantation.[123]
Clavicle – also known as the collar bone, is a
long bone that serves as a
strut between the
shoulder blade and the
sternum. There are two, one on the right, and one on the left side of the
trunk. Along with the shoulder blade, the clavicles make up the
shoulder girdle. The clavicle has many functions. It connects the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, helps extend
range of motion, and protects
neurovascular structures.[124]
Clinic – (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a
healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of
outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded.
Clinical research – is a branch of
healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (
efficacy) of
medications,
devices,
diagnostic products and
treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment.
Cranial nerves – are the
nerves that emerge directly from the
brain (including the
brainstem), in contrast to
spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the
spinal cord).[143] Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the
head and neck.[144]
Cure – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a
medication, a
surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured.
Cytokines – are a broad and loose category of small
proteins (~5–20
kDa) that are important in
cell signaling. Cytokines are
peptides, and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm.
Decompression sickness – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage.
Definitive treatment – Medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition.
Deltoid muscle – is the
muscle forming the rounded contour of the
humanshoulder. Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though
electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the
nervous system.[147]
Dentistry – also known as Dental and Oral Medicine, is a branch of
medicine that consists of the study,
diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of
diseases, disorders, and conditions of the
oral cavity, commonly in the
dentition but also the
oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area.[148]
Dermatitis – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in
inflammation of the
skin.[149] These diseases are characterized by
itchiness,
red skin and a
rash.[149] In cases of short duration, there may be small
blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become
thickened.[149] The area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body.[149][150]
Diagnosis – Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx[151] or DS) is the process of determining which
disease or condition explains a person's
symptoms and
signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the
medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a
history and
physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as
medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes
posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
Disease – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. Disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as
abnormal immune responses.
Ear – is the
organ of
hearing and, in mammals,
balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the
outer ear, the
middle ear and the
inner ear. The outer ear consists of the
pinna and the
ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone.[157] The middle ear includes the
tympanic cavity and the three
ossicles. The inner ear sits in the
bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the
semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the
utricle and
saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the
cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of
vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids
sound localisation.
Ear infection – Otitis is a general term for
inflammation or
infection of the
ear, in both humans and other animals. It is subdivided into the following:
Otitis externa, external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the
outer ear and
ear canal. In external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled.
Otitis media, or middle ear infection, involves the
middle ear. In otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. This very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called myringotomy and
tube insertion.
Otitis interna, or
labyrinthitis, involves the
inner ear. The inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. When the inner ear is inflamed,
vertigo is a common symptom.
Emergency medicine – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the
medical specialty concerned with the care of
illnesses or
injuries requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase.
Epiglottis – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. It stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. During swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. It is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus.
Epilepsy – is a group of
neurological disorders characterized by recurrent
epileptic seizures.[167][168] Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking.[169] These episodes can result in physical injuries, including occasionally
broken bones.[169] In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate underlying cause.[167] Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.[170]
Erectile dysfunction – (ED), also called impotence, is the type of
sexual dysfunction in which the
penis fails to become or stay
erect during
sexual activity. It is the most common sexual problem in men.[171] Through its connection to
self-image and to problems in sexual relationships, erectile dysfunction can cause psychological harm.
Erector spinae muscles – The erector spinae or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the
back.
Face – is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's
sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their
emotions.[175][176] The face is crucial for human
identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.[175]
Fallopian tube – The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are tubes that stretch from the
uterus to the
ovaries, and are part of the
female reproductive system. The fertilized egg passes through the fallopian tubes from the ovaries of
female mammals to the uterus. The fallopian tube is
simple columnar epithelium with hair-like extensions called
cilia which carry the fertilized egg. In other animals, the equivalent of a fallopian tube is an
oviduct.
Female reproductive system – is made up of the internal and external
sex organs that function in
reproduction of new
offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at
puberty to be able to produce
gametes, and to carry a
foetus to
full term. The internal sex organs are the
uterus,
fallopian tubes, and
ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the
embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces
vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of
sperm to the
fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (
egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the
vulva including the
labia,
clitoris, and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the
cervix.[177]
Gallbladder – In
vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow
organ where
bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the
small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the
liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the
common hepatic duct and releases it via the
common bile duct into the
duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of
fats.
Gastrocnemius muscle – (plural gastrocnemii) is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of
humans. It runs from its two heads just above the
knee to the
heel, a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via
Latin, from
Greekγαστήρ (gaster) 'belly' or 'stomach' and κνήμη (knḗmē) 'leg', meaning 'stomach of leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf).
Gastrointestinal tract – The gastrointestinal tract, (GI tract, GIT, digestive tract, digestion tract, alimentary canal) is the tract from the
mouth to the
anus which includes all the
organs of the
digestive system in humans and other
animals. Food taken in through the mouth is
digested to extract nutrients and absorb energy, and the waste expelled as
feces. The
mouth,
esophagus,
stomach and
intestines are all part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the
stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.
Gene therapy – (also called human gene transfer) is a
medical field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of
nucleic acids into a patient's cells as a
drug to treat disease.[183][184]
Geriatrics – or geriatric medicine,[190] is a specialty that focuses on health care of
elderly people.[191] It aims to promote
health by
preventing and treating
diseases and
disabilities in
older adults.[192] There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or geriatric physician, a physician who specializes in the care of elderly people. Rather, this decision is determined by the individual patient's needs, and the availability of a specialist. It is important to note the difference between geriatrics, the care of aged people, and
gerontology, which is the study of the
aging process itself. The term geriatrics comes from the
Greek γέρων geron meaning "old man", and ιατρός iatros meaning "healer". However, geriatrics is sometimes called medical gerontology.
Gonad – A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland[193] is a mixed gland that produces the
gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the
female of the species the reproductive cells are the
egg cells, and in the
male the reproductive cells are the
sperm.[194] The male gonad, the
testicle, produces sperm in the form of
spermatozoa. The female gonad, the
ovary, produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are
haploid cells. Some
hermaphroditic animals have a type of gonad called an
ovotestis.
The guarding reflex in the
urinary system is the gradual tightening of the
external urethral sphincter, which prevents
urine from exiting the
bladder as the bladder fills and pressure on the sphincter increases. At low levels of pressure this occurs unconsciously.[199]
Head – In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the
human body. It supports the
face and is maintained by the
skull, which itself encloses the
brain. The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony
skull. The
brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the
neck, and the seven
cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weighs between 2.3 and 5 kilograms (5.1 and 11.0 lb) The face is the
anterior part of the head, containing the
eyes,
nose, and
mouth. On either side of the mouth, the
cheeks provide a fleshy border to the
oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head.
