The
Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the
history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars[who?] dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.[3][4][5] This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the
Abbasid caliph
Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the
House of Wisdom in
Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the
Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began.
Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.
Arabesque: The distinctive Arabesque style was developed by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the
Mshatta Facade.[8][9]
Modern
Oud: Although string instruments existed before Islam, the
oud was developed in
Islamic music and was the ancestor of the European
lute.[16]
Sulfur-mercury theory of metals: First attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's
Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed to
Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950),[17] the sulfur-mercury theory of metals would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.[18]
Tin-glazing: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in
Abbasid Iraq/
Mesopotamia in the 8th-century.[19] The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of
Samarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad.[20]
Algebra discipline:
Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.[23]
Algebraicreduction and balancing,
cancellation, and
like terms:
Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in
algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of
like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to.[24]
Automatic controls: The
Banu Musa's preoccupation with
automatic controls distinguishes them from their Greek predecessors, including the Banu Musa's "use of self-operating
valves, timing devices, delay systems and other concepts of great ingenuity."[25]: 23
Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to 840–850, written by Al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (Book of Chess). During the
Islamic Golden Age, many works on
shatranj were written, recording for the first time the analysis of
opening moves,
game problems, the
knight's tour, and many more subjects common in modern chess books.[27]
Automatic crank: The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[28] These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a
crankshaft, anticipating
Al-Jazari's invention by several centuries and its first appearance in Europe by over five centuries. However, the automatic crank described by the Banu Musa would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.[25]: 23–24
Conical
valve: A mechanism developed by the
Banu Musa, of particular importance for future developments, was the conical
valve, which was used in a variety of different applications.[25]: 23
Control valve: The
Banu Musa brothers are credited with the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers.[29]
Cryptanalysis and frequency analysis: In
cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of
cryptanalysis was given by
Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[30][31]
Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in
Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in
Persia and
Syria.[35] Earlier uses of lustre are known.
Hard
soap: Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the
Middle East during the
Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by
Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing
glycerine from
olive oil. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of
fatty oils and
fats with
alkali. In
Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and
lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the
Muslim world and to Europe.[36]
Kerosene distillation: Although the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar
Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an
alembic.[38][39]
Kerosene lamp: The first description of a simple lamp using crude mineral oil was provided by
Persian alchemist
al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century
Baghdad, who referred to it as the "naffatah" in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).[40]
Minaret: The first known minarets appeared in the early 9th century under
Abbasid rule.[41]
Kamal: The kamal originated with
Arab navigators of the late 9th century.[45] The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known
latitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use of
quantitative methods in
navigation.[46]
Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic
North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the
Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the
Maghreb and
Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.[61]
Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the
FatimidcaliphAl-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[68]
Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central
North Africa,[69] as well as the Mesopotamian region.[70]
Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician
Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[75]
Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist
Ibn Sahl at the
Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations.[76] According to
Jim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.[77]
Vertical-axle
windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by
Hero of Alexandria.[78][79] The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in
Sistan,
Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical
driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[80] They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second
RashiduncaliphUmar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment.[81] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[82] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[78][79]
Mechanical
flywheel: The mechanical
flywheel, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was first employed by Ibn Bassal (
fl. 1038–1075), of
Al-Andalus.[88][89][90]
Optic chiasm: The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was first clearly identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to be
Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137).[95] The optic chiasm was earlier theorized by
Ibn al-Haytham in the early 11th century.[96]
Pinhole camera:
Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039), an Arab physicist also known as Alhazen, has been credited with the invention of the pinhole camera in the early 11th century.[97] The camera obscura effect described by Ibn al-Haytham became the subject of many experiments over the centuries, mainly in dark rooms with a small opening in shutters, to study the nature of light and to safely watch solar eclipses.[citation needed] The camera obscura or pinhole image is a natural optical phenomenon. Early known descriptions are found in the Chinese Mozi writings (circa 500 BCE) and the Aristotelian Problems (circa 300 BCE – 600 CE).[citation needed]
Paper packaging: The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a
Persian traveler visiting markets in
Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[98]
Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of
watermill that was built as part of the
superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from
Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century.[99]
Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which
frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[100] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[101] A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from
Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[102]
Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in
Islamic Spain was compiled under
Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented
mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century.[103] It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a
Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works.[104]
Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a
water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.[103]
Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism,
Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".[105]
Inheritance of hemophilia: First proposed by
Abu Al-Zahrawi was first to record and suggest that
hemophilia was an inherited disease.[107]
Anesthetic sponge: Invented by al-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr. Used a sponge soaked with narcotic drugs and placed it on patient's face.[108] These Muslim physicians were the first to use an anesthetic sponge.[109]
Ligatures: Although already discovered in Ancient Greece, it was later described in the work of al-Zahrawi (936–1013), Kitab al-Tasrif, one of the most influential books in early modern medicine. Describes the process of performing a ligature on blood vessels.
