"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to
Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored."
German inventions and discoveries are ideas, objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in
Germany or abroad by a person from Germany (that is, someone born in Germany – including to non-German parents – or born abroad with at least one German parent and who had the majority of their education or career in Germany). Often, things
discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.
The movable-type
printing press was invented by German blacksmith
Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. In 1997,
Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.[19] In 1998, the
A&E Network ranked Gutenberg as the most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown.[19]
The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be German.
40.000 BC: The oldest confirmed sculptures in the world, the 41,000 to 39,000-year-old
Lion Man[55] and the 42,000 to 41,000-year-old
Venus of Hohle Fels[56][57]
1903: First commercially successful
decaffeination process by
Ludwig Roselius (later of Café HAG), after foundations were laid by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge in 1820[159]
1489: The
+ and - symbols first appeared in print in
Johannes Widmann's book Behende und hüpsche Rechenung auff allen Kauffmanschafft, published in
Leipzig in 1489, in reference to surpluses and deficits in business problems[310]
1855: First synthesis of the
cocaine alkaloid by
Friedrich Gaedcke;[348] development of an improved purification process by
Albert Niemann in 1859–1860, who also coined the name "cocaine".[349] First commercial production of cocaine began in 1862 in Darmstadt by Merck.[350]
1920–1924: First synthesis of
hydrocodone by
Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim in 1920,[376] first marketed by former German drug development company
Knoll as Dicodid in 1924.[377]
1941: The only rocket-powered fighter aircraft ever to have been operational and the first piloted aircraft of any type to exceed 1000 km/h (621 mph) in level flight, the
Messerschmitt Me 163, by Alexander Lippisch.[412]
1912: The world's first
diesel locomotive by Gesellschaft für Thermo-Lokomotiven Diesel-
Klose-
Sulzer GmbH from Munich[626] and Borsig from Berlin[627]
^
abcTurner, Gerard L'Estrange; Weston, Margaret (1983). Nineteenth-century Scientific Instruments. University of California Press. p. 140.
ISBN9780520051607.
^Dissertatio anatomica quo novum bilis dicetilicum circa orifucum ductus choledochi ut et valvulosam colli vesicæ felleæ constructionem ad disceptandum proponit, 1720
^Meissner, G. (1857). "Über die Nerven der Darmwand". Zeitschrift für rationelle Medizin. 8: 364–366.
^Karenberg, Axel (26 October 2000).
"Chapter 7. The Schwann cell". In Koehler, Peter J.; Bruyn, George W.; Pearce, John M. S. (eds.). Neurological eponyms. Oxford University Press. pp. 44–50.
ISBN9780195133660. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
^Asimov, Isaac (1980). A short history of biology. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 95.
ISBN9780313225833.
^Meissner, G.; Wagner, R. (February 1852). "Ueber das Vorhandensein bisher unbekannter eigenthümlicher Tastkörperchen (Corpuscula tactus) in den Gefühlswärzchen der mensclichen Haut und über die Endausbreitung sensitiver Nerven". Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universität und der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 2: 17–30.
^Jarnagin, William R; Belghiti, J; Blumgart, LH (2012). Blumgart's surgery of the liver, biliary tract, and pancreas (5th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p. 6.
ISBN978-1-4557-4606-4.
^Berchtold, N. C.; Cotman, C. W. (1998). "Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s". Neurobiology of Aging. 19 (3): 173–89.
doi:
10.1016/S0197-4580(98)00052-9.
PMID9661992.
S2CID24808582.
^Brodmann K. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Bart, 1909
^Rothfels, Nigel (2008). Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Animals, History, Culture). Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN978-0801889752.
^Drell, J. R. R. (2002). "Neanderthals: a history of interpretation". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 19: 1–24.
doi:
10.1111/1468-0092.00096.
^von Meyer, C. E. H. (1861). "Reptilien aus dem Stubensandstein des oberen Keupers". Palaeontographica. 7: 253–346.
^Meyer, Hermann von (15 August 1861).