Health – as defined by the
World Health Organization (WHO), is "a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or
infirmity."[211][212] This definition has been subject to controversy, as it may have limited value for implementation.[213][214][215] Health may be defined as the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental and social challenges throughout life.[216]
Iliac artery, external – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the
common iliac arteries anterior to the
sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. They proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the
psoas major muscles. They exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the
inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the
pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the
femoral arteries.[217] The external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant.
Ilium – (plural ilia), is the uppermost and largest part of the
hip bone, and appears in most
vertebrates including
mammals and
birds, but not
bony fish. All reptiles have an ilium except
snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium.[218] The ilium of the
human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the
acetabulum.
Immune system – is a network of
biological processes that protects an
organism against
disease. It detects and responds to a wide variety of
pathogens, from
viruses to
parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood
splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy
tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The
innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The
adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use
molecules and
cells to perform their functions.
Immunology – is a branch of
biology[219] that covers the study of
immune systems[220] in all
organisms.[221] Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the
physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as
autoimmune diseases,
hypersensitivities,[222]immune deficiency,[223] and
transplant rejection[224]); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro,[225]in situ, and in vivo.[226] Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.
Jaw – The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the
mouth, typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term jaws is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the
body plan of humans and most animals.
Joint – A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between
bones in the body which link the
skeletal system into a functional whole.[233][234][235] They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the
knee,
elbow, and
shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements.[235] Other joints such as
sutures between the bones of the
skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the
sense organs.[235] The connection between a tooth and the
jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a
gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.[236]
Kidney – The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped
organs found in
vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the
retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about 12 centimetres (4+1⁄2 inches) in length.[238][239] They receive blood from the paired
renal arteries; blood exits into the paired
renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a
ureter, a tube that carries excreted
urine to the
bladder.
Knee – In
humans and other
primates, the knee joins the
thigh with the
leg and consists of two
joints: one between the
femur and
tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and
patella (patellofemoral joint).[240] It is the largest joint in the human body.[241] The knee is a modified
hinge joint, which permits
flexion and
extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of
osteoarthritis.
Laryngeal prominence – The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, colloquially known as the neck triangle, is the lump or protrusion in the human
neck formed by the angle of the
thyroid cartilage surrounding the
larynx seen especially in males.
Lips – are a visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an
erogenous zone when used in
kissing and other acts of
intimacy.
Little finger – or pinky finger, also known as the fifth digit, or pinkie, is the most
ulnar and smallest
finger of the human
hand, opposite the
thumb, and next to the
ring finger.
Mandible – The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest
bone in the human face.[251] It forms the lower
jaw and holds the lower
teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the
maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the
ossicles of the middle ear).[252]
Masseter muscle – In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the
muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in
herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter.[253] The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest.
Maxilla – in
vertebrates, is the upper fixed (not fixed in
Neopterygii)
bone of the
jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the
hard palate in the front of the
mouth.[254][255] The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the
anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the
mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the
mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw.
Medical coding – The practice of assigning statistical codes to medical statements, such as those made during a hospital stay. Closely related to
medical billing.
Medical device – is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Medical devices benefit patients by helping health care providers diagnose and treat patients and helping patients overcome sickness or disease, improving their quality of life. Significant potential for
hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assurance before regulating governments allow marketing of the device in their country. As a general rule, as the associated risk of the device increases the amount of testing required to establish safety and efficacy also increases. Further, as associated risk increases the potential benefit to the patient must also increase.
Medical diagnosis – (abbreviated Dx[151] or DS) is the process of determining which
disease or condition explains a person's
symptoms and
signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the
medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a
history and
physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as
medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes
posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
Nail – A nail is a claw-like keratinous plate at the tip of the fingers and toes in most
primates. Nails correspond to
claws found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective
protein called
alpha-keratin which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of
vertebrates.[257]
Nanobiotechnology – Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of
nanotechnology and
biology.[258] Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.
Nasal cavity – is a large, air-filled space above and behind the
nose in the middle of the face. The
nasal septum divides the cavity into two cavities,[179] also known as fossae.[259] Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two
nostrils. The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the
respiratory system and provides the nasal passage for inhaled air from the
nostrils to the
nasopharynx and rest of the
respiratory tract. The
paranasal sinuses surround and drain into the nasal cavity.
Nasopharynx – The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the
skull to the upper surface of the
soft palate.[260] It includes the space between the
internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The
adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are
lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.
Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by
respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated.
Navel – The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, colloquially known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the
abdomen at the attachment site of the
umbilical cord.[261] All
placentalmammals have a navel.
Nerve – is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called
axons, in the
peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the
electrochemical nerve impulses called
action potentials that are transmitted along each of the
axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of
sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the
central nervous system. Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual
neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some
Schwann cells that coat the axons in
myelin.
Nervous system – is a
highly complex part of an
animal that coordinates its
actions and
sensory information by transmitting
signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the
endocrine system to respond to such events.[262]
Oblique muscle of auricle – The oblique muscle of auricle (oblique auricular muscle or Tod muscle[273]) is an
intrinsic muscle of the
outer ear. The oblique muscle of auricle is placed on the cranial surface of the
pinna. It consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the
concha to the convexity immediately above it.[274]
Olfaction – or the
sense of smell,[276] is the process of creating the perception of smell.[277] It occurs when an
odor binds to a
receptor within the nose, transmitting a signal through the
olfactory system. Olfaction has many purposes, including detecting hazards,
pheromones, and plays a role in taste.
Oncology – is a branch of
medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist.[278]
Ophthalmology – is a branch of
medicine and
surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.[279] An ophthalmologist is a
specialist in ophthalmology.[280] The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology
residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.[281] Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed.[282] Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.[283]
Optometry – is a health care profession that involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as prescribing the correction of
refractive error with
glasses or
contact lenses and the treatment of eye diseases.
