The 1890s (pronounced "eighteen-nineties") was a
decade of the
Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1890, and ended on December 31, 1899. In American popular culture, the decade would later be nostalgically referred to as the "
Gay Nineties" (Gay as in 'carefree', 'cheerful', or 'bright and showy'). In the
British Empire, the 1890s epitomised the late
Victorian period.
1890:
Wounded Knee Massacre in
South Dakota. On December 29, 1890, 365 troops of the
US 7th Cavalry, supported by four
Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou (
Lakota) and Hunkpapa Sioux (Lakota) near
Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota.[5] The Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to
Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to turn themselves in at the
Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the last of the Sioux to do so. In the process of disarming the Sioux, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote could not hear the order to give up his rifle and was reluctant to do so.[6] A scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle escalated into an all-out battle, with those few Sioux warriors who still had weapons shooting at the 7th Cavalry, and the 7th Cavalry opening fire indiscriminately from all sides, killing men, women, and children, as well as some of their own fellow troopers. The 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, and children of the Lakota Sioux had been killed. Twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of
friendly fire as the shooting took place at
point-blank range in chaotic conditions.[7] Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with an unknown number later dying from
hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in military history in which the most
Medals of Honor have been awarded in the
military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the
American Indian Wars and the
American Frontier.[8]
1892: The
Johnson County War in
Wyoming. Actually this
range war took place in April 1892 in
Johnson County,
Natrona County and
Converse County. The combatants were the
Wyoming Stock Growers Association (the WSGA) and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers' Association (NWFSGA). WSGA was an older organization, comprising some of the state's wealthiest and most popular residents. It held a great deal of political sway in the state and region. A primary function of the WSGA was to organize the cattle industry by scheduling roundups and cattle shipments.[10] The NWFSGAA was a group of smaller Johnson County ranchers led by a local settler named
Nate Champion. They had recently formed their organization in order to compete with the WSGA. The WSGA "blacklisted" the NWFSGA and told them to stop all operations, but the NWFSGA refused the powerful WSGA's orders to disband and instead made public their plans to hold their own roundup in the spring of 1892.[11] The WSGA, under the direction of
Frank Wolcott (WSGA Member and large
North Platte rancher), hired a group of skilled gunmen with the intention of eliminating alleged rustlers in Johnson County and break up the NWFSGA.[12] Twenty three gunmen from the
Paris, Texas, region and four cattle detectives from the WSGA were hired, as well as
Idaho frontiersman George Dunning who would later turn against the group. A cadre of WSGA and Wyoming dignitaries also joined the expedition, including State Senator Bob Tisdale, state water commissioner W. J. Clarke, as well as W. C. Irvine and Hubert Teshemacher, both instrumental in organizing Wyoming's statehood four years earlier.[13][14] They were also accompanied by surgeon Charles Penrose, who served as the group's doctor, as well as
Asa Mercer, the editor of the WSGA's newspaper, and a newspaper reporter for the Chicago Herald, Sam T. Clover, whose lurid first-hand accounts later appeared in the eastern newspapers.[12]
1893: The
Leper War on Kauaʻi in the island of
Kauai. The
Provisional Government of Hawaii under
Sanford B. Dole passes a law which would
forcibly relocatelepers to the
Leprosy Colony of
Kalawao on the
Kalaupapa peninsula. When
Kaluaikoolau, a leper, resisted arrest by a deputy sheriff and killed the man, Dole reacted by sending armed militia against the lepers of
Kalalau Valley. Kaluaikoolau reportedly foiled or killed some of his pursuers. But the conflict ended with the evacuation of the area in July, 1893. The main source for the event is a 1906 publication by Kahikina Kelekona (John Sheldon), preserving the story as told by Piilani, Kaluaikoolau's widow.[15][16]
1893–1894:
Enid-Pond Creek Railroad War in the
Oklahoma Territory. Effectively a
county seat war. The
Rock Island Railroad Company had invested in the townships of
Enid and
Pond Creek following an announcement by the
United States Department of the Interior that the two would become county seats. The Department of the Interior decided to create an Enid and Pond Creek at another location, free of company influence. Resulting in two Enids and two Pond Creeks vying for becoming county seats, starting in September, 1893. Rock Island refused to have its trains stop at "Government Enid". They would pass by without taking passengers. Frustrated Enid residents "turned to acts of violence". Some were regularly
shooting at the trains. Others were damaging
trestles and
rail tracks, setting up train accidents. Only government intervention stopped the conflict in September, 1894.[17][18]
1893–1897:
War of Canudos, a conflict between the state of
Brazil and a group of some 30,000 settlers under
Antônio Conselheiro who had founded their own community in the northeastern state of
Bahia, named
Canudos. After a number of unsuccessful attempts at military suppression, it came to a brutal end in October 1897, when a large Brazilian army force overran the village and killed most of the inhabitants. The conflict started with Conselheiro and his
jagunços (landless peasants) of this "remote and arid" area protesting against the payment of taxes to the distant government of
Rio de Janeiro. They founded their own
self-sufficient village, soon joined by others in search of a "
Promised Land". By 1895, they refused requests by
Rodrigues Lima,
Governor of Bahia and
Jeronimo Thome da Silva,
Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia to start obeying the laws of the Brazilian state and the rules of the
Catholic Church. In 1896, a military expedition under Lieutenant Manuel da Silva Pires Ferreira was sent to pacify them. It was instead attacked, defeated and forced to retreat. Increasingly stronger military forces were sent against Canudos, only to meet with fierce resistance and suffering heavy casualties. In October 1897, Canudos finally fell to the Brazilian military forces. "Those jagunços who were not killed in combat were taken prisoner and summarily executed (by beheading) by the army".[19]
1894: The
Donghak Peasant Revolution in
Joseon Korea. The uprising started in Gobu during February 1894, with the
peasantclass protesting against the
political corruption of local government officials. The revolution was named after
Donghak, a
Korean religion stressing "the
equality of all human beings". The forces of
Emperor Gojong failed in their attempt to suppress the revolt, with initial skirmishes giving way to major conflicts. The Korean government requested assistance from the
Empire of Japan. Japanese troops, armed with "
rifles and
artillery", managed to suppress the revolution.[20] With Korea being a
tributary state to
Qing Dynasty China, the Japanese military presence was seen as a provocation. The resulting conflict over dominance of Korea would become the
First Sino-Japanese War. In part, the government of
Emperor Meiji was acting to prevent expansion by the
Russian Empire or any other
great power towards Korea. Viewing such an expansion as a direct threat to Japanese
national security.[21]
1895: The
Doukhobors, a
pacifist Christian sect of the
Russian Empire, attempt to resist a number of laws and regulations forced on them by the Russian government. They are mostly active in the
South Caucasus, where universal military
conscription was introduced in 1887 and was still controversial. They also refuse to swear an
oath of allegiance to
Nicholas II, the new Russian Emperor.[22][23] Under further instructions from their exiled leader
Peter Vasilevich Verigin, as a sign of absolute pacifism, the Doukhobors of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia made the decision to destroy their
weapons. As the Doukhobors assembled to burn them on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11,
Gregorian calendar) 1895, with the singing of psalms and spiritual songs, arrests and beatings by government
Cossacks followed. Soon, Cossacks were billeted in many of the Large Party Doukhobors' villages, and over 4,000 of their original residents were dispersed through villages in other parts of
Georgia. Many of those died of starvation and exposure.[23][24]
1896–1898: The
Philippine Revolution. The
Philippines, part of the
Spanish East Indies, attempt to secede from the
Spanish Empire. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the
anti-colonialsecret organizationKatipunan by the Spanish authorities. The Katipunan, led by
Andrés Bonifacio, was a
secessionist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal was
independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in
Caloocan, the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution. Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital
Manila. This attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in
Cavite led by
Emilio Aguinaldo won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's execution in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce was officially reached with the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo was exiled to Hong Kong, though hostilities between rebels and the Spanish government never actually ceased.[25][26] In 1898, with the outbreak of the
Spanish–American War, Aguinaldo unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed hostilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had conquered nearly all Spanish-held ground within the Philippines with the exception of Manila. Aguinaldo thus
declared independence from Spain and the
First Philippine Republic was established. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence. Spanish rule in the islands only officially ended with the
1898 Treaty of Paris, wherein Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States. The
Philippine–American War broke out shortly afterward.[26]
1898: The
Bava Beccaris massacre in
Milan,
Kingdom of Italy. On May 5, 1898, workers organized a
strike to demonstrate against the government of
Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì, Prime Minister of Italy, holding it responsible for the general
increase of prices and for the famine that was affecting the country. The first blood was shed that day at
Pavia, when the son of the mayor of Milan was killed while attempting to halt the troops marching against the crowd. After a protest in Milan the following day, the government declared a
state of siege in the city. Infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city and General
Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris ordered his troops to fire on demonstrators. According to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people.
Filippo Turati, one of the founder of the
Italian Socialist Party, was arrested and accused of inspiring the riots.[31][32]
1898: The
Voulet–Chanoine Mission a disastrous French military expedition sent out from
Senegal to conquer the
Chad Basin and unify all French territories in West Africa. The expedition descended into wanton violence against the local population and ended in sedition on the part of the commanders.
1898: The
Battle of Sugar Point takes place in the northeast shore of
Leech Lake,
Minnesota. "Old Bug" (
Bugonaygeshig), a leading member of the
Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians in
Bear Island had been arrested in September, 1898. A reported number of 22 Pillagers helped him escape.
Arrest warrants were issued for all Pillagers involved in the incident. On October 5, 1898, about 80 men serving or attached to the
3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment arrived on Bear Island to perform the arrests. Finding it abandoned, they proceeded to
Sugar Point. There, a force of 19 Pillagers armed with
Winchester rifle was observing the soldiers from a forested area. When a soldier fired his weapon, allegedly a new recruit who had done so accidentally, the Pillagers returned fire. Major
Melville Wilkinson, the commanding officer, was shot three times and killed. By the end of the conflict, seven soldiers had been killed (including Wilkinson), another 16 wounded. There were no casualties among the 19 Natives. Peaceful relations were soon re-established but this uprising was among the last
Native American victories in the
American Indian Wars. It is known as "the last Indian Uprising in the United States".[33][34][35]
1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to grant women the vote.[36]
1894: The
Greenwich Observatory bomb attack. This was possibly the first widely publicised terrorist incident in Britain.[37]
The
Dreyfus affair – a political scandal that divided France in the 1890s and the early 20th century. It involved the conviction for
treason in November 1894 of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of
Alsatian Jewish descent.