"Vogel-Federn und Palpipes priscus von Solenhofen" [Bird feathers and Palpipes priscus [a crustacean] from Solenhofen]. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde (in German): 561. "Aus dem lithographischen Schiefer der Brüche von Solenhofen in Bayern ist mir in den beiden Gegenplatten eine auf der Ablösungs- oder Spaltungs-Fläche des Gesteins liegende Versteinerung mitgetheilt worden, die mit grosser Deutlichkeit eine Feder erkennen lässt, welche von den Vogel-Federn nicht zu unterscheiden ist." (From the lithographic slates of the faults of Solenhofen in Bavaria, there has been reported to me a fossil lying on the stone's surface of detachment or cleavage, in both opposing slabs, which can be recognized with great clarity [to be] a feather, which is indistinguishable from a bird's feather.)
^Schuchhardt, Carl (1891). Schliemann's Ausgrabungen in Troja, Tiryns, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Ithaka im Lichte der heutigen Wissenschaft. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
^Körte, A.; Körte, G. (1904). Gordion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabung im Jahre 1900. Berlin: Verlag Georg Reimer.
^Elborough, Travis (2019). Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today. White Lion Publishing. p. 19.
ISBN9781781318959.
^Schoetensack, Otto (1908). Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen. Leipzig: Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann.
^Stromer, E. (1915). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 3. Das Original des Theropoden Spinosaurus aegyptiacus nov. gen., nov. spec". Abhandlungen der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse. 28: 1–32.
^Stromer, E. (1925). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 7. Stomatosuchus inermis Stromer, ein schwach bezahnter Krokodilier und 8. Ein Skelettrest des Pristiden Onchopristis numidus Haug sp". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 30: 1–22.
^Stromer, E. (1931). "Wirbeltiere-Reste der Baharijestufe (unterestes Canoman). Ein Skelett-Rest von Carcharodontosaurus nov. gen". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 9: 1–23.
^Stromer, E. (1932). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 11. Sauropoda". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. Neue Folge. 10: 1–21.
^Stromer, E. (1934). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman)." 13. Dinosauria". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung n.f. 22: 1–79.
^
abWoodcroft, Bennet (1865). Alphabetical Index of Patentees and Applicants for Patents of Invention for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order at the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 Victoriae, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office Of The Commissioners Of Patents For Inventions. pp. 204, 208.
^
abWoodcroft, Bennet (1865). Chronological Index of Patents Applied for and Patents Granted for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order of the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 VICTORIAE, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office of the Commissioners of Patents for Inventions. p. 161.
^Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 7: 189–196.
Bibcode:
1916SPAW.......189S.
^Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse für Mathematik, Physik, und Technik: 424.
Bibcode:
1916skpa.conf..424S.
^Fritz, Marc A.; Speroff, Leon (2005). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 325.
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^Mayr, Ernst (1994). "Recapitulation Reinterpreted: The Somatic Program". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 69 (2): 223–232.
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^Böhme, H. (1999). "Ästhetische Wissenschaft". Matices: 37–41.
^Rogers, Kara (2011). The Cell. Britannica Educational Pub. p. 172.
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^von Mohl, Hugo (1835). Ueber die Vermehrung der Pflanzenzellen durch Theilung. Tübingen: Fues.
^Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
^Hünefeld F.L. (1840). "Die Chemismus in der thierischen Organization". Leipzig.
^Levitt, Theresa (2009). The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789-1848. Oxford University Press. p. 113.
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^Svedelius, N. (1927). "Alternation of Generations in Relation to Reduction Division". Botanical Gazette. 83 (4): 362–384.
doi:
10.1086/333745.
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^Ruvinsky, Anatoly (2009). Genetics and Randomness. CRC Press. p. 93.
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^Beaton, Alan (2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. p. 3.
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^Bailey, L. E.; Ong, S. D. (1978). "Krebs–Henseleit solution as a physiological buffer in perfused and superfused preparations". Journal of Pharmacological Methods. 1 (2): 171–175.
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^Szydlo, Zbigniew (1994). Water which does not wet hands: The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius. London–Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.
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^Henningfield, J. E.; Zeller, M. (March 2006). "Nicotine psychopharmacology research contributions to United States and global tobacco regulation: a look back and a look forward". Psychopharmacology. 184 (3–4): 286–291.
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^Siemens, C. W. (June 1862). "On a regenerative gas furnace, as applied to glasshouses, puddling, heating, etc". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 13: 21–26.
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10.1243/PIME_PROC_1862_013_007_02.
^Steudel, R.; West, L. (December 2015). "Carl Friedrich Claus (1827-1900) - inventor of the Claus Process for sulfur production from hydrogen sulfide". ResearchGate.