Organ – is a group of
tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on many organs that co-exist in
organ systems.[284]
Palliative care – (derived from the Latin root palliare, or "to cloak") is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing
quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex illness.[288] Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist; most notably, the
World Health Organization describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial, and spiritual."[289] In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the World Health Organization takes a more broad approach, that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness.[290]
Palpation – is the process of using one's hands to check the body, especially while perceiving/diagnosing a disease or illness.[291]
Parathyroid glands – are small
endocrineglands in the neck of humans and other
tetrapods. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the
thyroid gland in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes
parathyroid hormone in response to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.
Quadriplegia – Tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia, is
paralysis caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso;
paraplegia is similar but does not affect the arms. The loss is usually sensory and motor, which means that both sensation and control are lost. The paralysis may be
flaccid or
spastic.
Radial nerve – is a
nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the
triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the
posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. It originates from the
brachial plexus, carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1.[292]
Radiology – is the medical discipline that uses
medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the body.
Radius – The radius, or radial bone, is one of the two large
bones of the
forearm, the other being the
ulna. It extends from the
lateral side of the
elbow to the
thumb side of the
wrist and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. It is a
long bone,
prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally.
Rectum – is the final straight portion of the
large intestine in humans and some other
mammals, and the
gut in others. The adult human rectum is about 12 centimetres (4.7 in) long,[293] and begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the
sigmoid colon, at the level of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory depending upon what definition is used.[294] Its
caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the
rectal ampulla. It terminates at the level of the anorectal ring (the level of the
puborectalis sling) or the
dentate line, again depending upon which definition is used.[294] In humans, the rectum is followed by the
anal canal which is about 4 centimetres (1.6 in) long, before the gastrointestinal tract terminates at the
anal verge. The word rectum comes from the
Latinrectumintestinum, meaning straight intestine.
Rectus abdominis muscle – also known as the abdominal muscle, is a paired
muscle running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen, as well as that of some other mammals. There are two parallel muscles, separated by a midline band of
connective tissue called the
linea alba. It extends from the
pubic symphysis,
pubic crest and
pubic tubercle inferiorly, to the
xiphoid process and
costal cartilages of ribs V to VII superiorly.[295] The proximal attachments are the pubic crest and the pubic symphysis. It attaches distally at the costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 and the xiphoid process of the sternum.[296]
Red blood cell – The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues — via blood flow through the circulatory system. Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.
Sacrum – The sacrum (plural: sacra or sacrums[298]), in
human anatomy, is a large, triangular
bone at the base of the
spine that forms by the fusing of sacral
vertebrae S1–S5 between 18 and 30years of age.[299]
Ulna – is a
long bone found in the
forearm that stretches from the
elbow to the smallest finger, and when in
anatomical position, is found on the
medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the
radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two.
Ulnar artery – is the main
blood vessel, with oxygenated
blood, of the
medial aspects of the
forearm. It arises from the
brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the
radial artery. It is palpable on the anterior and medial aspect of the
wrist.
Ureter – The ureters are tubes made of
smooth muscle that propel
urine from the
kidneys to the
urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 20–30 cm (8–12 in) long and around 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) in diameter. The ureter is lined by
urothelial cells, a type of
transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer in third closest to the bladder that assists with
peristalsis.
Urinary bladder – The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow muscular organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores
urine from the
kidneys before disposal by
urination. In the
human the bladder is a hollow
muscular, and distensible organ that sits on the
pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the
ureters and exits via the
urethra. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 ml (10.14 and 16.91 fl oz) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more.[312][313]
Urinary system – The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the
kidneys,
ureters,
bladder, and the
urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of
electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine.[314] The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called
nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of
urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by
urination (
voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.[315]
Uterus – The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive
secondary sex organ of the
reproductive system in
humans and most other
mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the
cervix, opens into the
vagina, while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the
fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the
fetus develops during
gestation. In the
human embryo, the uterus develops from the
paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a
duplex uterus.
V
Vaccine – is a biological preparation that provides active
acquired immunity to a particular
disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's
immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be
prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future
infection by a natural or "wild"
pathogen), or
therapeutic (e.g.,
vaccines against cancer, which are being investigated).[316][317][318][319]
Vagina – In
mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the
female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the
vulva to the
cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the
hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the
uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for
sexual intercourse and
birth. It also channels
menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related
primates as part of the monthly
menstrual cycle.
Virology – is the study of
viral – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat[320][321] – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit
hostcells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of
microbiology or of
medicine.
Visual acuity – (VA), commonly refers to the clarity of
vision, but technically rates an examinee's ability to recognize small details with precision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (1) the sharpness of the retinal image within the
eye, (2) the health and functioning of the
retina, and (3) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain.[322]
Visual field test – is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and
peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as
glaucoma,
stroke,
pituitary disease,
brain tumours or other neurological deficits. Visual field testing can be performed clinically by keeping the subject's gaze fixed while presenting objects at various places within their
visual field. Simple manual equipment can be used such as in the tangent screen test or the
Amsler grid. When dedicated machinery is used it is called a perimeter.
Visual perception – is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the
visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the
environment. This is different from
visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.
Vital signs – (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most important
medical signs that indicate the status of the body's
vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery.[324][325] The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall
health.[326] There are four primary vital signs:
body temperature,
blood pressure,
pulse (
heart rate), and breathing rate (
respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the
LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system.[327][328]
Vitrectomy – is a surgery to remove some or all of the
vitreous humor from the
eye. Anterior vitrectomy entails removing small portions of the vitreous humor from the front structures of the eye—often because these are tangled in an intraocular lens or other structures. Pars plana vitrectomy is a general term for a group of operations accomplished in the deeper part of the eye, all of which involve removing some or all of the vitreous humor—the eye's clear internal jelly.
Waist – is the part of the
abdomen between the
rib cage and
hips. On people with slim bodies, the waist is the narrowest part of the
torso. The waistline refers to the horizontal line where the waist is narrowest, or to the general appearance of the waist.
Wart – Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet, they can also affect other locations.[332] One or many warts may appear. They are not
cancerous.[333]
Weber test – is a screening
test for hearing performed with a tuning fork.[334][335] It can detect
unilateral (one-sided)conductive hearing loss (middle ear hearing loss) and unilateral
sensorineural hearing loss (inner ear hearing loss). The test is named after
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878). Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the
malleus, the
incus, and the
stapes. Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature.[336][337]
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome – (WKS) is the combined presence of
Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and alcoholic
Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes,
ataxia and impaired memory.[338]
Wernicke's area – also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the
cerebral cortex that are linked to speech, the other being
Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in
Brodmann area 22, which is located in the
superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of
right-handed individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals.