Water and weight driven mechanical clocks: By Spanish Muslim engineers sometime between 900 and 1200. According to historian Will Durant, a watch-like device was invented by
Ibn Firnas.
Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of
Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the
Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe:
glazing with an
opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[117]
Polar-axis
sundial: Early sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, indicating unequal hours (also called temporary hours) that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of
Abu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in
trigonometry by
Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a
gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[118][119]
Candle clock with
dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of
Al-Jazari in 1206.[127] It included a
dial to display the time.[citation needed]
Crankshaft:
Al-Jazari (1136–1206) is credited with the invention of the crankshaft.[25]: 23–24 He described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines.[128] His twin-cylinder
pump incorporated a crankshaft,[129] including both the crank and
shaft mechanisms.[130]
Design and construction methods: English technology historian
Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the
lamination of timber to minimize warping, the
static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden
templates (a kind of pattern), the use of
paper models to establish designs, the
calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with
emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the
casting of metals in closed
mold boxes with
sand."[133]
Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at
Delhi in the
Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the
Delhi Sultanate.[134]
Minimising
intermittence: The concept of minimising the intermittence is first implied in one of
Al-Jazari's
saqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.[135]
Programmableautomaton and drum machine: The earliest programmable
automata, and the first programmable drum machine, were invented by
Al-Jazari, and described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (
cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[136]
Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
Segmental
gear: A segmental gear is "a piece for receiving or communicating
reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular
gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[138] Professor
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote, "Segmental gears first clearly appear in al-Jazari".[139]
Islamic
standing army: The
Janissaries of the
Ottoman Empire formed in the fourteenth century, were made up through trained soldiers and composed of slaves paid with regular salaries.[143][144]
15th century
Coffee: Although there is early historical accounts of coffee consumption ( as qahwa) in Ethiopia, it is not clear whether it was "used" as a beverage.[145] The earliest historical evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the
Sufi monasteries of the
Yemen in southern Arabia.[146][147] From
Mocha, coffee spread to
Egypt and North Africa,[148] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East,
Persia and
Turkey. From the
Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the
East Indies and to the Americas.[149]
Dardanelles Gun: The Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1434 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a
Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the
Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with
propellant and
projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.[150]
Iznik pottery: Produced in
OttomanTurkey as early as the 15th century AD.[151] It consists of a body,
slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit."[152] The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain
lead oxide as well as
soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the
thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic.[153] Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.[154]
Standing army with
firearms: The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
Janissaries had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule of
Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[155]
16th century
Firearm kneeling position: At the
Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[156] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[157]
Steam jack: A
steam-poweredroasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer
Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), in 1551 CE (959 AH). It was an impulse
steam turbine with practical applications as a prime mover for rotating a
spit, predating
Giovanni Branca's later impulse steam turbine from 1629.[162]
Safavid dynasty
15th century
Classical
Oriental carpet: By the late fifteenth century, the design of
Persian carpets changed considerably. Large-format medallions appeared, ornaments began to show elaborate curvilinear designs. Large spirals and tendrils, floral ornaments, depictions of flowers and animals, were often mirrored along the long or short axis of the carpet to obtain harmony and rhythm. The earlier "kufic" border design was replaced by tendrils and
arabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170[163]). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was what
Kurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution".[164] Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.[165]
Mughal Empire
16th century
Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor
Akbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking
tobacco.[166][167][168][169]
Metal cylinder
rocket: In the 16th century,
Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against
war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[170]
Multi-barrelmatchlockvolley gun:
Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for
Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiple
gun barrels that fired
hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[171] One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with a
matchlock.[172]
Seamless
celestial globe: It was invented in
Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998
AH (1589–1590), and twenty other such
globes were later produced in
Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern
metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any
seams.[173]
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^Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo:
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^MEDIEVAL TRADERS AS INTERNATIONAL CHANGE AGENTS: A COMMENT, Michael Scorgie, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 137-143
"Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tūsī, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the 19th century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the Jewish scholar
Levi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of the theory of parallel lines."
^Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998). "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Micro neurosurgery". Neurosurgery. 42 (4): 899–907.
doi:
10.1097/00006123-199804000-00116.
PMID9574655.
^Letcher, Trevor M. (2017). Wind energy engineering: a handbook for onshore and offshore wind turbines.
Academic Press. pp. 127–143.
ISBN978-0128094518. Ibn Bassal (AD 1038–75) of Al Andalus (Andalusia) pioneered the use of a flywheel mechanism in the noria and saqiya to smooth out the delivery of power from the driving device to the driven machine
^Maillard, Adam P. Fraise, Peter A. Lambert, Jean-Yves (2007). Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4.
ISBN978-0470755068.{{
cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
^Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe". Technology and Culture. 46 (1): 1–30 [10].
doi:
10.1353/tech.2005.0026.
S2CID109564224.
^Davis, Matthew C.; Griessenauer, Christoph J.; Bosmia, Anand N.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M. (1 January 2014). "The naming of the cranial nerves: A historical review". Clinical Anatomy. 27 (1): 14–19.
doi:
10.1002/ca.22345.
ISSN1098-2353.
PMID24323823.
S2CID15242391.
^Diana Twede (2005).
"The Origins of Paper Based Packaging"(PDF). Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings. 12: 288–300 [289]. Archived from
the original(PDF) on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
^Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64,
ISBN90-04-14649-0
^Bernsted, A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology", Archaeometry, 36 (1): 77–91,
doi:
10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb00712.x (inactive 7 February 2024).{{
citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (
link)
^
abCosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008). Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. Handbook to Life Series. Vol. 2.
Infobase Publishing. pp. 528–530.
ISBN978-0-8160-4887-8.
^Hunke S (1960).
Allahs Sonne über dem Abendland: unser arabisches Erbe (in German) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. pp. 279–80.
ISBN978-3-596-23543-8. Retrieved 13 September 2010. The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan.
^Butt, Arthur J. (1956). Etiologic Factors in Renal Lithiasis.
^Missori, Paolo; Brunetto, Giacoma M.; Domenicucci, Maurizio (2012). "Origin of the Cannula for Tracheotomy During the Middle Ages and Renaissance". World Journal of Surgery. 36 (4): 928–934.
doi:
10.1007/s00268-012-1435-1.
PMID22311135.
S2CID3121262.
^Aschoff, A; Kremer, Paul; Hashemi, Bahram; Kunze, Stefan (1999). "The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment". Neurosurgical Review. 22 (2–3): 67–93.
doi:
10.1007/s101430050035.
PMID10547004.
S2CID10077885.
^Davila, Carl (2009). "Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World". Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 21, no. 2. Al-Masaq.
^Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49.
doi:
10.2307/3391092.
JSTOR3391092.
S2CID190524140.