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10.13140/RG.2.1.1712.2644.
^Khaghaninejad, Soheila; Heravi, Majid M. (2014). Paal–Knorr Reaction in the Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds. Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry. Vol. 111. pp. 95–146.
doi:
10.1016/B978-0-12-420160-6.00003-3.
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^GB 190208300,
Ostwald, Wilhelm, "Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and Oxides of Nitrogen", published December 18, 1902, issued February 26, 1903
^Fischer, K. (1935). "Neues Verfahren zur maßanalytischen Bestimmung des Wassergehaltes von Flüssigkeiten und festen Körpern". Angew. Chem. 48 (26): 394–396.
Bibcode:
1935AngCh..48..394F.
doi:
10.1002/ange.19350482605.
^Münzenberg, G.; Armbruster, P.; Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Poppensieker, K.; Reisdorf, W.; Schneider, J. H. R.; Schneider, W. F. W.; et al. (1982). "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 309 (1): 89.
Bibcode:
1982ZPhyA.309...89M.
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10.1007/BF01420157.
S2CID120062541.
^Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281.
Bibcode:
1995ZPhyA.350..281H.
doi:
10.1007/BF01291182.
S2CID18804192.
^Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
^Rähse, Wilfried (2019). Cosmetic Creams: Development, Manufacture and Marketing of Effective Skin Care Products. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 55–56.
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^"Milestones". Beiersdorf. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7, p.223; Engl. transl.
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^Bar-Cohen, Yoseph; Zacny, Kris (2009). Drilling in Extreme Environments: Penetration and Sampling on Earth and other Planets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5.
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^H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
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^Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas. Göttingen: Typis Dieterichianis.
^Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1900). Allgemeine Flächentheorie. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
^Cantor, Georg (1874). "Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1874 (77): 258–262.
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^"Junkers J1". www.militaryfactory.com. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
^van Basshuysen, Richard (2017). Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff. Wiesbaden: Springer. pp. 7–9.
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^Darling, David.
"Lippisch Ente", The Internet Encyclopedia of Science – Experimental Aircraft. Accessed 5 October 2008.
^Anderson, John D. Jr. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 424.
"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to
Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored."
German inventions and discoveries are ideas, objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in
Germany or abroad by a person from Germany (that is, someone born in Germany – including to non-German parents – or born abroad with at least one German parent and who had the majority of their education or career in Germany). Often, things
discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.
The movable-type
printing press was invented by German blacksmith
Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. In 1997,
Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.[19] In 1998, the
A&E Network ranked Gutenberg as the most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown.[19]
The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be German.
40.000 BC: The oldest confirmed sculptures in the world, the 41,000 to 39,000-year-old
Lion Man[55] and the 42,000 to 41,000-year-old
Venus of Hohle Fels[56][57]
1903: First commercially successful
decaffeination process by
Ludwig Roselius (later of Café HAG), after foundations were laid by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge in 1820[159]
1489: The
+ and - symbols first appeared in print in
Johannes Widmann's book Behende und hüpsche Rechenung auff allen Kauffmanschafft, published in
Leipzig in 1489, in reference to surpluses and deficits in business problems[310]
1855: First synthesis of the
cocaine alkaloid by
Friedrich Gaedcke;[348] development of an improved purification process by
Albert Niemann in 1859–1860, who also coined the name "cocaine".[349] First commercial production of cocaine began in 1862 in Darmstadt by Merck.[350]
1920–1924: First synthesis of
hydrocodone by
Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim in 1920,[376] first marketed by former German drug development company
Knoll as Dicodid in 1924.[377]
1941: The only rocket-powered fighter aircraft ever to have been operational and the first piloted aircraft of any type to exceed 1000 km/h (621 mph) in level flight, the
Messerschmitt Me 163, by Alexander Lippisch.[412]
1912: The world's first
diesel locomotive by Gesellschaft für Thermo-Lokomotiven Diesel-
Klose-
Sulzer GmbH from Munich[626] and Borsig from Berlin[627]
^
abcTurner, Gerard L'Estrange; Weston, Margaret (1983). Nineteenth-century Scientific Instruments. University of California Press. p. 140.
ISBN9780520051607.