Whiplash – is a non-medical term describing a range of
injuries to the
neck caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck[339] associated with
extension,[340] although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a
colloquialism. "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms.
Working memory – is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can
hold information temporarily.[344] Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.[345][346] Working memory is often used synonymously with
short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.[345][347] Working memory is a theoretical concept central to
cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and
neuroscience.
Wrist – In
human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as 1) the
carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the
hand;[348][349] (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the
radius and the
carpus[349] and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the
metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints.[350][351] This region also includes the
carpal tunnel, the
anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the
flexor retinaculum, and the
extensor retinaculum. As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as
distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist.
X
Xanthoma – A xanthoma (pl. xanthomas or xanthomata) (condition: xanthomatosis), from
Greekξανθός (xanthós) 'yellow', is a deposition of yellowish
cholesterol-rich material that can appear anywhere in the body in various disease states.[352] They are cutaneous manifestations of
lipidosis in which
lipids accumulate in large
foam cells within the skin.[352] They are associated with
hyperlipidemias, both primary and secondary types.
Y
Yaws – is a tropical
infection of the
skin,
bones and joints caused by the
spirochetebacteriumTreponema pallidum pertenue.[353][354] The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter.[353] The center may break open and form an
ulcer.[353] This initial skin lesion typically heals after three to six months.[355] After weeks to years, joints and bones may become painful,
fatigue may develop, and new skin lesions may appear.[353] The skin of the
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open.[355] The bones (especially those of the nose) may become misshapen.[355] After five years or more large areas of skin may die, leaving a scar.[353]
Zoonosis – A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an
infectious disease caused by a
pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a
bacterium,
virus,
parasite or
prion) that has
jumped from a non-human animal (usually a
vertebrate) to a human.[366][367][368] Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others.
Zygomatic bone – In the
human skull, the zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired
irregular bone which articulates with the
maxilla, the
temporal bone, the
sphenoid bone and the
frontal bone. It is situated at the upper and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the
cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the
orbit, and parts of the
temporal fossa and the
infratemporal fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four
processes (the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal), and four borders.
Zonular dialysis – Deficient support of the lenticular capsule of the eye by the
Zonules of Zinn.[369]
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Urology, University of Texas Medical School Houston, Texas, USA
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ISBN9780878936137. Areas of the CNS made up mainly of myelinated axons are called white matter.
^Miyake, A.; Shah, P., eds. (1999). Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge University Press.
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PMID23020641. WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D'Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.
WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.
^Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 313–321.
ISBN978-0-07-148127-4. • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans. • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ... working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
^Behnke 2006, p. 76. "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal bones."
^
abMoore 2006, p. 485. "The wrist (carpus), the proximal segment of the hand, is a complex of eight carpal bones. The carpus articulates proximally with the forearm at the wrist joint and distally with the five metacarpals. The joints formed by the carpus include the wrist (radiocarpal joint), intercarpal, carpometacarpal and intermetacarpal joints. Augmenting movement at the wrist joint, the rows of carpals glide on each other [...] "
^Behnke 2006, p. 77. "With the large number of bones composing the wrist (ulna, radius, eight carpas, and five metacarpals), it makes sense that there are many, many joints that make up the structure known as the wrist."
^Baratz 1999, p. 391. "The wrist joint is composed of not only the radiocarpal and distal radioulnar joints but also the intercarpal articulations."
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Aarskog–Scott syndrome – (AAS) A rare, inherited (X-linked) disease characterized by short stature, facial abnormalities, skeletal and genital anomalies.[1]
Abdomen – The part of the body between the
chest and
pelvis, which contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs.
Abductor pollicis longus muscle – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist.
Abscess – A collection of
pus that has built up within the tissue of the body.[2]
Accommodation – the process by which the
eye focuses on an object.
Accommodation reflex – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa).
Adaptive immune system – also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall
immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate
pathogens or prevent their growth.
Alzheimer's disease – (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic
neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.[15][16] It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of
dementia.[15][16] The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (
short-term memory loss).[15]
Anatomy – is the branch of
biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.[19] Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things.
Ankle – The ankle, or the talocrural region,[21] is the region where the
foot and the
leg meet.[22] The ankle includes three
joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the
subtalar joint, and the
inferior tibiofibular joint.[23][24][25] The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and
plantarflexion of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.[21][26]
Appendix – The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the
cecum, from which it
develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the
colon, located at the junction of the
small and the
large intestines. The term "
vermiform" comes from
Latin and means "worm-shaped." The appendix used to be considered a
vestigial organ, but this view has changed over the past decades.[31]
Arm – is the part of the
upper limb between the
glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the
elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the
forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the
hand. Anatomically the
shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term brachium may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.[32][33][34]
Arteriole – is a small-diameter
blood vessel in the
microcirculation that extends and branches out from an
artery and leads to
capillaries.[35] Arterioles have
muscular walls (usually only one to two layers of
smooth muscle) and are the primary site of
vascular resistance. The greatest change in blood pressure and velocity of blood flow occurs at the transition of arterioles to capillaries.
Axilla – (also, armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the
joint where the
arm connects to the
shoulder. It also provides the under-arm
sweat gland.
Back – The human back is the large
posterior area of the
human body, rising from the top of the
buttocks to the back of the
neck and the shoulders. It is the
surface of the body opposite from the
chest. The
vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the
shoulders at the top and the
pelvis at the bottom.
Back pain – is
pain felt in the
back. It is divided into
neck pain (cervical),
middle back pain (thoracic),
lower back pain (lumbar) or
coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected.[54] The lumbar area is the most common area for pain, as it supports most of the weight in the upper body.[55] Episodes of back pain may be
acute, sub-acute, or
chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the
arms and
hands as well as the
legs or
feet, and may include
numbness,[54] or weakness in the legs and arms.
Barotrauma – is injury caused by a pressure difference between tissues and a gas filled space.
Basal
Anatomy: In the direction of the base. Antonym apical.