^Georges Ifrah (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See
[1])
^Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", Technikgeschichte44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)
^Tite, M.S. (1989), "Iznik Pottery: An Investigation of the Methods of Production", Archaeometry, 31 (2): 115–132,
doi:
10.1111/j.1475-4754.1989.tb01008.x.
^Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. p. 83.
ISBN978-0813313597.
^Ágoston, Gábor (2008), Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 24,
ISBN978-0521603911
^Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, pp. 449–452,
ISBN0-521-30358-3
^Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries", Early Music, 34 (4), Oxford University Press: 533–60,
doi:
10.1093/em/cal103,
S2CID159617891
^Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, p. 149,
ISBN978-0-691-13597-7
^Fazlıoğlu, İhsan (2014). "Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zayn al-Dīn Maҁrūf al-Dimashqī al-Ḥanafī". Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 2123–2126.
doi:
10.1007/978-1-4419-9917-7_1360.
ISBN978-1-4419-9916-0.
^Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. tr. C. G. Ellis as Oriental Carpets: An Essay on Their History, New York, 1960 (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. pp. 30–32.
^Erdmann, Kurt (1970). Erdmann, Hanna; Beattie (transl.), May H. (eds.). Seven hundred years of Oriental carpets. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN978-0520018167.
^Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
External links
Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
The
Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the
history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars[who?] dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.[3][4][5] This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the
Abbasid caliph
Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the
House of Wisdom in
Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the
Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began.
Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.
Arabesque: The distinctive Arabesque style was developed by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the
Mshatta Facade.[8][9]
Modern
Oud: Although string instruments existed before Islam, the
oud was developed in
Islamic music and was the ancestor of the European
lute.[16]
Sulfur-mercury theory of metals: First attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's
Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed to
Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950),[17] the sulfur-mercury theory of metals would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.[18]
Tin-glazing: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in
Abbasid Iraq/
Mesopotamia in the 8th-century.[19] The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of
Samarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad.[20]
Algebra discipline:
Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.[23]
Algebraicreduction and balancing,
cancellation, and
like terms:
Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in
algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of
like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to.[24]
Automatic controls: The
Banu Musa's preoccupation with
automatic controls distinguishes them from their Greek predecessors, including the Banu Musa's "use of self-operating
valves, timing devices, delay systems and other concepts of great ingenuity."[25]: 23
Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to 840–850, written by Al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (Book of Chess). During the
Islamic Golden Age, many works on
shatranj were written, recording for the first time the analysis of
opening moves,
game problems, the
knight's tour, and many more subjects common in modern chess books.[27]
Automatic crank: The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[28] These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a
crankshaft, anticipating
Al-Jazari's invention by several centuries and its first appearance in Europe by over five centuries. However, the automatic crank described by the Banu Musa would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.[25]: 23–24
Conical
valve: A mechanism developed by the
Banu Musa, of particular importance for future developments, was the conical
valve, which was used in a variety of different applications.[25]: 23
Control valve: The
Banu Musa brothers are credited with the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers.[29]
Cryptanalysis and frequency analysis: In
cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of
cryptanalysis was given by
Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[30][31]
Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in
Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in
Persia and
Syria.[35] Earlier uses of lustre are known.