^Dissertatio anatomica quo novum bilis dicetilicum circa orifucum ductus choledochi ut et valvulosam colli vesicæ felleæ constructionem ad disceptandum proponit, 1720
^Meissner, G. (1857). "Über die Nerven der Darmwand". Zeitschrift für rationelle Medizin. 8: 364–366.
^Karenberg, Axel (26 October 2000).
"Chapter 7. The Schwann cell". In Koehler, Peter J.; Bruyn, George W.; Pearce, John M. S. (eds.). Neurological eponyms. Oxford University Press. pp. 44–50.
ISBN9780195133660. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
^Asimov, Isaac (1980). A short history of biology. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 95.
ISBN9780313225833.
^Meissner, G.; Wagner, R. (February 1852). "Ueber das Vorhandensein bisher unbekannter eigenthümlicher Tastkörperchen (Corpuscula tactus) in den Gefühlswärzchen der mensclichen Haut und über die Endausbreitung sensitiver Nerven". Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universität und der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 2: 17–30.
^Jarnagin, William R; Belghiti, J; Blumgart, LH (2012). Blumgart's surgery of the liver, biliary tract, and pancreas (5th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p. 6.
ISBN978-1-4557-4606-4.
^Berchtold, N. C.; Cotman, C. W. (1998). "Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s". Neurobiology of Aging. 19 (3): 173–89.
doi:
10.1016/S0197-4580(98)00052-9.
PMID9661992.
S2CID24808582.
^Brodmann K. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Bart, 1909
^Rothfels, Nigel (2008). Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Animals, History, Culture). Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN978-0801889752.
^Drell, J. R. R. (2002). "Neanderthals: a history of interpretation". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 19: 1–24.
doi:
10.1111/1468-0092.00096.
^von Meyer, C. E. H. (1861). "Reptilien aus dem Stubensandstein des oberen Keupers". Palaeontographica. 7: 253–346.
^Meyer, Hermann von (15 August 1861).
"Vogel-Federn und Palpipes priscus von Solenhofen" [Bird feathers and Palpipes priscus [a crustacean] from Solenhofen]. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde (in German): 561. "Aus dem lithographischen Schiefer der Brüche von Solenhofen in Bayern ist mir in den beiden Gegenplatten eine auf der Ablösungs- oder Spaltungs-Fläche des Gesteins liegende Versteinerung mitgetheilt worden, die mit grosser Deutlichkeit eine Feder erkennen lässt, welche von den Vogel-Federn nicht zu unterscheiden ist." (From the lithographic slates of the faults of Solenhofen in Bavaria, there has been reported to me a fossil lying on the stone's surface of detachment or cleavage, in both opposing slabs, which can be recognized with great clarity [to be] a feather, which is indistinguishable from a bird's feather.)
^Schuchhardt, Carl (1891). Schliemann's Ausgrabungen in Troja, Tiryns, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Ithaka im Lichte der heutigen Wissenschaft. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
^Körte, A.; Körte, G. (1904). Gordion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabung im Jahre 1900. Berlin: Verlag Georg Reimer.
^Elborough, Travis (2019). Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today. White Lion Publishing. p. 19.
ISBN9781781318959.
^Schoetensack, Otto (1908). Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen. Leipzig: Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann.
^Stromer, E. (1915). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 3. Das Original des Theropoden Spinosaurus aegyptiacus nov. gen., nov. spec". Abhandlungen der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse. 28: 1–32.
^Stromer, E. (1925). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 7. Stomatosuchus inermis Stromer, ein schwach bezahnter Krokodilier und 8. Ein Skelettrest des Pristiden Onchopristis numidus Haug sp". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 30: 1–22.
^Stromer, E. (1931). "Wirbeltiere-Reste der Baharijestufe (unterestes Canoman). Ein Skelett-Rest von Carcharodontosaurus nov. gen". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 9: 1–23.
^Stromer, E. (1932). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 11. Sauropoda". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. Neue Folge. 10: 1–21.
^Stromer, E. (1934). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman)." 13. Dinosauria". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung n.f. 22: 1–79.
^
abWoodcroft, Bennet (1865). Alphabetical Index of Patentees and Applicants for Patents of Invention for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order at the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 Victoriae, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office Of The Commissioners Of Patents For Inventions. pp. 204, 208.
^
abWoodcroft, Bennet (1865). Chronological Index of Patents Applied for and Patents Granted for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order of the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 VICTORIAE, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office of the Commissioners of Patents for Inventions. p. 161.
^Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 7: 189–196.
Bibcode:
1916SPAW.......189S.
^Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse für Mathematik, Physik, und Technik: 424.
Bibcode:
1916skpa.conf..424S.
^Fritz, Marc A.; Speroff, Leon (2005). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 325.
ISBN9780781747950.
^Mayr, Ernst (1994). "Recapitulation Reinterpreted: The Somatic Program". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 69 (2): 223–232.
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10.1086/418541.
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^Böhme, H. (1999). "Ästhetische Wissenschaft". Matices: 37–41.
^Rogers, Kara (2011). The Cell. Britannica Educational Pub. p. 172.
ISBN978-1615303144.
^von Mohl, Hugo (1835). Ueber die Vermehrung der Pflanzenzellen durch Theilung. Tübingen: Fues.
^Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
^Hünefeld F.L. (1840). "Die Chemismus in der thierischen Organization". Leipzig.
^Levitt, Theresa (2009). The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789-1848. Oxford University Press. p. 113.
ISBN978-0-19-954470-7.
^Svedelius, N. (1927). "Alternation of Generations in Relation to Reduction Division". Botanical Gazette. 83 (4): 362–384.
doi:
10.1086/333745.
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^Ruvinsky, Anatoly (2009). Genetics and Randomness. CRC Press. p. 93.
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^Beaton, Alan (2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. p. 3.
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^Bailey, L. E.; Ong, S. D. (1978). "Krebs–Henseleit solution as a physiological buffer in perfused and superfused preparations". Journal of Pharmacological Methods. 1 (2): 171–175.
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10.1016/0160-5402(78)90022-0.
^Szydlo, Zbigniew (1994). Water which does not wet hands: The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius. London–Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.
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^Henningfield, J. E.; Zeller, M. (March 2006). "Nicotine psychopharmacology research contributions to United States and global tobacco regulation: a look back and a look forward". Psychopharmacology. 184 (3–4): 286–291.
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^Siemens, C. W. (June 1862). "On a regenerative gas furnace, as applied to glasshouses, puddling, heating, etc". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 13: 21–26.
doi:
10.1243/PIME_PROC_1862_013_007_02.
^Steudel, R.; West, L. (December 2015). "Carl Friedrich Claus (1827-1900) - inventor of the Claus Process for sulfur production from hydrogen sulfide". ResearchGate.
doi:
10.13140/RG.2.1.1712.2644.
^Khaghaninejad, Soheila; Heravi, Majid M. (2014). Paal–Knorr Reaction in the Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds. Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry. Vol. 111. pp. 95–146.
doi:
10.1016/B978-0-12-420160-6.00003-3.
ISBN9780124202092.
^GB 190208300,
Ostwald, Wilhelm, "Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and Oxides of Nitrogen", published December 18, 1902, issued February 26, 1903
^Fischer, K. (1935). "Neues Verfahren zur maßanalytischen Bestimmung des Wassergehaltes von Flüssigkeiten und festen Körpern". Angew. Chem. 48 (26): 394–396.
Bibcode:
1935AngCh..48..394F.
doi:
10.1002/ange.19350482605.
^Münzenberg, G.; Armbruster, P.; Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Poppensieker, K.; Reisdorf, W.; Schneider, J. H. R.; Schneider, W. F. W.; et al. (1982). "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 309 (1): 89.
Bibcode:
1982ZPhyA.309...89M.
doi:
10.1007/BF01420157.
S2CID120062541.
^Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281.
Bibcode:
1995ZPhyA.350..281H.
doi:
10.1007/BF01291182.
S2CID18804192.
^Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
^Rähse, Wilfried (2019). Cosmetic Creams: Development, Manufacture and Marketing of Effective Skin Care Products. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 55–56.
ISBN9783527812431.
^"Milestones". Beiersdorf. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7, p.223; Engl. transl.
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^Singh, Simon (2011). The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
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^"Rudolf Hell". The Independent. 2002-04-08. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
^Bar-Cohen, Yoseph; Zacny, Kris (2009). Drilling in Extreme Environments: Penetration and Sampling on Earth and other Planets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5.
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^H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
^Strebe, Amy Goodpaster; Beckman, Trish (2007). Flying for her country: the American and Soviet women military pilots of World War II. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 3.