In June 1897: The
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated marking
Queen Victoria's 60 year reign. Celebrations to honour the grand occasion — the first Diamond Jubilee of any British monarch — showcased the Queen's role as 'mother' of the British Empire and its Dominions.
The Populist Party reaches its high point in American history.
Economics in the United States
1892: The
Homestead Strike in
Homestead, Pennsylvania. Labor dispute between the
Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the
Carnegie Steel Company starting in June, 1892. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regularize working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a
hiring hall, helping employers find scarce
puddlers and rollers.[39] With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892,
Henry Clay Frick (chairman of the company) and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase. Frick immediately countered with a 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.
Andrew Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "...the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement."[40] Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the
open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with
barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high-pressure
water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling-hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced or shielded.[41][42]
1892:
New Orleans general strike taking place in
New Orleans, Louisiana, during November, 1892. 49
labor unions affiliated through the
American Federation of Labor (AFL) had established a central labor council known as the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council that represented more than 20,000 workers. Three racially integrated unions—the
Teamsters, the Scalesmen, and the Packers—made up what came to be called the "Triple Alliance." Many of the workers belonging to the unions of the Triple Alliance were
African American.[45][46] The Triple Alliance started negotiations with the New Orleans Board of Trade in October. Employers utilized race-based appeals to try to divide the workers and turn the public against the strikers. The board of trade announced it would sign contracts agreeing to the terms—but only with the white-dominated Scalesmen and Packers unions. The Board of Trade refused to sign any contract with the black-dominated Teamsters. The Board of Trade and the city's newspapers also began a campaign designed to create public hysteria. The newspapers ran lurid accounts of "mobs of brutal Negro strikers" rampaging through the streets, of African American unionists "beating up all who attempted to interfere with them," and repeated accounts of crowds of blacks assaulting lone white men and women.[47] The striking workers refused to break ranks along racial lines. Large majorities of the Scalesmen and Packers unions passed resolutions affirming their commitment to stay out until the employers had signed a contract with the Teamsters on the same terms offered to other unions.[45] The Board of Trade's tactics essentially backfired when the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council called for a general strike, involving all of its unions. The city's supply of natural gas failed on November 8, as did the electrical grid, and the city was plunged into darkness. The delivery of food and beverages immediately ceased, generating alarm among city residents. Construction, printing, street cleaning, manufacturing and even fire-fighting services ground to a halt.[48][49]
1893: The
Panic of 1893 set off a widespread
economic depression in the United States of America that lasts until 1896. One of the first signs of trouble was the
bankruptcy of the
Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, which had greatly over-extended itself, on February 23, 1893,[50] ten days before
Grover Cleveland's second inauguration.[51] Some historians consider this bankruptcy to be the beginning of the Panic.[52] As concern of the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks and caused
bank runs. The
credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by
gold.[53] People attempted to redeem
silver notes for gold; ultimately the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and US notes could no longer be successfully redeemed for gold.[53] Investments during the time of the Panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments. The
National Cordage Company (the most actively traded stock at the time) went into
receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCC's financial distress. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of
silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the
Northern Pacific Railway, the
Union Pacific Railroad and the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks failed (many in the west). According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was
unemployed at the Panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings by failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their
mortgage obligations. As a result, many walked away from recently built homes. From this, the sight of the vacant
Victorian (
haunted) house entered the American mindset.[54]
1894:
Cripple Creek miners' strike, a five-month strike by the
Western Federation of Miners (WFM) in
Cripple Creek,
Colorado, United States. In January 1894, Cripple Creek mine owners
J. J. Hagerman,
David Moffat and
Eben Smith, who together employed one-third of the area's miners, announced a lengthening of the work-day to ten hours (from eight), with no change to the daily wage of $3.00 per day. When workers protested, the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only $2.50.[55][56][57] Not long before this dispute, miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union. Once the new changes went into effect, they affiliated with the
Western Federation of Miners, and became Local 19. The union was based in
Altman, and had chapters in
Anaconda, Cripple Creek and
Victor.[55] On February 1, 1894, the mine owners began implementing the 10-hour day. Union president
John Calderwood issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the
eight-hour day at the $3.00 wage. When the owners did not respond, the nascent union struck on February 7. Portland, Pikes Peak, Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight-hour day and remained open, but larger mines held out.[55]
1894: The
Bituminous Coal Miners' Strike, an unsuccessful national eight-week strike by miners of
hard coal in the United States, which began on April 21, 1894.[60] Initially, the strike was a major success. More than 180,000 miners in
Colorado,
Illinois,
Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and
West Virginia struck. In Illinois, 25,207 miners went on strike, while only 610 continued to work through the strike, with the average Illinois miner out of work for 72 days because of the strike.[61] In some areas of the country, violence erupted between strikers and mine operators or between striking and non-striking miners. On May 23 near
Uniontown, Pennsylvania, 15 guards armed with
carbines and
machine guns held off an attack by 1500 strikers, killing 5 and wounding 8.[62]
1894:
May Day Riots, a series of violent demonstrations that occurred throughout
Cleveland, Ohio, on May 1, 1894 (
May Day). Cleveland's unemployment rate increased dramatically during the
Panic of 1893. Finally, riots broke out among the unemployed who condemned city leaders for their ineffective relief measures.[63]
1894: The
workers of the Pullman Company went on strike in
Illinois. During the economic
panic of 1893, the
Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages as demands for their train cars plummeted and the company's revenue dropped. A delegation of workers complained of the low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and that the corporation that operated the town of Pullman didn't decrease rents, but company owner
George Pullman "loftily declined to talk with them."[64] The boycott was launched on June 26, 1894. Within four days, 125,000 workers on twenty-nine railroads had quit work rather than handle Pullman cars.[64] Adding fuel to the fire the railroad companies began hiring replacement workers (that is,
strikebreakers), which only increased hostilities. Many
African Americans, fearful that the racism expressed by the
American Railway Union would lock them out of another labor market, crossed the picket line to break the strike; thus adding a racially charged tone to the conflict.[65]
1896: The
1896 United States presidential election becomes a
political realignment. The
monetary policy standard supported by the candidates of the two major parties arguably dominated their electoral campaigns.
William Jennings Bryan, candidate of the ruling
Democratic Party campaigned on a policy of
Free Silver. His opponent
William McKinley of the
Republican Party, which had lost elections in 1884 and 1892, campaigned on a policy of
Sound Money and maintaining the
gold standard in effect since the 1870s. The "shorthand
slogans" actually reflected "broader philosophies of finance and public policy, and opposing beliefs about justice, order, and '
moral economy.'",[66][67] The Republicans won the election and would win every election to 1912. Arguably ending the so-called
Gilded Age. The McKinley administration would embrace
American imperialism, its involvement in the
Spanish–American War (1896–1898) leading the United States in playing a more active role in the world scene.[68] The term
Progressive Era has been suggested for the period, though often covering the reforms lasting from the 1880s to the 1920s.[69]
1896–1897:
Leadville Colorado, Miners' Strike. The union local in the
Leadville mining district was the Cloud City Miners' Union (CCMU), Local 33 of the
Western Federation of Miners.[70] In 1896, representatives of the CCMU asked for a wage increase of fifty cents per day for all mine workers not already making three dollars per day.[71] The union felt justified, for fifty cents a day had been cut from the miners' wages during the depression of 1893.[72] By 1895, Leadville mines posted their largest combined output since 1889, and Leadville was then
Colorado's most productive mine camp, producing almost 9.5 million ounces of
silver that year.[73] The mine owners "were doing a lot better than they wanted anyone to know."[74] Negotiations over an increase in pay for the lower-paid mineworkers broke down, and 1,200 miners voted unanimously to strike all mines that were still paying at the lower rate. The next day 968 miners walked out, and mine owners
locked out another 1,332 mine workers.[70] The Leadville strike set the scene not only for the WFM's consideration of militant tactics and its embrace of radicalism,[75] but also for the birth of the
Western Labor Union (which became the
American Labor Union), the WFM's participation in the founding of the
Industrial Workers of the World,[76] and for events which culminated in the
Colorado Labor Wars.
1896–1899: The
Klondike Gold Rush. In August, 1896,
George Carmack,
Kate Carmack,
Keish,
Dawson Charlie and
Patsy Henderson, members of a
TagishFirst Nations family group, discovered rich
placer gold deposits in
Bonanza (Rabbit) Creek,
Yukon, Canada.[77] Soon a massive movement of people, goods and money started moving towards the
Klondike, Yukon region and the nearby
District of Alaska. Men from all walks of life headed for the Yukon from as far away as New York, South Africa,[78] the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,[79] and Australia. Surprisingly, a large proportion were professionals, such as teachers and doctors, even a mayor or two, who gave up respectable careers to make the journey. For instance, the residents of Camp Skagway Number One included:
William Howard Taft, who went on to become a U.S. president;
Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated American scout who arrived from Africa only to be called back to take part in the
Second Boer War; and
W. W. White, author and explorer.[80] Most were perfectly aware of their chance of finding significant amounts of gold were slim to none, and went for the adventure. As many as half of those who reached Dawson City kept right on going without doing any prospecting at all. Thus, by bringing large numbers of entrepreneurial adventurers to the region, the Gold Rush significantly contributed to the economic development of
Western Canada, Alaska, and the
Pacific Northwest.[81] New cities were created as a result of the Gold Rush, including among others
Dawson City,
Fairbanks, Alaska, and
Anchorage, Alaska. The heyday of the individual prospector and the rush towards the north ended by 1899. Exploitation of the area by "big mining companies with their mechanical dredges" would last well into the 20th century.[82]
1898:
Welsh coal strike, involving the colliers of
South Wales and
Monmouthshire. The strike began as an attempt by the colliers to remove the
sliding scale, which determined their wage based on the price of coal. The strike quickly turned into a disastrous lockout which would last for six months and result in a failure for the colliers as the sliding scale stayed in place.[83] The strike officially ended on September 1, 1898.[84] The lack of organisation and vision apparent form the colliers' leaders was addressed by the foundation of the
South Wales Miners' Federation, or 'the Fed'.[83]
1899:
Newsboys Strike in New York City, New York. The newsboys were not employees of the newspapers but rather purchased the papers from the publishers and sold them as independent agents. Not allowed to return unsold papers, the newsboys typically earned around 30 cents a day and often worked until very late at night.[85] Cries of "Extra, extra!" were often heard into the morning hours as newsboys attempted to hawk every last paper.[86] In 1898, with the
Spanish–American War increasing newspaper sales, several publishers raised the cost of a newsboy bundle of 100 newspapers from 50¢ to 60¢, a price increase that at the time was offset by the increased sales. After the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of the New York World and the New York Morning Journal. In July 1899, a large number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World, and
William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Journal. The strikers demonstrated across the
Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill,[87] along with the news distribution for most
New England cities. Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with charismatic speeches by strike leader Kid Blink.[88] Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well. Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway.[89]
Other significant international events
May 1-October 30, 1893 - The
1893 World's Fair, also known as the World's Columbian Exposition, was held in
Chicago, Illinois to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's discovery of the New World. The Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicago's self-image, and American industrial optimism.