Hard
soap: Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the
Middle East during the
Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by
Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing
glycerine from
olive oil. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of
fatty oils and
fats with
alkali. In
Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and
lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the
Muslim world and to Europe.[36]
Kerosene distillation: Although the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar
Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an
alembic.[38][39]
Kerosene lamp: The first description of a simple lamp using crude mineral oil was provided by
Persian alchemist
al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century
Baghdad, who referred to it as the "naffatah" in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).[40]
Minaret: The first known minarets appeared in the early 9th century under
Abbasid rule.[41]
Kamal: The kamal originated with
Arab navigators of the late 9th century.[45] The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known
latitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use of
quantitative methods in
navigation.[46]
Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic
North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the
Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the
Maghreb and
Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.[61]
Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the
FatimidcaliphAl-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[68]
Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central
North Africa,[69] as well as the Mesopotamian region.[70]
Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician
Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[75]
Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist
Ibn Sahl at the
Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations.[76] According to
Jim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.[77]
Vertical-axle
windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by
Hero of Alexandria.[78][79] The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in
Sistan,
Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical
driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[80] They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second
RashiduncaliphUmar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment.[81] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[82] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[78][79]
Mechanical
flywheel: The mechanical
flywheel, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was first employed by Ibn Bassal (
fl. 1038–1075), of
Al-Andalus.[88][89][90]
Optic chiasm: The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was first clearly identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to be
Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137).[95] The optic chiasm was earlier theorized by
Ibn al-Haytham in the early 11th century.[96]
Pinhole camera:
Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039), an Arab physicist also known as Alhazen, has been credited with the invention of the pinhole camera in the early 11th century.[97] The camera obscura effect described by Ibn al-Haytham became the subject of many experiments over the centuries, mainly in dark rooms with a small opening in shutters, to study the nature of light and to safely watch solar eclipses.[citation needed] The camera obscura or pinhole image is a natural optical phenomenon. Early known descriptions are found in the Chinese Mozi writings (circa 500 BCE) and the Aristotelian Problems (circa 300 BCE – 600 CE).[citation needed]
Paper packaging: The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a
Persian traveler visiting markets in
Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[98]
Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of
watermill that was built as part of the
superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from
Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century.[99]
Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which
frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[100] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[101] A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from
Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[102]
Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in
Islamic Spain was compiled under
Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented
mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century.[103] It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a
Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works.[104]
Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a
water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.[103]
Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism,
Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".[105]
Inheritance of hemophilia: First proposed by
Abu Al-Zahrawi was first to record and suggest that
hemophilia was an inherited disease.[107]
Anesthetic sponge: Invented by al-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr. Used a sponge soaked with narcotic drugs and placed it on patient's face.[108] These Muslim physicians were the first to use an anesthetic sponge.[109]
Ligatures: Although already discovered in Ancient Greece, it was later described in the work of al-Zahrawi (936–1013), Kitab al-Tasrif, one of the most influential books in early modern medicine. Describes the process of performing a ligature on blood vessels.
Water and weight driven mechanical clocks: By Spanish Muslim engineers sometime between 900 and 1200. According to historian Will Durant, a watch-like device was invented by
Ibn Firnas.
Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of
Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the
Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe:
glazing with an
opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[117]
Polar-axis
sundial: Early sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, indicating unequal hours (also called temporary hours) that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of
Abu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in
trigonometry by
Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a
gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[118][119]
Candle clock with
dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of
Al-Jazari in 1206.[127] It included a
dial to display the time.[citation needed]
Crankshaft:
Al-Jazari (1136–1206) is credited with the invention of the crankshaft.[25]: 23–24 He described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines.[128] His twin-cylinder
pump incorporated a crankshaft,[129] including both the crank and
shaft mechanisms.[130]
Design and construction methods: English technology historian
Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the
lamination of timber to minimize warping, the
static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden
templates (a kind of pattern), the use of
paper models to establish designs, the
calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with
emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the
casting of metals in closed
mold boxes with
sand."[133]
Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at
Delhi in the
Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the
Delhi Sultanate.[134]
Minimising
intermittence: The concept of minimising the intermittence is first implied in one of
Al-Jazari's
saqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.[135]
Programmableautomaton and drum machine: The earliest programmable
automata, and the first programmable drum machine, were invented by
Al-Jazari, and described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (
cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[136]
Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
Segmental