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^Östling, Johan (2018). Humboldt and the modern German university: An intellectual history. Manchester University Press. pp. xiii, 9, 227.
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^Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mohs, Friedrich" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 650; lines 4 and 5. ..His great work was the Grundriss der Mineralogie (Eng. trans. Treatise on Mineralogy
^Hannavy, John (2013). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography. Routledge. p. 1459.
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^Geiger, Rudolf (1954). "Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen" [Classification of climates after W. Köppen]. Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik, alte Serie. Vol. 3. Berlin: Springer. pp. 603–607.
^Wegener, A. (January 1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309.
^Schmidt-Bachem, Heinz (2011). Aus Papier: eine Kultur- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Papier verarbeitenden Industrie in Deutschland. Walter de Gruyter. p. 722.
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^Flynn, Thomas (2004). Cryogenic Engineering, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. p. 6.
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^Gurstelle, William (2011). Practical Pyromaniac: Build Fire Tornadoes, One-Candlepower Engines, Great Balls of Fire, and More Incendiary Devices. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 115.
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^Winston, Robert (2013). Science Year by Year: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Discoveries That Changed the World. London: DK. p. 215.
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^Eves, Howard Whitley (1992). An introduction to the history of mathematics: with cultural connections. The Saunders series (6th ed.). Saunders.
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^Ifrah, Georges; Durán, Antonio J.; Mackaoui, Sean; Manguel, Alberto; Pintado, Natalia; Pagola, Javier; Ifrah, Georges (2006). The Life of Numbers. Biblioteca Nacional de España. Biblioteca Nacional de España.
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^Lauritzen, Niels (2013). Undergraduate Convexity: From Fourier and Motzkin to Kuhn and Tucker. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 3.
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^Bessel, F. (1824). "Untersuchung des Theils der planetarischen Störungen". Berlin Abhandlungen.
^Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas. Göttingen: Typis Dieterichianis.
^Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1900). Allgemeine Flächentheorie. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
^Cantor, Georg (1874). "Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1874 (77): 258–262.
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^Weisstein, Eric W.
"Klein Bottle". MathWorld. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
^Ewald, William B. (1996). From Immanuel Kant to David Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 920–922.
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^Hinkis, Arie (2013). Proofs of the Cantor-Bernstein theorem. A mathematical excursion. Heidelberg: Birkhäuser/Springer.
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^Kutta, Martin (1901). "Beitrag zur näherungsweisen Integration totaler Differentialgleichungen". Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. 46: 435–453.
^von Basedow, K. A. (1840). "Exophthalmus durch Hypertrophie des Zellgewebes in der Augenhöhle". Wochenschrift für die gesammte Heilkunde. 6: 197–204, 220–228.
^Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian (1998). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Routledge. p. 775.
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^Evans, A. S. (October 1978). "Causation and disease: a chronological journey. The Thomas Parran Lecture". American Journal of Epidemiology. 108 (4): 249–58.
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^Loeffler, F. (1887). "Darauf theilte Herr Loeffler in einem zweiten Vortrag die Ergebnisse seiner weiteren Untersuchungen uber die Diphtherie- Bacillen mit". Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde. 2: 105–112.
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^Berger's invention has been described "as one of the most surprising, remarkable, and momentous developments in the history of clinical neurology."
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Wayback MachineInternational Society for the History of the Neurosciences (ISHN)
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^Harding, David P. (Summer 1994). "Heinz Guderian As the Agent of Change: His Significant Impact on the Development of German Armored Forces Between the World Wars". Army History (31): 26–34.
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^Schmaltz, Florian (September 2006). "Neurosciences and research on chemical weapons of mass destruction in Nazi Germany". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 15 (3): 186–209.
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^Daumas, Maurice (1989). Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers. London: Portman Books.
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^Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Guericke, Otto von" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 670; lines 9 and 10. Thus he became the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the "Magdeburg hemispheres."
^Schiffer, Michael Brian (2006). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press.
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^DE 944900 "Verfahren zur Trennung bzw. zum getrennten Nachweis von Ionen verschiedener spezifischer Ladung", W. Paul and H. Steinwedel, filed on December 24, 1953, priority December 23, 1953.
^Zwicker, E. (1961). "Subdivision of the audible frequency range into critical bands". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 33: 248.
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^Hendrickson III, Kenneth E. (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History Volume 1-3. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1020–21.
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^Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd.
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