Science and technology
Technology
1890s:
Bike boom sweeps Europe and America with hundreds of bicycle manufacturers in the biggest bicycle craze to date.
1890:
Clément Ader of
Muret, France creates his
Ader Éole. "Ader claimed that while he was aboard the Ader Eole he made a steam-engine powered low-level flight of approximately 160 feet on October 9, 1890, in the suburbs of Paris, from a level field on the estate of a friend." It was a powered and heavier-than-air flight, but is often discounted as a candidate for the first flying machine for two main reasons. "It was not capable of a prolonged flight (due to the use of a steam engine) and it lacked adequate provisions for full flight control.". His
Ader Avion II and
Ader Avion III had more complex designs but failed to take-off.[90][91]
1891: Commercial production of automobiles began and was at an early stage. The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was
Panhard et Levassor in
France, which also introduced the first
four-cylinder engine.[92] Panhard was originally called Panhard et Levassor, and was established as a car manufacturing concern by
René Panhard,
Émile Levassor, and Belgian lawyer
Edouard Sarazin in 1887.[93] In 1891, the company built their first all-Lavassor design,[94] a "state of the art" model: the Systeme Panhard consisted of four wheels, a
front-mounted engine with
rear wheel drive, and a crude sliding-gear transmission, sold at 3500 francs.[94] (It would remain the standard until
Cadillac introduced
synchromesh in 1928.)[95] This was to become the standard layout for automobiles for most of the next century. The same year, Panhard shared their Daimler engine license with bicycle maker
Armand Peugeot, who formed his own car company. In 1895, 1205 cc (74 ci) Panhards finished 1–2 in the
Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race, one piloted solo by Levassor, for 48¾hr.[96]
1891:
Otto Lilienthal of
Anklam,
Province of Pomerania,
Kingdom of Prussia creates his
Derwitzer Glider, a
glider aircraft. It became "the first successful manned aircraft in the world, covering flight distances of up to about 80 feet near Derwitz/Krielow in Brandenburg." Lilienthal continued creating and testing flying machines to 1896. He achieved international fame. On August 9, 1896, Lilienthal lost control of one of his gliders due to a sudden gust of wind, crashing from a height of about 17 m (56 ft) and suffering severe injuries. He died the following day.[97][98]
1893: The
Duryea Motor Wagon Company, founded by siblings
Charles Duryea and
J. Frank Duryea, arguably becomes the first American automobile firm. In 1893, the Duryea brothers tested their first
gasoline-powered automobile model and in 1896 established their company to build the Duryea model automobile, supposedly the first auto ever commercially manufactured.[101] Their 1893 model was a one-cylinder "Ladies Phaeton", first demonstrated on September 21, 1893, at
Chicopee, Massachusetts. It is considered the first successful gas-engine vehicle built in the U.S. Their 1895 model, driven by Frank, won the
Chicago Times-Herald race in Chicago on a snowy
Thanksgiving Day. He travelled 54 miles (87 km) at an average 7.5 mph (12.1 km/h), marking the first U.S. auto race in which any entrants finished. That same year, the brothers began commercial production, with thirteen cars sold by the end of 1896.[102]
1893–1894: The
Kinetoscope, an early
motion picture exhibition device invented by
Thomas Edison and developed by
William Kennedy Dickson, is introduced to the public. (It was in development since 1889 and a number of films had already been created for it). The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the
Chicago World's Fair, as originally scheduled, but at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9, 1893. The first film publicly shown on the system was Blacksmith Scene (aka Blacksmiths); directed by Dickson and
shot by Heise, it was produced at the new Edison moviemaking studio, known as the
Black Maria.[103] Despite extensive promotion, a major display of the Kinetoscope, involving as many as twenty-five machines, never took place at the Chicago exposition. Kinetoscope production had been delayed in part because of Dickson's absence of more than eleven weeks early in the year with a nervous breakdown.[104] On April 14, 1894, a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Street—the first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents a viewer could see all the films in either row; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill.[105] The machines were purchased from the new Kinetoscope Company, which had contracted with Edison for their production; the firm, headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon, included among its investors Andrew M. Holland, one of the entrepreneurial siblings, and Edison's former business chief, Alfred O. Tate. The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program, all shot at the Black Maria, were descriptively titled: Barber Shop, Bertoldi (mouth support) (Ena Bertoldi, a British vaudeville contortionist), Bertoldi (table contortion), Blacksmiths, Roosters (some manner of
cock fight), Highland Dance, Horse Shoeing, Sandow (
Eugen Sandow, a German strongman), Trapeze, and Wrestling.[106] As historian
Charles Musser describes, a "profound transformation of American life and performance culture" had begun.[107]
1894:
Hiram Stevens Maxim completes his flying machine and was ready to use it. He built a 145 feet (44 m) long craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110 feet (34 m) wingspan that was powered by two compound 360 horsepower (270 kW)
steam engines driving two propellers. In trials at
Bexley in 1894 his machine rode on 1800 rails and was prevented from rising by outriggers underneath and wooden safety rails overhead, somewhat in the manner of a roller coaster.[108] His goal in building this machine was not to soar freely, but to test if it would lift off the ground. During its test run all of the outriggers were engaged, showing that it had developed enough lift to take off, but in so doing it damaged the track; the "flight" was aborted in time to prevent disaster. The craft was almost certainly aerodynamically unstable and uncontrollable, which Maxim probably realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it.[109] "On the Maxim Biplane Test-Rig's third test run, on July 31, 1894, with Maxim and a crew of three aboard, it lifted with such force that it broke the reinforced restraining track and careened for some 200 yards, at times reaching an altitude of 2 or 3 feet above the damaged track. It was believed that a lifting force of some 10,000 pounds had likely been generated."[110]
1894:
Lawrence Hargrave of
Greenwich, England successfully lifted himself off the ground under a train of four of his
box kites at
Stanwell Park beach,
New South Wales, Australia on 12 November 1894. Aided by James Swain, the caretaker at his property, the kite line was moored via a spring balance to two sandbags. Hargrave carried an
anemometer and
inclinometer aloft to measure windspeed and the angle of the kite line. He rose 16 feet (4.9 m) in a wind speed of 21 mph (34 km/h). This experiment was widely reported and established the box kite as a stable aerial platform[111]
1896:
Samuel Pierpont Langley of
Roxbury, Boston,
Massachusetts, has two significant breakthroughs while testing his
Langley Aerodromes, flying machines. In May, Aerodrome number 5 made "circular flights of 3,300 and 2,300 feet, at a maximum altitude of some 80 to 100 feet and at a speed of some 20 to 25 miles an hour". In November, Aerodrome number 6 "flew 4,200 feet, staying aloft over 1 minute.". The flights were powered (by a
steam engine), but unmanned.[113]
1896:
Octave Chanute and
Augustus Moore Herring co-design the Chanute-Herring Biplane. "Each 16-foot (4.9-meter) wing was covered with varnished silk. The pilot hung from two bars that ran down from the upper wings and passed under his arms. This plane was originally flown at
Dune Park,
Indiana, about sixty miles from Chanute's home in Chicago, as a
triplane on August 29, 1896, but was found to be unwieldy. Chanute and Herring removed the lowest of the three wings, which vastly improved its gliding ability. In its flight on September 11, it flew 256 feet (78 meters)." It influenced the design of later aircraft, setting the pattern for a number of years.[114][115]
1897:
Carl Richard Nyberg of
Arboga, Sweden starts constructing his
Flugan, an early
fixed-wing aircraft, outside his home in
Lidingö. Construction started in 1897 and he kept working on it until 1922. The craft only managed a few short jumps and Nyberg was often ridiculed, however several of his innovations are still in use.[116] He was the first to test his design in a
wind tunnel and the first to build a
hangar.[117] The reasons for failure include poor wing and propeller design and, allegedly, that he was afraid of heights.
1899:
Gustave Whitehead, according to a witness who gave his report in 1934, made a very early motorized flight of about half a mile in
Pittsburgh in April or May 1899. Louis Darvarich, a friend of Whitehead's, said they flew together at a height of 20 to 25 ft (6.1 to 7.6 m) in a
steam-poweredmonoplane aircraft and crashed into a three-
story building. Darvarich said he was stoking the boiler and was badly scalded in the accident, requiring several weeks in a hospital.[119] This claim is not accepted by mainstream aviation historians including William F. Trimble.[120]
1899:
Percy Pilcher of
Bath, Somerset dies in October, without having a chance to fly his early triplane. Pilcher had built a
hang glider called The Bat which he flew for the first time in 1895. He then built more hang gliders ("The Beetle", "The Gull" and "The Hawk"), but had set his sights upon powered flight, which he hoped to achieve on his triplane.[121] On 30 September 1899, having completed his triplane, he had intended to demonstrate it to a group of onlookers and potential sponsors in a field near Stanford Hall. However, days before, the engine crankshaft had broken and, so as not to disappoint his guests, he decided to fly the Hawk instead. The weather was stormy and rainy, but by 4 pm Pilcher decided the weather was good enough to fly.[122] Whilst flying, the tail snapped and Pilcher plunged 10 metres (33 feet) to the ground: he died two days later from his injuries with his triplane having never been publicly flown.[123] In 2003, a research effort carried out at the School of Aeronautics at
Cranfield University, commissioned by the
BBC2 television series "
Horizon", has shown that Pilcher's design was more or less workable, and had he been able to develop his engine, it is possible he would have succeeded in being the first to fly a heavier-than-air powered aircraft with some degree of control. Cranfield built a replica of Pilcher's aircraft and added the
Wright brothers' innovation of wing-warping as a safety backup for roll control. Pilcher's original design did not include aerodynamic controls such as ailerons or elevator. After a very short initial test, the craft achieved a sustained flight of 1 minute and 25 seconds, compared to 59 seconds for the Wright Brothers' best flight at Kitty Hawk. This was achieved under dead calm conditions as an additional safety measure, whereas the Wrights flew in a 25 mph+ wind to achieve enough airspeed on their early attempts.[124]
1899:
Augustus Moore Herring introduces his biplane glider with a
compressed-air engine. On October 11, 1899 (or 1898), Herring flew at
Silver Beach Amusement Park in
St. Joseph, Michigan. He reportedly covered a distance of 50 feet (15 m). However, there are no known witnesses. On October 22, 1899 (or 1898) Herring took a second flight, covering 73 feet (22 m) in 8 to 10 seconds. This time the flight was covered by a newspaper reporter. It is often discounted as a candidate for the first flying machine for various reasons. The craft was difficult to steer, discounting it as controlled flight. While an aircraft outfitted with an engine, said engine could operate for "only 30 seconds at a time". The design was still recognizably a glider, introducing no innovations in that regard. It was also a "technological dead end", failing to influence the flying machines of the 20th century. It also attracted little press coverage, though possibly because the Michigan press was preoccupied with
William McKinley, President of the United States visiting
Three Oaks, Michigan, at about the same time.[125][126]
^Phoofolo, Pule (February 1993). "Epidemics and Revolutions: The Rinderpest Epidemic in Late Nineteenth-Century Southern Africa". Past & Present. 138 (1): 112–143.