gear: A segmental gear is "a piece for receiving or communicating
reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular
gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[138] Professor
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote, "Segmental gears first clearly appear in al-Jazari".[139]
Islamic
standing army: The
Janissaries of the
Ottoman Empire formed in the fourteenth century, were made up through trained soldiers and composed of slaves paid with regular salaries.[143][144]
15th century
Coffee: Although there is early historical accounts of coffee consumption ( as qahwa) in Ethiopia, it is not clear whether it was "used" as a beverage.[145] The earliest historical evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the
Sufi monasteries of the
Yemen in southern Arabia.[146][147] From
Mocha, coffee spread to
Egypt and North Africa,[148] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East,
Persia and
Turkey. From the
Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the
East Indies and to the Americas.[149]
Dardanelles Gun: The Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1434 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a
Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the
Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with
propellant and
projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.[150]
Iznik pottery: Produced in
OttomanTurkey as early as the 15th century AD.[151] It consists of a body,
slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit."[152] The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain
lead oxide as well as
soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the
thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic.[153] Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.[154]
Standing army with
firearms: The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
Janissaries had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule of
Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[155]
16th century
Firearm kneeling position: At the
Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[156] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[157]
Steam jack: A
steam-poweredroasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer
Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), in 1551 CE (959 AH). It was an impulse
steam turbine with practical applications as a prime mover for rotating a
spit, predating
Giovanni Branca's later impulse steam turbine from 1629.[162]
Safavid dynasty
15th century
Classical
Oriental carpet: By the late fifteenth century, the design of
Persian carpets changed considerably. Large-format medallions appeared, ornaments began to show elaborate curvilinear designs. Large spirals and tendrils, floral ornaments, depictions of flowers and animals, were often mirrored along the long or short axis of the carpet to obtain harmony and rhythm. The earlier "kufic" border design was replaced by tendrils and
arabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170[163]). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was what
Kurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution".[164] Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.[165]
Mughal Empire
16th century
Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor
Akbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking
tobacco.[166][167][168][169]
Metal cylinder
rocket: In the 16th century,
Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against
war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[170]
Multi-barrelmatchlockvolley gun:
Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for
Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiple
gun barrels that fired
hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[171] One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with a
matchlock.[172]
Seamless
celestial globe: It was invented in
Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998
AH (1589–1590), and twenty other such
globes were later produced in
Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern
metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any
seams.[173]
^Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996).
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the original on 2 April 2015.
^Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
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^Norris, John (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science". Ambix. 53 (1): 43–65.
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^Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World", Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture, XII, Brill Academic Publishers: 1–10,
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^Shepherd, William (2011). Electricity Generation Using Wind Power (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4.
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^Gandz, S. (1936), "The Sources of Al-Khowārizmī's Algebra", Osiris, 1: 263–277,
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S2CID60770737, page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".
^Boyer, Carl B. (1991),
A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
ISBN978-0-471-54397-8, The Arabic Hegemony, p. 229: "It is not certain just what the terms al-jabr and muqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The word al-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the word muqabalah is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing" – that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation".
^Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo:
Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
ISBN9783487091150.
OCLC468740510. Vol. II, pp. 41–42. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
^A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature,
Cambridge University Press, p. 266,
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^Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology". The American Statistician. 65 (4): 255–257.
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10.1198/tas.2011.10191.
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^Al-Kadi, Ibrahim A. (1992). "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions". Cryptologia. 16 (2): 97–126.
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abFowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49.
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10.2307/3391092.
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abKoetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5). Elsevier: 589–603.
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10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.
^Kennedy, Edward S. (1962). "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili". Isis. 53 (2): 237–239.
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^David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., Astronomy before the telescope, p. 167-168. British Museum Press.
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^Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture46 (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]
^Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). "Mathematics in Medieval Islam". The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 518.
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^Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?". Journal of Semitic Studies. 26 (1): 229–234.
doi:
10.1093/jss/26.2.229. We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of 'penetrating wisdom' to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose. I exclaimed, 'Is this possible?' He replied, 'It is possible if God so wills'.
^Stephennie, Mulder (2014). The Shrines of the 'Alids in Medieval Syria : sunnis, shi'is and the architecture of coexistence. Edinburgh University Press.
ISBN9780748645794.
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^Forbes, Robert James (1970). A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal.