Beta cell – Beta cells (β cells) are a type of
cell found in
pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete
insulin. Beta cells make up 50-70% of the cells in human islets.[56] In patients with
type I or
type II diabetes, beta-cell mass and function are diminished, leading to insufficient insulin secretion and hyperglycemia.[57]
Biceps – also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large
muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the
scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the
shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and
supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).[58]
Biceps brachii – The biceps, also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large
muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the
scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the
shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and
supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).[58]
Binge eating disorder – (BED), is an
eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent
binge eating episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without subsequent purging episodes (e.g. vomiting). BED is a recently described condition,[59] which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in
bulimia nervosa but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and
food addiction, and biological and environmental risk factors.[60] Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum.[61]
Biological engineering – or bioengineering, or bio-engineering, is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products.[62] Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and applied sciences,[63] such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics,
bioinformatics, separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies.
Biostatistics – are the application of
statistics to a wide range of topics in
biology. It encompasses the design of biological
experiments, especially in
medicine,
pharmacy,
agriculture and
fishery; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. A major branch is medical biostatistics, which is exclusively concerned with medicine and health.[66]
Bone – is a
rigidorgan that constitutes part of the
vertebrateskeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce
red and
white blood cells, store
minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable
mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple
functions.
Bone marrow – is a semi-solid
tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of
bones.[75] Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or
hematopoiesis.[76] It is composed of
hematopoietic cells,
marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis.[77] On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb).[78]
Brain – The human brain is the central
organ of the human
nervous system, and with the
spinal cord makes up the
central nervous system. The brain consists of the
cerebrum, the
brainstem and the
cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the
body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the
sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the
skull bones of the
head.
Breast – The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper
ventral region of the
torso of
primates. In females, it serves as the
mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed
infants.[83] Both females and males develop breasts from the same
embryological tissues. At
puberty,
estrogens, in conjunction with
growth hormone, cause
breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates. Breast development in other primate females generally only occurs with pregnancy.
Bronchiole – The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the
nose or
mouth to the
alveoli (air sacs) of the
lungs, in which branches no longer contain
cartilage or
glands in their
submucosa. They are branches of the
bronchi, and are part of the
conducting zone of the
respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.
Bronchus – A bronchi is a passage of airway in the
respiratory system that conducts
air into the
lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the
trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. These are the widest and enter the
lungs at each
hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.[88][89] The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as
bronchioles. No
gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
Bruit – also called vascular murmur,[90] is the abnormal sound generated by
turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery.[91]
Bulimia nervosa – also known as simply bulimia, is an
eating disorder characterized by
binge eating followed by purging.[92] Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time.[92] Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed.[92]
Buttocks – are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the
gluteus maximus and
gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to be taken off the feet while sitting.
Cancer – is a group of diseases involving abnormal
cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.[95][96] These contrast with
benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.[96]
Carotid artery, internal – The internal carotid artery is a major paired
artery, one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy. They arise from the
common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and
external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as face, scalp, skull, and
meninges.
Carpal bones – Are the eight small
bones that make up the
wrist (or carpus) that connects the
hand to the
forearm. In
human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist.[107]
Cartilage – is a resilient and smooth
elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long
bones at the
joints, and is a structural component of the
rib cage, the
ear, the
nose, the
bronchial tubes, the
intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as
bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than
muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of
chondrin.
Catheter – Is a thin
tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications.
Celiac disease – another way of spelling coeliac disease
Cerebellum – (Latin for "little brain"), is a major feature of the
hindbrain of all
vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the
cerebrum, in some animals such as the
mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger.[111] In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in
motor control. It may also be involved in some
cognitive functions such as
attention and
language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses,[112] but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to
coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from
sensory systems of the
spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity.[113] Cerebellar damage produces disorders in
fine movement,
equilibrium,
posture, and
motor learning in humans.[113]
Cervix – or cervix uteri, is the lower part of the
uterus in the
human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during
pregnancy. The narrow, central
cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the
uterine cavity and the
lumen of the
vagina. The opening into the uterus is called the
internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the
external os. The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina.
Cheek – The cheeks constitute the area of the
face below the
eyes and between the
nose and the left or right
ear. "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the
buccal nerve. The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the
vestibule or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the
mouth.
Chronic fatigue syndrome – (CFS), also referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is a medical condition characterized by
long-term fatigue and other persistent symptoms that limit a person's ability to carry out ordinary daily activities.[118][119]
Ciliary sulcus – The space between the anterior surface of the
ciliary body of the eye and the posterior surface of the base of the iris. It is one of the sites for
intraocular lens implantation.[123]
Clavicle – also known as the collar bone, is a
long bone that serves as a
strut between the
shoulder blade and the
sternum. There are two, one on the right, and one on the left side of the
trunk. Along with the shoulder blade, the clavicles make up the
shoulder girdle. The clavicle has many functions. It connects the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, helps extend
range of motion, and protects
neurovascular structures.[124]
Clinic – (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a
healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of
outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded.
Clinical research – is a branch of
healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (
efficacy) of
medications,
devices,
diagnostic products and
treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment.
Cranial nerves – are the
nerves that emerge directly from the
brain (including the
brainstem), in contrast to
spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the
spinal cord).[143] Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the
head and neck.[144]
Cure – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a
medication, a
surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured.
Cytokines – are a broad and loose category of small
proteins (~5–20
kDa) that are important in
cell signaling. Cytokines are
peptides, and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm.
Decompression sickness – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage.
Definitive treatment – Medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition.
Deltoid muscle – is the
muscle forming the rounded contour of the
humanshoulder. Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though
electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the
nervous system.[147]
Dentistry – also known as Dental and Oral Medicine, is a branch of
medicine that consists of the study,
diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of
diseases, disorders, and conditions of the
oral cavity, commonly in the
dentition but also the
oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area.[148]
Dermatitis – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in
inflammation of the
skin.[149] These diseases are characterized by
itchiness,
red skin and a
rash.[149] In cases of short duration, there may be small
blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become
thickened.[149] The area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body.[149][150]
Diagnosis – Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx[151] or DS) is the process of determining which
disease or condition explains a person's
symptoms and
signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the
medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a
history and
physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as
medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes
posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
Disease – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. Disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as
abnormal immune responses.
Ear – is the
organ of
hearing and, in mammals,
balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the
outer ear, the
middle ear and the
inner ear. The outer ear consists of the
pinna and the
ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone.[157] The middle ear includes the
tympanic cavity and the three
ossicles. The inner ear sits in the
bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the
semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the
utricle and
saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the
cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of
vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids
sound localisation.
Ear infection – Otitis is a general term for
inflammation or
infection of the
ear, in both humans and other animals. It is subdivided into the following:
Otitis externa, external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the
outer ear and
ear canal. In external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled.