doi:
10.1093/past/138.1.112.
^Van den Bossche, Peter; de La Rocque, Stéphane; Hendrickx, Guy; Bouyer, Jérémy (May 2010). "A changing environment and the epidemiology of tsetse-transmitted livestock trypanosomiasis". Trends in Parasitology. 26 (5): 236–243.
doi:
10.1016/j.pt.2010.02.010.
PMID20304707.
^Guererro, Milagros; Encarnacion, Emmanuel; Villegas, Ramon (1996).
"Andres Bonifacio and the 1896 Revolution". Sulyap Kultura. 1 (2). National Commission for Culture and the Arts: 3–12. Archived from
the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
^
ab*Guererro, Milagros (1998).
Reform and Revolution. Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People. Vol. 5. Asia Publishing Company Limited.
ISBN978-962-258-228-6. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
^Anderson, John W. Transitions: From Eastern Europe to Anthracite Community to College Classroom. Bloomington, Ind.: iUniverse, 2005.
ISBN978-0-595-33732-3
^Miller, Randall M. and Pencak, William. Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth. State College, Penn.: Penn State Press, 2003.
ISBN978-0-271-02214-7
^Estimates of the number of wounded are inexact. They range from a low of 17 wounded (Duwe, Grant. Mass Murder in the United States: A History. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2007.
ISBN978-0-7864-3150-2) to a high of 49 (DeLeon, Clark. Pennsylvania Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff. 3rd rev. ed. Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot, 2008.
ISBN978-0-7627-4588-3). Other estimates include 30 wounded (Lewis, Ronald L. Welsh Americans: A History of Assimilation in the Coalfields. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
ISBN978-0-8078-3220-2), 32 wounded (Anderson, Transitions: From Eastern Europe to Anthracite Community to College Classroom, 2005; Berger, Stefan; Croll, Andy; and Laporte, Norman. Towards A Comparative History of Coalfield Societies. Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005.
ISBN978-0-7546-3777-6; Campion, Joan. Smokestacks and Black Diamonds: A History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania. Easton, Penn.: Canal History and Technology Press, 1997.
ISBN978-0-930973-19-3), 35 wounded (Foner, Philip S. First Facts of American Labor: A Comprehensive Collection of Labor Firsts in the United States. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984.
ISBN978-0-8419-0742-3; Miller and Pencak, Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth, 2003; Derks, Scott. Working Americans, 1880–2006: Volume VII: Social Movements. Amenia, N.Y.: Grey House Publishing, 2006.
ISBN978-1-59237-101-3), 38 wounded (Weir, Robert E. and Hanlan, James P. Historical Encyclopedia of American Labor, Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood Press, 2004.
ISBN978-0-313-32863-3), 39 wounded (
Long, Priscilla. Where the Sun Never Shines: A History of America's Bloody Coal Industry. Minneapolis: Paragon House, 1989.
ISBN978-1-55778-224-3; Novak, Michael. The Guns of Lattimer. Reprint ed. New York: Transaction Publishers, 1996.
ISBN978-1-56000-764-7), and 40 wounded (Beers, Paul B. The Pennsylvania Sampler: A Biography of the Keystone State and Its People. Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1970).
^Blatz, Perry K. Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875–1925. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1994.
ISBN978-0-7914-1819-2
^Brody, David. Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era, p. 50 New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1969.
ISBN978-0-252-06713-6
^Letter from Carnegie to Frick dated April 4, 1892, quoted in Foner, Philip. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism., p. 207. New York: International Publishers, 1955.
ISBN978-0-7178-0092-6
^Foner, Philip. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism., p. 207–208.
^Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, 1890–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel, p. 302, 310. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.
ISBN978-0-8229-5466-8
^
abFoner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism, p. 253. 2nd ed. New York: International Publishers, Co., 1975.
ISBN978-0-7178-0388-0
^Voorhees, Theodore. 'The Buffalo strike.' North American Review. 155(431): October 1892, pp. 407–418. Cornell University Library
^
abRosenberg, New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism, 1892–1923, 1988.
^Brown and Allen, Strong In the Struggle: My Life As a Black Labor Activist, 2001.
^Quoted in Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955, p. 202.
^Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955.
^"New Orleans' Big Strike," Washington Post, November 8, 1892.
^James L. Holton, The Reading Railroad: History of a Coal Age Empire, Vol. I: The Nineteenth Century, pp. 323–325, citing Vincent Corasso, The Morgans.
^Hoffman, Charles. The Depression of the Nineties: An Economic History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 1970. Page 109.
^
abcHolbrook, Stewart. The Rocky Mountain Revolution. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956. p.73–74
^Philpott, William. The Lessons of Leadville, Or, Why the Western Federation of Miners Turned Left, p. 73. Monograph 10. Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1994. ISSN 1046-3100
^Suggs, Jr., George G. Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners, p. 17. 2nd ed. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
ISBN978-0-8061-2396-7
^Gigantic Miners' Strike Ordered.; Over 200,000 Men in Eleven States May Quit Work April 21,
New York Times, Wednesday, April 12, 1894; page 8.
^The Coal Miners Strike – 1894,
Coal in Illinois, 13th Annual Report of the State Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1894, Springfield, 1895; Appendix pages 5–26, see particularly Table III.
^W. T. Stead, "Incidents of Labor War in America",
The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXVI, No. 1, July 1894; pages 65–74.
^Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 by Carol Poh Miller and Robert Anthony Wheeler
ISBN978-0-253-21147-7
^Percival, C Gilbert (July 1912). "North of 62 Degrees by Automobile :A Story of a Trip in Alaska, British Columbia, Yukon Territory and the Klondike ALASKA HAS A GREAT AREA AND RESOURCES. AGRICULTURE IN ALASKA". Health. 62 (7): 150.
^Pierre Berton – Klondike: The Last Great Gold Rush, 1896–1899 Espn 0-385-65844-3 and other editions.
^Nasau, D. (1999) "Ch. 3: Youse an' yer noble scrap: On strike with the Newsboy Legion in 1899." in Big Town, Big Time. New York: New York Daily News. p. 9.
^Haw, R. (2005) The Brooklyn Bridge: A Cultural History. Rutgers University Press. p. 151.
^Hoose, P. (2001) We were there, too! Young people in U.S. history. Douglas & McIntyre, Ltd. p. 177.
^The Biodiesel Handbook, Chapter 2 – The History of Vegetable Oil Based Diesel Fuels, by Gerhard Knothe,
ISBN978-1-893997-79-0
^Berkbile, Don. The 1893 Duryea Automobile, (1964).
^G.N. Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985)
^"Movies". Edison National Historic Site. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
^Hendricks (1966), pp. 28–33. Given the dates of Dickson's departure and return that Hendricks provides, Dickson was gone for at least 80 days. Hendricks describes him as taking a "ten weeks' rest" (p. 28) or spending "about ten and a half weeks in the south" (p. 33), a plausible interpretation given travel time from New Jersey to Florida, where Dickson headed. There were also apparently problems—allegedly alcohol-fueled—with the lab employee, James Egan, who had been contracted to build the Kinetoscopes. See Hendricks, Gordon (1966). The Kinetoscope: America's First Commercially Successful Motion Picture Exhibitor, pp. 34–35, 49–50.
^The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. According to Hendricks (1966), in each row "attendants switched the instruments on and off for customers who had paid their twenty-five cents" (p. 13). For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris, Embattled Shadows: A History of Canadian Cinema, 1895–1939 (Montreal and Kingston, Canada; London; and Buffalo, New York: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978), pp. 6–7. Morris states that Edison wholesaled the Kinetoscope at $200 per machine; in fact, as described below, $250 seems to have been the most common figure at first.
^Hendricks (1966), pp. 56, 60; Musser, Charles (1994 [1990]). The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (1994), p. 81;
Ena Bertoldi (Beatrice Mary Claxton) biographical essay by Barry Anthony/Luke McKernan, part of the Who's Who of Victorian Cinema website;
Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller) biographical essay by Richard Brown, part of the Who's Who of Victorian Cinema website. Both retrieved 10/24/06.
^Musser, Charles (2002). "Introducing Cinema to the American Public: The Vitascope in the United States, 1896–7," in Moviegoing in America: A Sourcebook in the History of Film Exhibition, p. 21.
^"Death Of Sir Hiram Maxim. A Famous Inventor, Automatic Guns And Aeronautics". The Times. 25 November 1916.
^Beril, Becker (1967). Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skies. New York: Atheneum. pp. 124–125.
^Donald Clarke, The Rise and Fall of Popular Music. Chapter 10: "Aeolian's Aeriola player piano had been introduced in 1895; in 1898 Wurlitzer built the first coin-operated player piano. By 1910 these had overtaken nickel-in-the-slot record players."
