The consonant system of Slovak has 27 phonemes. The overall character of Slovak consonantism is similar to that of closely related Czech. The main differences are following: a voiced affricate /dz/ and alveolopalatal lateral /ʎ/ in Slovak and fricative trill / r̝/ in Czech. The phoneme /dʐ/ occurs mainly in loanwords. [1] Both languages feature syllabic /r̩, l̩/, e.g. vlk (wolf), prst (finger), krk (neck). A peculiarity of Slovak are long /r̩ː, l̩ː/ (indicated in the spelling with the acute accent: ŕ and ĺ), they are always syllabic, e.g. vĺča—vĺ-ča (wolfling), vŕba—vŕ-ba (willow-tree).
| Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | (Alveolo)Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c [2] | k | |||
| voiced | b | d | ɟ [2] | ɡ | ||||
| Affricate | voiceless | ts | tʃ | |||||
| voiced | dz | dʒ | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | x | |||
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | ɦ | ||||
| Approximant | plain | j | ||||||
| lateral | short | l | ʎ | |||||
| geminated | lː | |||||||
| Trill | short | r | ||||||
| geminated | rː | |||||||
The soft-hard correlation is represented by four pairs: /t - c, d - ɟ, n - ɲ, l - ʎ/ where alveolar constants contrast with alveolopalatal ones. However, the /l - ʎ / contrast tends to be neutralized before front vowels, where only /l/ occurs. This neutralization is taken further in Western dialects, in which /ʎ/ merges with /l/ in all environments. [1]
- Voiceless stops and affricates are unaspirated, while voiced are fully voiced.
- /m, p, b are bilabial m, p, b, articulated with the lips pressed together. [3] [4]
- /f, v/ are labiodental f, v- ʋ, articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth. [5] [6] In onset position, [ v] and [ ʋ] are in complementary distribution, a fricative [ v] is used before a voiced obstruent, an approximant [ ʋ] before a vowel, syllabic /r̩, l̩, r̩ː, l̩ː/ or a liquid /r, l, j, ʎ/. In coda position, /v/ has a labiovelar allophone [ w] in free variation with a labiodental [ ʋ]. [7] [1]
- /n, t, d/ are (denti-)alveolar n̪, t̪, d̪, articulated with the tip and blade of the tongue touching the front part of the alveolar ridge, the contact may be extended forward so that the tip of the tongue touches the back of the front teeth. [8] [9] Pavlík (2004:103–104) characterizes the main allophone of /n/ as apical [ n̺]. /n/ has a velar allophone [ ŋ] in front of the velar plosives /k, ɡ/. [10] [11]
- /ts, dz, s, z/ are laminal alveolar t̻͡s̻, d̻͡z̻, s̻, z̻, articulated with the tip of the tongue rested behind the lower teeth and with the blade touching or nearing the alveolar ridge. [12] [13] [14]
- /m, n/ are regularly articulated as nasal approximants rather than nasal occlusives before fricatives and thus /m/ is a labiodental [ ɱ] in front of labiodentals /f, v/ [10] [15], /n/ is a laminal alveolar [ n̻̞] before sibilants /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ and a velar [ ŋ̞] before /x/. [16] [17] [18]
- /r, r̩, r̩ː/ are apical alveolar r̺, r̺̩, r̺̩ː. [19] [20] A non-syllabic /r/ is most often a tap [ ɾ̺] or a trill with two contacts [ r̺], while a syllabic /r̩/ is a trill [ r̺] with two or more contacts. [21] [22] A long syllabic /r̩ː/ vibrates for four or more contacts. [21] [23]
- /l, l̩, l̩ː/ are slightly velarized apical alveolar lateral l̺, l̺̩, l̺̩ː, articulated with the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge while both sides (or one side) of the tongue are away from the roof of the mouth. [21] [24] The place of articulation may be retracted to postalveolar. The syllabic /l̩, l̩ː/ are articulated in a similar fashion although their place of articulation may be adjusted to surrounding consonants. [24]
- /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ are postalveolar sibilants tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ with an apico-laminal or (less often) a laminal contact. [25] [26] In apico-laminal variants, the tip of the tongue raised and positioned under the upper gums. A closure or a light contact is made by the tip with the alveolar ridge. In laminal variants, the tip of the tongue is lowered behind the lower teeth and a contact or a constriction is formed by the blade against the alveolar ridge. In either case, the side rims of the tongue are in contact with the upper side teeth. The tongue forms a gentle arch and rises towards the front part of the hard palate, occupying a significant portion of the oral cavity. Pavlík (2004:103) transcribes the main allophones of /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ as apical tʃ̺, dʒ̺, ʃ̺, ʒ̺ which according to Hanulíková & Hamann (2010:374) could be a one of characteristic features of retroflex articulation. [27] However, x-rays images in Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), Tabuľka 40-43 depict a bunched up tongue body inconsistent with retroflexion. Żygis (2003:188–189) concludes in her evaluation of retroflexion in Czech and Slovak that "both articulatory and phonological evidence show that the sibilants in Czech and Slovak are postalveolar ʃ and ʒ and not retroflex as in Polish, Russian or Lower Serbian."