Brill Publishers. pp. 41–42.
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^Rashed, Roshdi (1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses". Isis. 81 (3): 464–491.
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abDietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
^Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press.
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^Dietrich Lohrmann (199786543). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte77 (1), p. 1-30 (8).
^Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill,
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^Parker, L. M., "Medieval Traders as International Change Agents: A Comparison with Twentieth Century International Accounting Firms," The Accounting Historians Journal, 16(2) (1989): 107–118.
^MEDIEVAL TRADERS AS INTERNATIONAL CHANGE AGENTS: A COMMENT, Michael Scorgie, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 137-143
"Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tūsī, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the 19th century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the Jewish scholar
Levi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of the theory of parallel lines."
^Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998). "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Micro neurosurgery". Neurosurgery. 42 (4): 899–907.
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^Letcher, Trevor M. (2017). Wind energy engineering: a handbook for onshore and offshore wind turbines.
Academic Press. pp. 127–143.
ISBN978-0128094518. Ibn Bassal (AD 1038–75) of Al Andalus (Andalusia) pioneered the use of a flywheel mechanism in the noria and saqiya to smooth out the delivery of power from the driving device to the driven machine
^Maillard, Adam P. Fraise, Peter A. Lambert, Jean-Yves (2007). Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4.
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cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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^Davis, Matthew C.; Griessenauer, Christoph J.; Bosmia, Anand N.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M. (1 January 2014). "The naming of the cranial nerves: A historical review". Clinical Anatomy. 27 (1): 14–19.
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^Diana Twede (2005).
"The Origins of Paper Based Packaging"(PDF). Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings. 12: 288–300 [289]. Archived from
the original(PDF) on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
^Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64,
ISBN90-04-14649-0
^Bernsted, A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology", Archaeometry, 36 (1): 77–91,
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10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb00712.x (inactive 7 February 2024).{{
citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (
link)
^
abCosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008). Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. Handbook to Life Series. Vol. 2.
Infobase Publishing. pp. 528–530.
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^Hunke S (1960).
Allahs Sonne über dem Abendland: unser arabisches Erbe (in German) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. pp. 279–80.
ISBN978-3-596-23543-8. Retrieved 13 September 2010. The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan.
^Butt, Arthur J. (1956). Etiologic Factors in Renal Lithiasis.
^Missori, Paolo; Brunetto, Giacoma M.; Domenicucci, Maurizio (2012). "Origin of the Cannula for Tracheotomy During the Middle Ages and Renaissance". World Journal of Surgery. 36 (4): 928–934.
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10.1007/s00268-012-1435-1.
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^Aschoff, A; Kremer, Paul; Hashemi, Bahram; Kunze, Stefan (1999). "The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment". Neurosurgical Review. 22 (2–3): 67–93.
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^Davila, Carl (2009). "Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World". Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 21, no. 2. Al-Masaq.
^Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49.
doi:
10.2307/3391092.
JSTOR3391092.
S2CID190524140.
^Georges Ifrah (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See
[1])
^Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", Technikgeschichte44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)
^Tite, M.S. (1989), "Iznik Pottery: An Investigation of the Methods of Production", Archaeometry, 31 (2): 115–132,
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^Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. p. 83.
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^Ágoston, Gábor (2008), Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 24,
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^Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, pp. 449–452,
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^Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries", Early Music, 34 (4), Oxford University Press: 533–60,
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^Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, p. 149,
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^Fazlıoğlu, İhsan (2014). "Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zayn al-Dīn Maҁrūf al-Dimashqī al-Ḥanafī". Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 2123–2126.
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10.1007/978-1-4419-9917-7_1360.
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^Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. tr. C. G. Ellis as Oriental Carpets: An Essay on Their History, New York, 1960 (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. pp. 30–32.
^Erdmann, Kurt (1970). Erdmann, Hanna; Beattie (transl.), May H. (eds.). Seven hundred years of Oriental carpets. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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^Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
External links
Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science