^Randolph, Stella (1937). Lost flights of Gustave Whitehead. pp. 28–29.
Prices and Wages by Decade: 1890s—Library research guide shows average wages for various occupations and prices for common expenditures in the 1890s. Site hosted by the University of Missouri.
The 1890s (pronounced "eighteen-nineties") was a
decade of the
Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1890, and ended on December 31, 1899. In American popular culture, the decade would later be nostalgically referred to as the "
Gay Nineties" (Gay as in 'carefree', 'cheerful', or 'bright and showy'). In the
British Empire, the 1890s epitomised the late
Victorian period.
1890:
Wounded Knee Massacre in
South Dakota. On December 29, 1890, 365 troops of the
US 7th Cavalry, supported by four
Hotchkiss guns, surrounded an encampment of Miniconjou (
Lakota) and Hunkpapa Sioux (Lakota) near
Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota.[5] The Army had orders to escort the Sioux to the railroad for transport to
Omaha, Nebraska. One day earlier, the Sioux had been cornered and agreed to turn themselves in at the
Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. They were the last of the Sioux to do so. In the process of disarming the Sioux, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote could not hear the order to give up his rifle and was reluctant to do so.[6] A scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle escalated into an all-out battle, with those few Sioux warriors who still had weapons shooting at the 7th Cavalry, and the 7th Cavalry opening fire indiscriminately from all sides, killing men, women, and children, as well as some of their own fellow troopers. The 7th Cavalry quickly suppressed the Sioux fire, and the surviving Sioux fled, but US cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. By the time it was over, about 146 men, women, and children of the Lakota Sioux had been killed. Twenty-five troopers also died, some believed to have been the victims of
friendly fire as the shooting took place at
point-blank range in chaotic conditions.[7] Around 150 Lakota are believed to have fled the chaos, with an unknown number later dying from
hypothermia. The incident is noteworthy as the engagement in military history in which the most
Medals of Honor have been awarded in the
military history of the United States. This was the last tribe to be invaded which broke the backbone of the
American Indian Wars and the
American Frontier.[8]
1892: The
Johnson County War in
Wyoming. Actually this
range war took place in April 1892 in
Johnson County,
Natrona County and
Converse County. The combatants were the
Wyoming Stock Growers Association (the WSGA) and the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers' Association (NWFSGA). WSGA was an older organization, comprising some of the state's wealthiest and most popular residents. It held a great deal of political sway in the state and region. A primary function of the WSGA was to organize the cattle industry by scheduling roundups and cattle shipments.[10] The NWFSGAA was a group of smaller Johnson County ranchers led by a local settler named
Nate Champion. They had recently formed their organization in order to compete with the WSGA. The WSGA "blacklisted" the NWFSGA and told them to stop all operations, but the NWFSGA refused the powerful WSGA's orders to disband and instead made public their plans to hold their own roundup in the spring of 1892.[11] The WSGA, under the direction of
Frank Wolcott (WSGA Member and large
North Platte rancher), hired a group of skilled gunmen with the intention of eliminating alleged rustlers in Johnson County and break up the NWFSGA.[12] Twenty three gunmen from the
Paris, Texas, region and four cattle detectives from the WSGA were hired, as well as
Idaho frontiersman George Dunning who would later turn against the group. A cadre of WSGA and Wyoming dignitaries also joined the expedition, including State Senator Bob Tisdale, state water commissioner W. J. Clarke, as well as W. C. Irvine and Hubert Teshemacher, both instrumental in organizing Wyoming's statehood four years earlier.[13][14] They were also accompanied by surgeon Charles Penrose, who served as the group's doctor, as well as
Asa Mercer, the editor of the WSGA's newspaper, and a newspaper reporter for the Chicago Herald, Sam T. Clover, whose lurid first-hand accounts later appeared in the eastern newspapers.[12]
1893: The
Leper War on Kauaʻi in the island of
Kauai. The
Provisional Government of Hawaii under
Sanford B. Dole passes a law which would
forcibly relocatelepers to the
Leprosy Colony of
Kalawao on the
Kalaupapa peninsula. When
Kaluaikoolau, a leper, resisted arrest by a deputy sheriff and killed the man, Dole reacted by sending armed militia against the lepers of
Kalalau Valley. Kaluaikoolau reportedly foiled or killed some of his pursuers. But the conflict ended with the evacuation of the area in July, 1893. The main source for the event is a 1906 publication by Kahikina Kelekona (John Sheldon), preserving the story as told by Piilani, Kaluaikoolau's widow.[15][16]
1893–1894:
Enid-Pond Creek Railroad War in the
Oklahoma Territory. Effectively a
county seat war. The
Rock Island Railroad Company had invested in the townships of
Enid and
Pond Creek following an announcement by the
United States Department of the Interior that the two would become county seats. The Department of the Interior decided to create an Enid and Pond Creek at another location, free of company influence. Resulting in two Enids and two Pond Creeks vying for becoming county seats, starting in September, 1893. Rock Island refused to have its trains stop at "Government Enid". They would pass by without taking passengers. Frustrated Enid residents "turned to acts of violence". Some were regularly
shooting at the trains. Others were damaging
trestles and
rail tracks, setting up train accidents. Only government intervention stopped the conflict in September, 1894.[17][18]
1893–1897:
War of Canudos, a conflict between the state of
Brazil and a group of some 30,000 settlers under
Antônio Conselheiro who had founded their own community in the northeastern state of
Bahia, named
Canudos. After a number of unsuccessful attempts at military suppression, it came to a brutal end in October 1897, when a large Brazilian army force overran the village and killed most of the inhabitants. The conflict started with Conselheiro and his
jagunços (landless peasants) of this "remote and arid" area protesting against the payment of taxes to the distant government of
Rio de Janeiro. They founded their own
self-sufficient village, soon joined by others in search of a "
Promised Land". By 1895, they refused requests by
Rodrigues Lima,
Governor of Bahia and
Jeronimo Thome da Silva,
Archbishop of São Salvador da Bahia to start obeying the laws of the Brazilian state and the rules of the
Catholic Church. In 1896, a military expedition under Lieutenant Manuel da Silva Pires Ferreira was sent to pacify them. It was instead attacked, defeated and forced to retreat. Increasingly stronger military forces were sent against Canudos, only to meet with fierce resistance and suffering heavy casualties. In October 1897, Canudos finally fell to the Brazilian military forces. "Those jagunços who were not killed in combat were taken prisoner and summarily executed (by beheading) by the army".[19]
1894: The
Donghak Peasant Revolution in
Joseon Korea. The uprising started in Gobu during February 1894, with the
peasantclass protesting against the
political corruption of local government officials. The revolution was named after
Donghak, a
Korean religion stressing "the
equality of all human beings". The forces of
Emperor Gojong failed in their attempt to suppress the revolt, with initial skirmishes giving way to major conflicts. The Korean government requested assistance from the
Empire of Japan. Japanese troops, armed with "
rifles and
artillery", managed to suppress the revolution.[20] With Korea being a
tributary state to
Qing Dynasty China, the Japanese military presence was seen as a provocation. The resulting conflict over dominance of Korea would become the
First Sino-Japanese War. In part, the government of
Emperor Meiji was acting to prevent expansion by the
Russian Empire or any other
great power towards Korea. Viewing such an expansion as a direct threat to Japanese
national security.[21]
1895: The
Doukhobors, a
pacifist Christian sect of the
Russian Empire, attempt to resist a number of laws and regulations forced on them by the Russian government. They are mostly active in the
South Caucasus, where universal military
conscription was introduced in 1887 and was still controversial. They also refuse to swear an
oath of allegiance to
Nicholas II, the new Russian Emperor.[22][23] Under further instructions from their exiled leader
Peter Vasilevich Verigin, as a sign of absolute pacifism, the Doukhobors of the three Governorates of Transcaucasia made the decision to destroy their
weapons. As the Doukhobors assembled to burn them on the night of June 28/29 (July 10/11,
Gregorian calendar) 1895, with the singing of psalms and spiritual songs, arrests and beatings by government
Cossacks followed. Soon, Cossacks were billeted in many of the Large Party Doukhobors' villages, and over 4,000 of their original residents were dispersed through villages in other parts of
Georgia. Many of those died of starvation and exposure.[23][24]
1896–1898: The
Philippine Revolution. The
Philippines, part of the
Spanish East Indies, attempt to secede from the
Spanish Empire. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the
anti-colonialsecret organizationKatipunan by the Spanish authorities. The Katipunan, led by
Andrés Bonifacio, was a
secessionist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal was
independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in
Caloocan, the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution. Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital
Manila. This attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in
Cavite led by
Emilio Aguinaldo won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's execution in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce was officially reached with the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo was exiled to Hong Kong, though hostilities between rebels and the Spanish government never actually ceased.[25][26] In 1898, with the outbreak of the
Spanish–American War, Aguinaldo unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed hostilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had conquered nearly all Spanish-held ground within the Philippines with the exception of Manila. Aguinaldo thus
declared independence from Spain and the
First Philippine Republic was established. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence. Spanish rule in the islands only officially ended with the
1898 Treaty of Paris, wherein Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States. The
Philippine–American War broke out shortly afterward.[26]
1898: The
Bava Beccaris massacre in
Milan,
Kingdom of Italy. On May 5, 1898, workers organized a
strike to demonstrate against the government of
Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì, Prime Minister of Italy, holding it responsible for the general
increase of prices and for the famine that was affecting the country. The first blood was shed that day at
Pavia, when the son of the mayor of Milan was killed while attempting to halt the troops marching against the crowd. After a protest in Milan the following day, the government declared a
state of siege in the city. Infantry, cavalry and artillery were brought into the city and General
Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris ordered his troops to fire on demonstrators. According to the government, there were 118 dead and 450 wounded. The opposition claimed 400 dead and more than 2,000 injured people.
Filippo Turati, one of the founder of the
Italian Socialist Party, was arrested and accused of inspiring the riots.[31][32]
1898: The
Voulet–Chanoine Mission a disastrous French military expedition sent out from
Senegal to conquer the
Chad Basin and unify all French territories in West Africa. The expedition descended into wanton violence against the local population and ended in sedition on the part of the commanders.
1898: The
Battle of Sugar Point takes place in the northeast shore of
Leech Lake,
Minnesota. "Old Bug" (
Bugonaygeshig), a leading member of the
Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians in
Bear Island had been arrested in September, 1898. A reported number of 22 Pillagers helped him escape.