Otitis media, or middle ear infection, involves the
middle ear. In otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. This very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called myringotomy and
tube insertion.
Otitis interna, or
labyrinthitis, involves the
inner ear. The inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. When the inner ear is inflamed,
vertigo is a common symptom.
Emergency medicine – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the
medical specialty concerned with the care of
illnesses or
injuries requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase.
Epiglottis – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. It stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. During swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. It is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus.
Epilepsy – is a group of
neurological disorders characterized by recurrent
epileptic seizures.[167][168] Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking.[169] These episodes can result in physical injuries, including occasionally
broken bones.[169] In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate underlying cause.[167] Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.[170]
Erectile dysfunction – (ED), also called impotence, is the type of
sexual dysfunction in which the
penis fails to become or stay
erect during
sexual activity. It is the most common sexual problem in men.[171] Through its connection to
self-image and to problems in sexual relationships, erectile dysfunction can cause psychological harm.
Erector spinae muscles – The erector spinae or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the
back.
Face – is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's
sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their
emotions.[175][176] The face is crucial for human
identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.[175]
Fallopian tube – The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are tubes that stretch from the
uterus to the
ovaries, and are part of the
female reproductive system. The fertilized egg passes through the fallopian tubes from the ovaries of
female mammals to the uterus. The fallopian tube is
simple columnar epithelium with hair-like extensions called
cilia which carry the fertilized egg. In other animals, the equivalent of a fallopian tube is an
oviduct.
Female reproductive system – is made up of the internal and external
sex organs that function in
reproduction of new
offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at
puberty to be able to produce
gametes, and to carry a
foetus to
full term. The internal sex organs are the
uterus,
fallopian tubes, and
ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the
embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces
vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of
sperm to the
fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (
egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the
vulva including the
labia,
clitoris, and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the
cervix.[177]
Gallbladder – In
vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow
organ where
bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the
small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the
liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the
common hepatic duct and releases it via the
common bile duct into the
duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of
fats.
Gastrocnemius muscle – (plural gastrocnemii) is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of
humans. It runs from its two heads just above the
knee to the
heel, a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via
Latin, from
Greekγαστήρ (gaster) 'belly' or 'stomach' and κνήμη (knḗmē) 'leg', meaning 'stomach of leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf).
Gastrointestinal tract – The gastrointestinal tract, (GI tract, GIT, digestive tract, digestion tract, alimentary canal) is the tract from the
mouth to the
anus which includes all the
organs of the
digestive system in humans and other
animals. Food taken in through the mouth is
digested to extract nutrients and absorb energy, and the waste expelled as
feces. The
mouth,
esophagus,
stomach and
intestines are all part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the
stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.
Gene therapy – (also called human gene transfer) is a
medical field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of
nucleic acids into a patient's cells as a
drug to treat disease.[183][184]
Geriatrics – or geriatric medicine,[190] is a specialty that focuses on health care of
elderly people.[191] It aims to promote
health by
preventing and treating
diseases and
disabilities in
older adults.[192] There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or geriatric physician, a physician who specializes in the care of elderly people. Rather, this decision is determined by the individual patient's needs, and the availability of a specialist. It is important to note the difference between geriatrics, the care of aged people, and
gerontology, which is the study of the
aging process itself. The term geriatrics comes from the
Greek γέρων geron meaning "old man", and ιατρός iatros meaning "healer". However, geriatrics is sometimes called medical gerontology.
Gonad – A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland[193] is a mixed gland that produces the
gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the
female of the species the reproductive cells are the
egg cells, and in the
male the reproductive cells are the
sperm.[194] The male gonad, the
testicle, produces sperm in the form of
spermatozoa. The female gonad, the
ovary, produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are
haploid cells. Some
hermaphroditic animals have a type of gonad called an
ovotestis.
The guarding reflex in the
urinary system is the gradual tightening of the
external urethral sphincter, which prevents
urine from exiting the
bladder as the bladder fills and pressure on the sphincter increases. At low levels of pressure this occurs unconsciously.[199]
Head – In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the
human body. It supports the
face and is maintained by the
skull, which itself encloses the
brain. The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony
skull. The
brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the
neck, and the seven
cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weighs between 2.3 and 5 kilograms (5.1 and 11.0 lb) The face is the
anterior part of the head, containing the
eyes,
nose, and
mouth. On either side of the mouth, the
cheeks provide a fleshy border to the
oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head.
Health – as defined by the
World Health Organization (WHO), is "a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or
infirmity."[211][212] This definition has been subject to controversy, as it may have limited value for implementation.[213][214][215] Health may be defined as the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental and social challenges throughout life.[216]
Iliac artery, external – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the
common iliac arteries anterior to the
sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. They proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the
psoas major muscles. They exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the
inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the
pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the
femoral arteries.[217] The external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant.
Ilium – (plural ilia), is the uppermost and largest part of the
hip bone, and appears in most
vertebrates including
mammals and
birds, but not
bony fish. All reptiles have an ilium except
snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium.[218] The ilium of the
human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the
acetabulum.
Immune system – is a network of
biological processes that protects an
organism against
disease. It detects and responds to a wide variety of
pathogens, from
viruses to
parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood
splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy
tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The
innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The
adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use
molecules and
cells to perform their functions.
Immunology – is a branch of
biology[219] that covers the study of
immune systems[220] in all
organisms.[221] Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the
physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as
autoimmune diseases,
hypersensitivities,[222]immune deficiency,[223] and
transplant rejection[224]); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro,[225]in situ, and in vivo.[226] Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.
Jaw – The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the
mouth, typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term jaws is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the
body plan of humans and most animals.
Joint – A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between
bones in the body which link the
skeletal system into a functional whole.[233][234][235] They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the
knee,
elbow, and
shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements.[235] Other joints such as
sutures between the bones of the
skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the
sense organs.[235] The connection between a tooth and the
jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a
gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.[236]
Kidney – The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped
organs found in
vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the
retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about 12 centimetres (4+1⁄2 inches) in length.[238][239] They receive blood from the paired
renal arteries; blood exits into the paired
renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a
ureter, a tube that carries excreted
urine to the
bladder.
Knee – In
humans and other
primates, the knee joins the
thigh with the
leg and consists of two
joints: one between the
femur and
tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and
patella (patellofemoral joint).[240] It is the largest joint in the human body.[241] The knee is a modified
hinge joint, which permits
flexion and
extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of
osteoarthritis.