- /ɲ, c, ɟ/ are alveolopalatal ɲ̟, c̟, ɟ̟ or n̻̠ʲ, t̻̠ʲ, d̻̠ʲ, articulated with the front of the tongue creating a closure against the front part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue rested on the lower teeth or more rarely raised towards the upper teeth. [28] [29] [30] Pavlík (2004:100) characterizes the main allophone of /ɲ/ as palatized laminal alveolar [ n̻ʲ]. The plosive /c, ɟ/ are made with a affricated release [c̟ç, ɟ̟ᶨ] which is typical for articulation of (alveolo)palatal stops when a large surface contact is released. [31] [32] The forms [c̟ç, ɟ̟ᶨ] differ from the prototypical alveolopalatal affricates tɕ, dʑ in the brevity of the friction associated with the affricated release. [33]
- /ʎ/ is typically palatalized laminal (denti-)alveolar [ l̻ʲ] or [ l̪ʲ]. [34] [35] It is articulated with the tip of the tongue rested on the lower teeth or pointing towards the upper teeth and the blade of tongue touching the alveolar ridge. The tongue is arched towards the hard patate. [36] Alternatively, /ʎ/ is realized as a alveolopalatal lateral [ ʎ̟] with the front of the tongue making an postalveolo–prepalatal contact. [37] [35] [38] The alveolopalatal realization is the least common one. [1] [35]
- /j/ is a lax (alveolo)palatal approximant [ j̞]. [39] [40] [41] [42]
- /k, ɡ, x/ are velar k, ɡ, x [28] [43] [30]. They are produced by a complete closure or constriction formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. /x/ has a voiced allophone [ ɣ], which occurs as a result of assimilation before a voiced consonant.
- /ɦ/ is a breathy voiced glottal [ ɦ]. [28] [44] [30]
- Dvončová, Jana; Jenča, Gejza; Kráľ, Ábel (1969), Atlas slovenských hlások [Atlas of Slovak sounds] (in Slovak), Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied
- Hála, Bohuslav (1960), Fonetické obrazy hlásek [Phonetic images of sounds] (in Czech), Praha: Státní pedagogické nakldatelství
- Hamann, Silke (2004), "Retroflex fricatives in Slavic languages" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 53–67, doi: 10.1017/S0025100304001604, S2CID 2224095
- Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi: 10.1017/S0025100310000162
- Kráľ, Ábel (1988), Pravidlá slovenskej výslovnosti [Slovak Pronunciation Rules], Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
- Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), "7.3.15 Slowakisch", Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German), Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6
- Očenáš, Ivan (2003), Fonetika so základmi fonológie a morfológia slovenského jazyka [Phonetics with the Basics of Phonology and Morphology of the Slovak language] (in Slovak), Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja Bela
- Pauliny, Eugen (1979), Slovenská fonológia [Slovak Phonology] (in Slovak), Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
- Recasens, Daniel (2013), "On the articulatory classification of (alveolo)palatal consonants" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 1–22, doi: 10.1017/S0025100312000199, S2CID 145463946
- Rubach, Jerzy (1993), The Lexical Phonology of Slovak, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198240006
- Short, David (2002), "Slovak", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 533–592, ISBN 9780415280785
- Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), Bosák, Ján; Petrufová, Magdaléna (eds.), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" [Slovak Speech Sounds and the International Phonetic Alphabet] (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis [The Linguistic Journal] (in Slovak) (55/2), Bratislava: Slovak Academic Press, spol. s r. o.: 87–109, ISSN 0021-5597
- Żygis, Marzena (2003), "Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Slavic Sibilant Fricatives" (PDF), ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 3: 175–213, doi: 10.21248/zaspil.32.2003.191
- ^ a b c d e Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 374.
- ^ a b Pavlík (2004), pp. 99, 106.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 73–75.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 70.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 76-77.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 110.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 72–73.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 78–80.
- ^ a b Kráľ (1988), p. 154.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 98.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 73–74.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 80–83.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), pp. 103–104.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 77–78.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 85–86, 153.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 84.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 101.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 78.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b c Kráľ (1988), p. 79.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 85.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 86.
- ^ a b Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 87–88.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 88–91.
- ^ Hamann 2004, p. 56, "Summing up the articulatory criteria for retroflex fricatives, they are all articulated behind the alveolar ridge, show a sub-lingual cavity, are articulated with the tongue tip (though this is not always discernible in the x-ray tracings), and with a retracted and flat tongue body."
- ^ a b c Kráľ (1988), pp. 80–81.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 91–93.
- ^ a b c Pavlík (2004), pp. 99–100.
- ^ Pavlík (2004:100) Prirodzenou vlastnosťou tvrdopodnebných, resp. ďasnovopodnebných explozív je ich afrikovanosť (Isačenko, 1968, s. 237; Kráľ, 1969, s. 92). Tento jav možno vyjadriť znakmi afrikácie – ç a [ᶨ]. [The natural feature of palatals, respectively of alveolopalatal plosives is their affrication (Isačenko, 1968, p. 237; Kráľ, 1969, p. 92). This phenomenon can be expressed by affrication diacritics - ç and [ᶨ].]