Arrest warrants were issued for all Pillagers involved in the incident. On October 5, 1898, about 80 men serving or attached to the
3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment arrived on Bear Island to perform the arrests. Finding it abandoned, they proceeded to
Sugar Point. There, a force of 19 Pillagers armed with
Winchester rifle was observing the soldiers from a forested area. When a soldier fired his weapon, allegedly a new recruit who had done so accidentally, the Pillagers returned fire. Major
Melville Wilkinson, the commanding officer, was shot three times and killed. By the end of the conflict, seven soldiers had been killed (including Wilkinson), another 16 wounded. There were no casualties among the 19 Natives. Peaceful relations were soon re-established but this uprising was among the last
Native American victories in the
American Indian Wars. It is known as "the last Indian Uprising in the United States".[33][34][35]
1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to grant women the vote.[36]
1894: The
Greenwich Observatory bomb attack. This was possibly the first widely publicised terrorist incident in Britain.[37]
The
Dreyfus affair – a political scandal that divided France in the 1890s and the early 20th century. It involved the conviction for
treason in November 1894 of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of
Alsatian Jewish descent.
In June 1897: The
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated marking
Queen Victoria's 60 year reign. Celebrations to honour the grand occasion — the first Diamond Jubilee of any British monarch — showcased the Queen's role as 'mother' of the British Empire and its Dominions.
The Populist Party reaches its high point in American history.
Economics in the United States
1892: The
Homestead Strike in
Homestead, Pennsylvania. Labor dispute between the
Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the
Carnegie Steel Company starting in June, 1892. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regularize working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a
hiring hall, helping employers find scarce
puddlers and rollers.[39] With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892,
Henry Clay Frick (chairman of the company) and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase. Frick immediately countered with a 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.
Andrew Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "...the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement."[40] Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the
open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with
barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high-pressure
water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling-hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced or shielded.[41][42]
1892:
New Orleans general strike taking place in
New Orleans, Louisiana, during November, 1892. 49
labor unions affiliated through the
American Federation of Labor (AFL) had established a central labor council known as the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council that represented more than 20,000 workers. Three racially integrated unions—the
Teamsters, the Scalesmen, and the Packers—made up what came to be called the "Triple Alliance." Many of the workers belonging to the unions of the Triple Alliance were
African American.[45][46] The Triple Alliance started negotiations with the New Orleans Board of Trade in October. Employers utilized race-based appeals to try to divide the workers and turn the public against the strikers. The board of trade announced it would sign contracts agreeing to the terms—but only with the white-dominated Scalesmen and Packers unions. The Board of Trade refused to sign any contract with the black-dominated Teamsters. The Board of Trade and the city's newspapers also began a campaign designed to create public hysteria. The newspapers ran lurid accounts of "mobs of brutal Negro strikers" rampaging through the streets, of African American unionists "beating up all who attempted to interfere with them," and repeated accounts of crowds of blacks assaulting lone white men and women.[47] The striking workers refused to break ranks along racial lines. Large majorities of the Scalesmen and Packers unions passed resolutions affirming their commitment to stay out until the employers had signed a contract with the Teamsters on the same terms offered to other unions.[45] The Board of Trade's tactics essentially backfired when the Workingmen's Amalgamated Council called for a general strike, involving all of its unions. The city's supply of natural gas failed on November 8, as did the electrical grid, and the city was plunged into darkness. The delivery of food and beverages immediately ceased, generating alarm among city residents. Construction, printing, street cleaning, manufacturing and even fire-fighting services ground to a halt.[48][49]
1893: The
Panic of 1893 set off a widespread
economic depression in the United States of America that lasts until 1896. One of the first signs of trouble was the
bankruptcy of the
Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, which had greatly over-extended itself, on February 23, 1893,[50] ten days before
Grover Cleveland's second inauguration.[51] Some historians consider this bankruptcy to be the beginning of the Panic.[52] As concern of the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks and caused
bank runs. The
credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by
gold.[53] People attempted to redeem
silver notes for gold; ultimately the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and US notes could no longer be successfully redeemed for gold.[53] Investments during the time of the Panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments. The
National Cordage Company (the most actively traded stock at the time) went into
receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCC's financial distress. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of
silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the
Northern Pacific Railway, the
Union Pacific Railroad and the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks failed (many in the west). According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was
unemployed at the Panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings by failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their
mortgage obligations. As a result, many walked away from recently built homes. From this, the sight of the vacant
Victorian (
haunted) house entered the American mindset.[54]
1894:
Cripple Creek miners' strike, a five-month strike by the
Western Federation of Miners (WFM) in
Cripple Creek,
Colorado, United States. In January 1894, Cripple Creek mine owners
J. J. Hagerman,
David Moffat and
Eben Smith, who together employed one-third of the area's miners, announced a lengthening of the work-day to ten hours (from eight), with no change to the daily wage of $3.00 per day. When workers protested, the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only $2.50.[55][56][57] Not long before this dispute, miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union. Once the new changes went into effect, they affiliated with the
Western Federation of Miners, and became Local 19. The union was based in
Altman, and had chapters in
Anaconda, Cripple Creek and
Victor.[55] On February 1, 1894, the mine owners began implementing the 10-hour day. Union president
John Calderwood issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the
eight-hour day at the $3.00 wage. When the owners did not respond, the nascent union struck on February 7. Portland, Pikes Peak, Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight-hour day and remained open, but larger mines held out.[55]
1894: The
Bituminous Coal Miners' Strike, an unsuccessful national eight-week strike by miners of
hard coal in the United States, which began on April 21, 1894.[60] Initially, the strike was a major success. More than 180,000 miners in
Colorado,
Illinois,
Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and
West Virginia struck. In Illinois, 25,207 miners went on strike, while only 610 continued to work through the strike, with the average Illinois miner out of work for 72 days because of the strike.[61] In some areas of the country, violence erupted between strikers and mine operators or between striking and non-striking miners. On May 23 near
Uniontown, Pennsylvania, 15 guards armed with
carbines and
machine guns held off an attack by 1500 strikers, killing 5 and wounding 8.[62]
1894:
May Day Riots, a series of violent demonstrations that occurred throughout
Cleveland, Ohio, on May 1, 1894 (
May Day). Cleveland's unemployment rate increased dramatically during the
Panic of 1893. Finally, riots broke out among the unemployed who condemned city leaders for their ineffective relief measures.[63]
1894: The
workers of the Pullman Company went on strike in
Illinois. During the economic
panic of 1893, the
Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages as demands for their train cars plummeted and the company's revenue dropped. A delegation of workers complained of the low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and that the corporation that operated the town of Pullman didn't decrease rents, but company owner
George Pullman "loftily declined to talk with them."[64] The boycott was launched on June 26, 1894. Within four days, 125,000 workers on twenty-nine railroads had quit work rather than handle Pullman cars.[64] Adding fuel to the fire the railroad companies began hiring replacement workers (that is,
strikebreakers), which only increased hostilities. Many
African Americans, fearful that the racism expressed by the
American Railway Union would lock them out of another labor market, crossed the picket line to break the strike; thus adding a racially charged tone to the conflict.[65]
1896: The
1896 United States presidential election becomes a
political realignment. The
monetary policy standard supported by the candidates of the two major parties arguably dominated their electoral campaigns.
William Jennings Bryan, candidate of the ruling
Democratic Party campaigned on a policy of
Free Silver. His opponent
William McKinley of the
Republican Party, which had lost elections in 1884 and 1892, campaigned on a policy of
Sound Money and maintaining the
gold standard in effect since the 1870s. The "shorthand
slogans" actually reflected "broader philosophies of finance and public policy, and opposing beliefs about justice, order, and '
moral economy.'",[66][67] The Republicans won the election and would win every election to 1912. Arguably ending the so-called
Gilded Age. The McKinley administration would embrace
American imperialism, its involvement in the
Spanish–American War (1896–1898) leading the United States in playing a more active role in the world scene.[68] The term
Progressive Era has been suggested for the period, though often covering the reforms lasting from the 1880s to the 1920s.[69]
1896–1897:
Leadville Colorado, Miners' Strike. The union local in the
Leadville mining district was the Cloud City Miners' Union (CCMU), Local 33 of the
Western Federation of Miners.[70] In 1896, representatives of the CCMU asked for a wage increase of fifty cents per day for all mine workers not already making three dollars per day.[71] The union felt justified, for fifty cents a day had been cut from the miners' wages during the depression of 1893.[72] By 1895, Leadville mines posted their largest combined output since 1889, and Leadville was then
Colorado's most productive mine camp, producing almost 9.5 million ounces of
silver that year.[73] The mine owners "were doing a lot better than they wanted anyone to know."[74] Negotiations over an increase in pay for the lower-paid mineworkers broke down, and 1,200 miners voted unanimously to strike all mines that were still paying at the lower rate. The next day 968 miners walked out, and mine owners
locked out another 1,332 mine workers.[70] The Leadville strike set the scene not only for the WFM's consideration of militant tactics and its embrace of radicalism,[75] but also for the birth of the
Western Labor Union (which became the
American Labor Union), the WFM's participation in the founding of the
Industrial Workers of the World,[76] and for events which culminated in the
Colorado Labor Wars.