Laryngeal prominence – The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, colloquially known as the neck triangle, is the lump or protrusion in the human
neck formed by the angle of the
thyroid cartilage surrounding the
larynx seen especially in males.
Lips – are a visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an
erogenous zone when used in
kissing and other acts of
intimacy.
Little finger – or pinky finger, also known as the fifth digit, or pinkie, is the most
ulnar and smallest
finger of the human
hand, opposite the
thumb, and next to the
ring finger.
Mandible – The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest
bone in the human face.[251] It forms the lower
jaw and holds the lower
teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the
maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the
ossicles of the middle ear).[252]
Masseter muscle – In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the
muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in
herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter.[253] The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest.
Maxilla – in
vertebrates, is the upper fixed (not fixed in
Neopterygii)
bone of the
jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the
hard palate in the front of the
mouth.[254][255] The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the
anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the
mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the
mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw.
Medical coding – The practice of assigning statistical codes to medical statements, such as those made during a hospital stay. Closely related to
medical billing.
Medical device – is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Medical devices benefit patients by helping health care providers diagnose and treat patients and helping patients overcome sickness or disease, improving their quality of life. Significant potential for
hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assurance before regulating governments allow marketing of the device in their country. As a general rule, as the associated risk of the device increases the amount of testing required to establish safety and efficacy also increases. Further, as associated risk increases the potential benefit to the patient must also increase.
Medical diagnosis – (abbreviated Dx[151] or DS) is the process of determining which
disease or condition explains a person's
symptoms and
signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the
medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a
history and
physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as
medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes
posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
Nail – A nail is a claw-like keratinous plate at the tip of the fingers and toes in most
primates. Nails correspond to
claws found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective
protein called
alpha-keratin which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of
vertebrates.[257]
Nanobiotechnology – Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of
nanotechnology and
biology.[258] Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.
Nasal cavity – is a large, air-filled space above and behind the
nose in the middle of the face. The
nasal septum divides the cavity into two cavities,[179] also known as fossae.[259] Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two
nostrils. The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the
respiratory system and provides the nasal passage for inhaled air from the
nostrils to the
nasopharynx and rest of the
respiratory tract. The
paranasal sinuses surround and drain into the nasal cavity.
Nasopharynx – The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the
skull to the upper surface of the
soft palate.[260] It includes the space between the
internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The
adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are
lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.
Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by
respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated.
Navel – The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, colloquially known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the
abdomen at the attachment site of the
umbilical cord.[261] All
placentalmammals have a navel.
Nerve – is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called
axons, in the
peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the
electrochemical nerve impulses called
action potentials that are transmitted along each of the
axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of
sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the
central nervous system. Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual
neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some
Schwann cells that coat the axons in
myelin.
Nervous system – is a
highly complex part of an
animal that coordinates its
actions and
sensory information by transmitting
signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the
endocrine system to respond to such events.[262]
Oblique muscle of auricle – The oblique muscle of auricle (oblique auricular muscle or Tod muscle[273]) is an
intrinsic muscle of the
outer ear. The oblique muscle of auricle is placed on the cranial surface of the
pinna. It consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the
concha to the convexity immediately above it.[274]
Olfaction – or the
sense of smell,[276] is the process of creating the perception of smell.[277] It occurs when an
odor binds to a
receptor within the nose, transmitting a signal through the
olfactory system. Olfaction has many purposes, including detecting hazards,
pheromones, and plays a role in taste.
Oncology – is a branch of
medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist.[278]
Ophthalmology – is a branch of
medicine and
surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.[279] An ophthalmologist is a
specialist in ophthalmology.[280] The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology
residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.[281] Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed.[282] Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.[283]
Optometry – is a health care profession that involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as prescribing the correction of
refractive error with
glasses or
contact lenses and the treatment of eye diseases.
Organ – is a group of
tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on many organs that co-exist in
organ systems.[284]
Palliative care – (derived from the Latin root palliare, or "to cloak") is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing
quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex illness.[288] Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist; most notably, the
World Health Organization describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial, and spiritual."[289] In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the World Health Organization takes a more broad approach, that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness.[290]
Palpation – is the process of using one's hands to check the body, especially while perceiving/diagnosing a disease or illness.[291]
Parathyroid glands – are small
endocrineglands in the neck of humans and other
tetrapods. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the
thyroid gland in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes
parathyroid hormone in response to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.
Quadriplegia – Tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia, is
paralysis caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso;
paraplegia is similar but does not affect the arms. The loss is usually sensory and motor, which means that both sensation and control are lost. The paralysis may be
flaccid or
spastic.
Radial nerve – is a
nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the
triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the
posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. It originates from the
brachial plexus, carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1.[292]
Radiology – is the medical discipline that uses
medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the body.
Radius – The radius, or radial bone, is one of the two large
bones of the
forearm, the other being the
ulna. It extends from the
lateral side of the
elbow to the
thumb side of the
wrist and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. It is a
long bone,
prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally.
Rectum – is the final straight portion of the
large intestine in humans and some other
mammals, and the
gut in others. The adult human rectum is about 12 centimetres (4.7 in) long,[293] and begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the
sigmoid colon, at the level of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory depending upon what definition is used.[294] Its
caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the
rectal ampulla. It terminates at the level of the anorectal ring (the level of the
puborectalis sling) or the
dentate line, again depending upon which definition is used.[294] In humans, the rectum is followed by the
anal canal which is about 4 centimetres (1.6 in) long, before the gastrointestinal tract terminates at the
anal verge. The word rectum comes from the
Latinrectumintestinum, meaning straight intestine.
Rectus abdominis muscle – also known as the abdominal muscle, is a paired
muscle running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen, as well as that of some other mammals. There are two parallel muscles, separated by a midline band of
connective tissue called the
linea alba. It extends from the
pubic symphysis,
pubic crest and
pubic tubercle inferiorly, to the
xiphoid process and
costal cartilages of ribs V to VII superiorly.[295] The proximal attachments are the pubic crest and the pubic symphysis. It attaches distally at the costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 and the xiphoid process of the sternum.[296]
Red blood cell – The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues — via blood flow through the circulatory system. Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.