1896–1899: The
Klondike Gold Rush. In August, 1896,
George Carmack,
Kate Carmack,
Keish,
Dawson Charlie and
Patsy Henderson, members of a
TagishFirst Nations family group, discovered rich
placer gold deposits in
Bonanza (Rabbit) Creek,
Yukon, Canada.[77] Soon a massive movement of people, goods and money started moving towards the
Klondike, Yukon region and the nearby
District of Alaska. Men from all walks of life headed for the Yukon from as far away as New York, South Africa,[78] the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,[79] and Australia. Surprisingly, a large proportion were professionals, such as teachers and doctors, even a mayor or two, who gave up respectable careers to make the journey. For instance, the residents of Camp Skagway Number One included:
William Howard Taft, who went on to become a U.S. president;
Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated American scout who arrived from Africa only to be called back to take part in the
Second Boer War; and
W. W. White, author and explorer.[80] Most were perfectly aware of their chance of finding significant amounts of gold were slim to none, and went for the adventure. As many as half of those who reached Dawson City kept right on going without doing any prospecting at all. Thus, by bringing large numbers of entrepreneurial adventurers to the region, the Gold Rush significantly contributed to the economic development of
Western Canada, Alaska, and the
Pacific Northwest.[81] New cities were created as a result of the Gold Rush, including among others
Dawson City,
Fairbanks, Alaska, and
Anchorage, Alaska. The heyday of the individual prospector and the rush towards the north ended by 1899. Exploitation of the area by "big mining companies with their mechanical dredges" would last well into the 20th century.[82]
1898:
Welsh coal strike, involving the colliers of
South Wales and
Monmouthshire. The strike began as an attempt by the colliers to remove the
sliding scale, which determined their wage based on the price of coal. The strike quickly turned into a disastrous lockout which would last for six months and result in a failure for the colliers as the sliding scale stayed in place.[83] The strike officially ended on September 1, 1898.[84] The lack of organisation and vision apparent form the colliers' leaders was addressed by the foundation of the
South Wales Miners' Federation, or 'the Fed'.[83]
1899:
Newsboys Strike in New York City, New York. The newsboys were not employees of the newspapers but rather purchased the papers from the publishers and sold them as independent agents. Not allowed to return unsold papers, the newsboys typically earned around 30 cents a day and often worked until very late at night.[85] Cries of "Extra, extra!" were often heard into the morning hours as newsboys attempted to hawk every last paper.[86] In 1898, with the
Spanish–American War increasing newspaper sales, several publishers raised the cost of a newsboy bundle of 100 newspapers from 50¢ to 60¢, a price increase that at the time was offset by the increased sales. After the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of the New York World and the New York Morning Journal. In July 1899, a large number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World, and
William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Journal. The strikers demonstrated across the
Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill,[87] along with the news distribution for most
New England cities. Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with charismatic speeches by strike leader Kid Blink.[88] Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well. Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway.[89]
Other significant international events
May 1-October 30, 1893 - The
1893 World's Fair, also known as the World's Columbian Exposition, was held in
Chicago, Illinois to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's discovery of the New World. The Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicago's self-image, and American industrial optimism.
Science and technology
Technology
1890s:
Bike boom sweeps Europe and America with hundreds of bicycle manufacturers in the biggest bicycle craze to date.
1890:
Clément Ader of
Muret, France creates his
Ader Éole. "Ader claimed that while he was aboard the Ader Eole he made a steam-engine powered low-level flight of approximately 160 feet on October 9, 1890, in the suburbs of Paris, from a level field on the estate of a friend." It was a powered and heavier-than-air flight, but is often discounted as a candidate for the first flying machine for two main reasons. "It was not capable of a prolonged flight (due to the use of a steam engine) and it lacked adequate provisions for full flight control.". His
Ader Avion II and
Ader Avion III had more complex designs but failed to take-off.[90][91]
1891: Commercial production of automobiles began and was at an early stage. The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was
Panhard et Levassor in
France, which also introduced the first
four-cylinder engine.[92] Panhard was originally called Panhard et Levassor, and was established as a car manufacturing concern by
René Panhard,
Émile Levassor, and Belgian lawyer
Edouard Sarazin in 1887.[93] In 1891, the company built their first all-Lavassor design,[94] a "state of the art" model: the Systeme Panhard consisted of four wheels, a
front-mounted engine with
rear wheel drive, and a crude sliding-gear transmission, sold at 3500 francs.[94] (It would remain the standard until
Cadillac introduced
synchromesh in 1928.)[95] This was to become the standard layout for automobiles for most of the next century. The same year, Panhard shared their Daimler engine license with bicycle maker
Armand Peugeot, who formed his own car company. In 1895, 1205 cc (74 ci) Panhards finished 1–2 in the
Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race, one piloted solo by Levassor, for 48¾hr.[96]
1891:
Otto Lilienthal of
Anklam,
Province of Pomerania,
Kingdom of Prussia creates his
Derwitzer Glider, a
glider aircraft. It became "the first successful manned aircraft in the world, covering flight distances of up to about 80 feet near Derwitz/Krielow in Brandenburg." Lilienthal continued creating and testing flying machines to 1896. He achieved international fame. On August 9, 1896, Lilienthal lost control of one of his gliders due to a sudden gust of wind, crashing from a height of about 17 m (56 ft) and suffering severe injuries. He died the following day.[97][98]
1893: The
Duryea Motor Wagon Company, founded by siblings
Charles Duryea and
J. Frank Duryea, arguably becomes the first American automobile firm. In 1893, the Duryea brothers tested their first
gasoline-powered automobile model and in 1896 established their company to build the Duryea model automobile, supposedly the first auto ever commercially manufactured.[101] Their 1893 model was a one-cylinder "Ladies Phaeton", first demonstrated on September 21, 1893, at
Chicopee, Massachusetts. It is considered the first successful gas-engine vehicle built in the U.S. Their 1895 model, driven by Frank, won the
Chicago Times-Herald race in Chicago on a snowy
Thanksgiving Day. He travelled 54 miles (87 km) at an average 7.5 mph (12.1 km/h), marking the first U.S. auto race in which any entrants finished. That same year, the brothers began commercial production, with thirteen cars sold by the end of 1896.[102]
1893–1894: The
Kinetoscope, an early
motion picture exhibition device invented by
Thomas Edison and developed by
William Kennedy Dickson, is introduced to the public. (It was in development since 1889 and a number of films had already been created for it). The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the
Chicago World's Fair, as originally scheduled, but at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9, 1893. The first film publicly shown on the system was Blacksmith Scene (aka Blacksmiths); directed by Dickson and
shot by Heise, it was produced at the new Edison moviemaking studio, known as the
Black Maria.[103] Despite extensive promotion, a major display of the Kinetoscope, involving as many as twenty-five machines, never took place at the Chicago exposition. Kinetoscope production had been delayed in part because of Dickson's absence of more than eleven weeks early in the year with a nervous breakdown.[104] On April 14, 1894, a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Street—the first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents a viewer could see all the films in either row; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill.[105] The machines were purchased from the new Kinetoscope Company, which had contracted with Edison for their production; the firm, headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon, included among its investors Andrew M. Holland, one of the entrepreneurial siblings, and Edison's former business chief, Alfred O. Tate. The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program, all shot at the Black Maria, were descriptively titled: Barber Shop, Bertoldi (mouth support) (Ena Bertoldi, a British vaudeville contortionist), Bertoldi (table contortion), Blacksmiths, Roosters (some manner of
cock fight), Highland Dance, Horse Shoeing, Sandow (
Eugen Sandow, a German strongman), Trapeze, and Wrestling.[106] As historian
Charles Musser describes, a "profound transformation of American life and performance culture" had begun.[107]
1894:
Hiram Stevens Maxim completes his flying machine and was ready to use it. He built a 145 feet (44 m) long craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110 feet (34 m) wingspan that was powered by two compound 360 horsepower (270 kW)
steam engines driving two propellers. In trials at
Bexley in 1894 his machine rode on 1800 rails and was prevented from rising by outriggers underneath and wooden safety rails overhead, somewhat in the manner of a roller coaster.[108] His goal in building this machine was not to soar freely, but to test if it would lift off the ground. During its test run all of the outriggers were engaged, showing that it had developed enough lift to take off, but in so doing it damaged the track; the "flight" was aborted in time to prevent disaster. The craft was almost certainly aerodynamically unstable and uncontrollable, which Maxim probably realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it.[109] "On the Maxim Biplane Test-Rig's third test run, on July 31, 1894, with Maxim and a crew of three aboard, it lifted with such force that it broke the reinforced restraining track and careened for some 200 yards, at times reaching an altitude of 2 or 3 feet above the damaged track. It was believed that a lifting force of some 10,000 pounds had likely been generated."[110]
1894:
Lawrence Hargrave of
Greenwich, England successfully lifted himself off the ground under a train of four of his
box kites at
Stanwell Park beach,
New South Wales, Australia on 12 November 1894. Aided by James Swain, the caretaker at his property, the kite line was moored via a spring balance to two sandbags. Hargrave carried an
anemometer and
inclinometer aloft to measure windspeed and the angle of the kite line. He rose 16 feet (4.9 m) in a wind speed of 21 mph (34 km/h). This experiment was widely reported and established the box kite as a stable aerial platform[111]
1896:
Samuel Pierpont Langley of
Roxbury, Boston,
Massachusetts, has two significant breakthroughs while testing his
Langley Aerodromes, flying machines. In May, Aerodrome number 5 made "circular flights of 3,300 and 2,300 feet, at a maximum altitude of some 80 to 100 feet and at a speed of some 20 to 25 miles an hour". In November, Aerodrome number 6 "flew 4,200 feet, staying aloft over 1 minute.". The flights were powered (by a
steam engine), but unmanned.[113]
1896:
Octave Chanute and
Augustus Moore Herring co-design the Chanute-Herring Biplane. "Each 16-foot (4.9-meter) wing was covered with varnished silk. The pilot hung from two bars that ran down from the upper wings and passed under his arms. This plane was originally flown at
Dune Park,
Indiana, about sixty miles from Chanute's home in Chicago, as a
triplane on August 29, 1896, but was found to be unwieldy. Chanute and Herring removed the lowest of the three wings, which vastly improved its gliding ability. In its flight on September 11, it flew 256 feet (78 meters)." It influenced the design of later aircraft, setting the pattern for a number of years.[114][115]
1897:
Carl Richard Nyberg of
Arboga, Sweden starts constructing his
Flugan, an early
fixed-wing aircraft, outside his home in
Lidingö. Construction started in 1897 and he kept working on it until 1922. The craft only managed a few short jumps and Nyberg was often ridiculed, however several of his innovations are still in use.[116] He was the first to test his design in a
wind tunnel and the first to build a
hangar.[117] The reasons for failure include poor wing and propeller design and, allegedly, that he was afraid of heights.