Sacrum – The sacrum (plural: sacra or sacrums[298]), in
human anatomy, is a large, triangular
bone at the base of the
spine that forms by the fusing of sacral
vertebrae S1–S5 between 18 and 30years of age.[299]
Ulna – is a
long bone found in the
forearm that stretches from the
elbow to the smallest finger, and when in
anatomical position, is found on the
medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the
radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two.
Ulnar artery – is the main
blood vessel, with oxygenated
blood, of the
medial aspects of the
forearm. It arises from the
brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the
radial artery. It is palpable on the anterior and medial aspect of the
wrist.
Ureter – The ureters are tubes made of
smooth muscle that propel
urine from the
kidneys to the
urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 20–30 cm (8–12 in) long and around 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) in diameter. The ureter is lined by
urothelial cells, a type of
transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer in third closest to the bladder that assists with
peristalsis.
Urinary bladder – The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow muscular organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores
urine from the
kidneys before disposal by
urination. In the
human the bladder is a hollow
muscular, and distensible organ that sits on the
pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the
ureters and exits via the
urethra. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 ml (10.14 and 16.91 fl oz) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more.[312][313]
Urinary system – The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the
kidneys,
ureters,
bladder, and the
urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of
electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine.[314] The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called
nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of
urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by
urination (
voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.[315]
Uterus – The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive
secondary sex organ of the
reproductive system in
humans and most other
mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the
cervix, opens into the
vagina, while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the
fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the
fetus develops during
gestation. In the
human embryo, the uterus develops from the
paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a
duplex uterus.
V
Vaccine – is a biological preparation that provides active
acquired immunity to a particular
disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's
immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be
prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future
infection by a natural or "wild"
pathogen), or
therapeutic (e.g.,
vaccines against cancer, which are being investigated).[316][317][318][319]
Vagina – In
mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the
female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the
vulva to the
cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the
hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the
uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for
sexual intercourse and
birth. It also channels
menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related
primates as part of the monthly
menstrual cycle.
Virology – is the study of
viral – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat[320][321] – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit
hostcells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of
microbiology or of
medicine.
Visual acuity – (VA), commonly refers to the clarity of
vision, but technically rates an examinee's ability to recognize small details with precision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (1) the sharpness of the retinal image within the
eye, (2) the health and functioning of the
retina, and (3) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain.[322]
Visual field test – is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and
peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as
glaucoma,
stroke,
pituitary disease,
brain tumours or other neurological deficits. Visual field testing can be performed clinically by keeping the subject's gaze fixed while presenting objects at various places within their
visual field. Simple manual equipment can be used such as in the tangent screen test or the
Amsler grid. When dedicated machinery is used it is called a perimeter.
Visual perception – is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the
visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the
environment. This is different from
visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.
Vital signs – (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most important
medical signs that indicate the status of the body's
vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery.[324][325] The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall
health.[326] There are four primary vital signs:
body temperature,
blood pressure,
pulse (
heart rate), and breathing rate (
respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the
LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system.[327][328]
Vitrectomy – is a surgery to remove some or all of the
vitreous humor from the
eye. Anterior vitrectomy entails removing small portions of the vitreous humor from the front structures of the eye—often because these are tangled in an intraocular lens or other structures. Pars plana vitrectomy is a general term for a group of operations accomplished in the deeper part of the eye, all of which involve removing some or all of the vitreous humor—the eye's clear internal jelly.
Waist – is the part of the
abdomen between the
rib cage and
hips. On people with slim bodies, the waist is the narrowest part of the
torso. The waistline refers to the horizontal line where the waist is narrowest, or to the general appearance of the waist.
Wart – Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet, they can also affect other locations.[332] One or many warts may appear. They are not
cancerous.[333]
Weber test – is a screening
test for hearing performed with a tuning fork.[334][335] It can detect
unilateral (one-sided)conductive hearing loss (middle ear hearing loss) and unilateral
sensorineural hearing loss (inner ear hearing loss). The test is named after
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878). Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the
malleus, the
incus, and the
stapes. Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature.[336][337]
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome – (WKS) is the combined presence of
Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and alcoholic
Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes,
ataxia and impaired memory.[338]
Wernicke's area – also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the
cerebral cortex that are linked to speech, the other being
Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in
Brodmann area 22, which is located in the
superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of
right-handed individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals.
Whiplash – is a non-medical term describing a range of
injuries to the
neck caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck[339] associated with
extension,[340] although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a
colloquialism. "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms.
Working memory – is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can
hold information temporarily.[344] Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.[345][346] Working memory is often used synonymously with
short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.[345][347] Working memory is a theoretical concept central to
cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and
neuroscience.
Wrist – In
human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as 1) the
carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the
hand;[348][349] (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the
radius and the
carpus[349] and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the
metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints.[350][351] This region also includes the
carpal tunnel, the
anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the
flexor retinaculum, and the
extensor retinaculum. As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as
distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist.
X
Xanthoma – A xanthoma (pl. xanthomas or xanthomata) (condition: xanthomatosis), from
Greekξανθός (xanthós) 'yellow', is a deposition of yellowish
cholesterol-rich material that can appear anywhere in the body in various disease states.[352] They are cutaneous manifestations of
lipidosis in which
lipids accumulate in large
foam cells within the skin.[352] They are associated with
hyperlipidemias, both primary and secondary types.
Y
Yaws – is a tropical
infection of the
skin,
bones and joints caused by the
spirochetebacteriumTreponema pallidum pertenue.[353][354] The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter.[353] The center may break open and form an
ulcer.[353] This initial skin lesion typically heals after three to six months.[355] After weeks to years, joints and bones may become painful,
fatigue may develop, and new skin lesions may appear.[353] The skin of the
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open.[355] The bones (especially those of the nose) may become misshapen.[355] After five years or more large areas of skin may die, leaving a scar.[353]
Zoonosis – A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an
infectious disease caused by a
pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a
bacterium,
virus,
parasite or
prion) that has
jumped from a non-human animal (usually a
vertebrate) to a human.[366][367][368] Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others.
Zygomatic bone – In the
human skull, the zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired
irregular bone which articulates with the
maxilla, the
temporal bone, the
sphenoid bone and the
frontal bone. It is situated at the upper and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the
cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the
orbit, and parts of the
temporal fossa and the
infratemporal fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four
processes (the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal), and four borders.
Zonular dialysis – Deficient support of the lenticular capsule of the eye by the
Zonules of Zinn.[369]
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