1899:
Gustave Whitehead, according to a witness who gave his report in 1934, made a very early motorized flight of about half a mile in
Pittsburgh in April or May 1899. Louis Darvarich, a friend of Whitehead's, said they flew together at a height of 20 to 25 ft (6.1 to 7.6 m) in a
steam-poweredmonoplane aircraft and crashed into a three-
story building. Darvarich said he was stoking the boiler and was badly scalded in the accident, requiring several weeks in a hospital.[119] This claim is not accepted by mainstream aviation historians including William F. Trimble.[120]
1899:
Percy Pilcher of
Bath, Somerset dies in October, without having a chance to fly his early triplane. Pilcher had built a
hang glider called The Bat which he flew for the first time in 1895. He then built more hang gliders ("The Beetle", "The Gull" and "The Hawk"), but had set his sights upon powered flight, which he hoped to achieve on his triplane.[121] On 30 September 1899, having completed his triplane, he had intended to demonstrate it to a group of onlookers and potential sponsors in a field near Stanford Hall. However, days before, the engine crankshaft had broken and, so as not to disappoint his guests, he decided to fly the Hawk instead. The weather was stormy and rainy, but by 4 pm Pilcher decided the weather was good enough to fly.[122] Whilst flying, the tail snapped and Pilcher plunged 10 metres (33 feet) to the ground: he died two days later from his injuries with his triplane having never been publicly flown.[123] In 2003, a research effort carried out at the School of Aeronautics at
Cranfield University, commissioned by the
BBC2 television series "
Horizon", has shown that Pilcher's design was more or less workable, and had he been able to develop his engine, it is possible he would have succeeded in being the first to fly a heavier-than-air powered aircraft with some degree of control. Cranfield built a replica of Pilcher's aircraft and added the
Wright brothers' innovation of wing-warping as a safety backup for roll control. Pilcher's original design did not include aerodynamic controls such as ailerons or elevator. After a very short initial test, the craft achieved a sustained flight of 1 minute and 25 seconds, compared to 59 seconds for the Wright Brothers' best flight at Kitty Hawk. This was achieved under dead calm conditions as an additional safety measure, whereas the Wrights flew in a 25 mph+ wind to achieve enough airspeed on their early attempts.[124]
1899:
Augustus Moore Herring introduces his biplane glider with a
compressed-air engine. On October 11, 1899 (or 1898), Herring flew at
Silver Beach Amusement Park in
St. Joseph, Michigan. He reportedly covered a distance of 50 feet (15 m). However, there are no known witnesses. On October 22, 1899 (or 1898) Herring took a second flight, covering 73 feet (22 m) in 8 to 10 seconds. This time the flight was covered by a newspaper reporter. It is often discounted as a candidate for the first flying machine for various reasons. The craft was difficult to steer, discounting it as controlled flight. While an aircraft outfitted with an engine, said engine could operate for "only 30 seconds at a time". The design was still recognizably a glider, introducing no innovations in that regard. It was also a "technological dead end", failing to influence the flying machines of the 20th century. It also attracted little press coverage, though possibly because the Michigan press was preoccupied with
William McKinley, President of the United States visiting
Three Oaks, Michigan, at about the same time.[125][126]
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^Miller, Randall M. and Pencak, William. Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth. State College, Penn.: Penn State Press, 2003.
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^Estimates of the number of wounded are inexact. They range from a low of 17 wounded (Duwe, Grant. Mass Murder in the United States: A History. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2007.
ISBN978-0-7864-3150-2) to a high of 49 (DeLeon, Clark. Pennsylvania Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff. 3rd rev. ed. Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot, 2008.
ISBN978-0-7627-4588-3). Other estimates include 30 wounded (Lewis, Ronald L. Welsh Americans: A History of Assimilation in the Coalfields. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
ISBN978-0-8078-3220-2), 32 wounded (Anderson, Transitions: From Eastern Europe to Anthracite Community to College Classroom, 2005; Berger, Stefan; Croll, Andy; and Laporte, Norman. Towards A Comparative History of Coalfield Societies. Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005.
ISBN978-0-7546-3777-6; Campion, Joan. Smokestacks and Black Diamonds: A History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania. Easton, Penn.: Canal History and Technology Press, 1997.
ISBN978-0-930973-19-3), 35 wounded (Foner, Philip S. First Facts of American Labor: A Comprehensive Collection of Labor Firsts in the United States. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984.
ISBN978-0-8419-0742-3; Miller and Pencak, Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth, 2003; Derks, Scott. Working Americans, 1880–2006: Volume VII: Social Movements. Amenia, N.Y.: Grey House Publishing, 2006.
ISBN978-1-59237-101-3), 38 wounded (Weir, Robert E. and Hanlan, James P. Historical Encyclopedia of American Labor, Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood Press, 2004.
ISBN978-0-313-32863-3), 39 wounded (
Long, Priscilla. Where the Sun Never Shines: A History of America's Bloody Coal Industry. Minneapolis: Paragon House, 1989.
ISBN978-1-55778-224-3; Novak, Michael. The Guns of Lattimer. Reprint ed. New York: Transaction Publishers, 1996.
ISBN978-1-56000-764-7), and 40 wounded (Beers, Paul B. The Pennsylvania Sampler: A Biography of the Keystone State and Its People. Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1970).
^Blatz, Perry K. Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875–1925. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1994.
ISBN978-0-7914-1819-2
^Brody, David. Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era, p. 50 New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1969.
ISBN978-0-252-06713-6
^Letter from Carnegie to Frick dated April 4, 1892, quoted in Foner, Philip. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism., p. 207. New York: International Publishers, 1955.
ISBN978-0-7178-0092-6
^Foner, Philip. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism., p. 207–208.
^Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, 1890–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel, p. 302, 310. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.
ISBN978-0-8229-5466-8
^
abFoner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism, p. 253. 2nd ed. New York: International Publishers, Co., 1975.
ISBN978-0-7178-0388-0
^Voorhees, Theodore. 'The Buffalo strike.' North American Review. 155(431): October 1892, pp. 407–418. Cornell University Library
^
abRosenberg, New Orleans Dockworkers: Race, Labor, and Unionism, 1892–1923, 1988.
^Brown and Allen, Strong In the Struggle: My Life As a Black Labor Activist, 2001.
^Quoted in Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955, p. 202.
^Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955.
^"New Orleans' Big Strike," Washington Post, November 8, 1892.
^James L. Holton, The Reading Railroad: History of a Coal Age Empire, Vol. I: The Nineteenth Century, pp. 323–325, citing Vincent Corasso, The Morgans.
^Hoffman, Charles. The Depression of the Nineties: An Economic History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 1970. Page 109.
^
abcHolbrook, Stewart. The Rocky Mountain Revolution. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956. p.73–74
^Philpott, William. The Lessons of Leadville, Or, Why the Western Federation of Miners Turned Left, p. 73. Monograph 10. Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1994. ISSN 1046-3100
^Suggs, Jr., George G. Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners, p. 17. 2nd ed. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
ISBN978-0-8061-2396-7
^Gigantic Miners' Strike Ordered.; Over 200,000 Men in Eleven States May Quit Work April 21,
New York Times, Wednesday, April 12, 1894; page 8.
^The Coal Miners Strike – 1894,
Coal in Illinois, 13th Annual Report of the State Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1894, Springfield, 1895; Appendix pages 5–26, see particularly Table III.
^W. T. Stead, "Incidents of Labor War in America",
The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXVI, No. 1, July 1894; pages 65–74.
^Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 by Carol Poh Miller and Robert Anthony Wheeler
ISBN978-0-253-21147-7
^Percival, C Gilbert (July 1912). "North of 62 Degrees by Automobile :A Story of a Trip in Alaska, British Columbia, Yukon Territory and the Klondike ALASKA HAS A GREAT AREA AND RESOURCES. AGRICULTURE IN ALASKA". Health. 62 (7): 150.
^Pierre Berton – Klondike: The Last Great Gold Rush, 1896–1899 Espn 0-385-65844-3 and other editions.
^Nasau, D. (1999) "Ch. 3: Youse an' yer noble scrap: On strike with the Newsboy Legion in 1899." in Big Town, Big Time. New York: New York Daily News. p. 9.
^Haw, R. (2005) The Brooklyn Bridge: A Cultural History. Rutgers University Press. p. 151.
^Hoose, P. (2001) We were there, too! Young people in U.S. history. Douglas & McIntyre, Ltd. p. 177.
^The Biodiesel Handbook, Chapter 2 – The History of Vegetable Oil Based Diesel Fuels, by Gerhard Knothe,
ISBN978-1-893997-79-0
^Berkbile, Don. The 1893 Duryea Automobile, (1964).
^G.N. Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985)
^"Movies". Edison National Historic Site. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
^Hendricks (1966), pp. 28–33. Given the dates of Dickson's departure and return that Hendricks provides, Dickson was gone for at least 80 days. Hendricks describes him as taking a "ten weeks' rest" (p. 28) or spending "about ten and a half weeks in the south" (p. 33), a plausible interpretation given travel time from New Jersey to Florida, where Dickson headed. There were also apparently problems—allegedly alcohol-fueled—with the lab employee, James Egan, who had been contracted to build the Kinetoscopes. See Hendricks, Gordon (1966). The Kinetoscope: America's First Commercially Successful Motion Picture Exhibitor, pp. 34–35, 49–50.
^The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. According to Hendricks (1966), in each row "attendants switched the instruments on and off for customers who had paid their twenty-five cents" (p. 13). For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris, Embattled Shadows: A History of Canadian Cinema, 1895–1939 (Montreal and Kingston, Canada; London; and Buffalo, New York: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978), pp. 6–7. Morris states that Edison wholesaled the Kinetoscope at $200 per machine; in fact, as described below, $250 seems to have been the most common figure at first.
^Hendricks (1966), pp. 56, 60; Musser, Charles (1994 [1990]). The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (1994), p. 81;
Ena Bertoldi (Beatrice Mary Claxton) biographical essay by Barry Anthony/Luke McKernan, part of the Who's Who of Victorian Cinema website;
Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller) biographical essay by Richard Brown, part of the Who's Who of Victorian Cinema website. Both retrieved 10/24/06.
^Musser, Charles (2002). "Introducing Cinema to the American Public: The Vitascope in the United States, 1896–7," in Moviegoing in America: A Sourcebook in the History of Film Exhibition, p. 21.
^"Death Of Sir Hiram Maxim. A Famous Inventor, Automatic Guns And Aeronautics". The Times. 25 November 1916.
^Beril, Becker (1967). Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skies. New York: Atheneum. pp. 124–125.
^Donald Clarke, The Rise and Fall of Popular Music. Chapter 10: "Aeolian's Aeriola player piano had been introduced in 1895; in 1898 Wurlitzer built the first coin-operated player piano. By 1910 these had overtaken nickel-in-the-slot record players."
^Randolph, Stella (1937). Lost flights of Gustave Whitehead. pp. 28–29.
Prices and Wages by Decade: 1890s—Library research guide shows average wages for various occupations and prices for common expenditures in the 1890s. Site hosted by the University of Missouri.