- ^ Hála (1960:29) Pokud se týče sykavosti explose, ta je přirozeným důsledkem pevného přitlačeni jazyka k patru, neboť odtržení jazyka při detensi se tím pozdrží a takto vzniknuvší úzká štěrbina přivodí sykavost náhle a prudce ucházejícího vzdušného proudu. [As for the hissing sound of the plosion, it is a natural consequence of the firm pressing of the tongue to the palate, as the detachment of the tongue during release is thereby prolonged and the resulting narrow slit produces the hissing sound of the suddenly and rapidly escaping air stream.]
- ^ Cruttenden (2014:172) defines affricated stops and differentiates them from affricates. Refer as well to Pavlík (2004:100) on affrication of alveolar stops in English.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 22.
- ^ a b c Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 94–95.
- ^ Pavlík (2004:105) describes this variant as a palatalized apical alveolar [l̺ʲ] by which he probably means an apicolaminal as some laminal contact in the alveolar region is necessitated by the palatalization.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 82.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 105.
- ^ Recasens (2013), p. 15.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 106.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 83–84.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969:95–96) describes this allophone as a palatal fricative without necessary referring to a significantly different articulation.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 96–99.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 100.
The consonant system of Slovak has 27 phonemes. The overall character of Slovak consonantism is similar to that of closely related Czech. The main differences are following: a voiced affricate /dz/ and alveolopalatal lateral /ʎ/ in Slovak and fricative trill / r̝/ in Czech. The phoneme /dʐ/ occurs mainly in loanwords. [1] Both languages feature syllabic /r̩, l̩/, e.g. vlk (wolf), prst (finger), krk (neck). A peculiarity of Slovak are long /r̩ː, l̩ː/ (indicated in the spelling with the acute accent: ŕ and ĺ), they are always syllabic, e.g. vĺča—vĺ-ča (wolfling), vŕba—vŕ-ba (willow-tree).
| Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | (Alveolo)Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c [2] | k | |||
| voiced | b | d | ɟ [2] | ɡ | ||||
| Affricate | voiceless | ts | tʃ | |||||
| voiced | dz | dʒ | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | x | |||
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | ɦ | ||||
| Approximant | plain | j | ||||||
| lateral | short | l | ʎ | |||||
| geminated | lː | |||||||
| Trill | short | r | ||||||
| geminated | rː | |||||||
The soft-hard correlation is represented by four pairs: /t - c, d - ɟ, n - ɲ, l - ʎ/ where alveolar constants contrast with alveolopalatal ones. However, the /l - ʎ / contrast tends to be neutralized before front vowels, where only /l/ occurs. This neutralization is taken further in Western dialects, in which /ʎ/ merges with /l/ in all environments. [1]
- Voiceless stops and affricates are unaspirated, while voiced are fully voiced.
- /m, p, b are bilabial m, p, b, articulated with the lips pressed together. [3] [4]
- /f, v/ are labiodental f, v- ʋ, articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth. [5] [6] In onset position, [ v] and [ ʋ] are in complementary distribution, a fricative [ v] is used before a voiced obstruent, an approximant [ ʋ] before a vowel, syllabic /r̩, l̩, r̩ː, l̩ː/ or a liquid /r, l, j, ʎ/. In coda position, /v/ has a labiovelar allophone [ w] in free variation with a labiodental [ ʋ]. [7] [1]
- /n, t, d/ are (denti-)alveolar n̪, t̪, d̪, articulated with the tip and blade of the tongue touching the front part of the alveolar ridge, the contact may be extended forward so that the tip of the tongue touches the back of the front teeth. [8] [9] Pavlík (2004:103–104) characterizes the main allophone of /n/ as apical [ n̺]. /n/ has a velar allophone [ ŋ] in front of the velar plosives /k, ɡ/. [10] [11]
- /ts, dz, s, z/ are laminal alveolar t̻͡s̻, d̻͡z̻, s̻, z̻, articulated with the tip of the tongue rested behind the lower teeth and with the blade touching or nearing the alveolar ridge. [12] [13] [14]
- /m, n/ are regularly articulated as nasal approximants rather than nasal occlusives before fricatives and thus /m/ is a labiodental [ ɱ] in front of labiodentals /f, v/ [10] [15], /n/ is a laminal alveolar [ n̻̞] before sibilants /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ and a velar [ ŋ̞] before /x/. [16] [17] [18]
- /r, r̩, r̩ː/ are apical alveolar r̺, r̺̩, r̺̩ː. [19] [20] A non-syllabic /r/ is most often a tap [ ɾ̺] or a trill with two contacts [ r̺], while a syllabic /r̩/ is a trill [ r̺] with two or more contacts. [21] [22] A long syllabic /r̩ː/ vibrates for four or more contacts. [21] [23]
- /l, l̩, l̩ː/ are slightly velarized apical alveolar lateral l̺, l̺̩, l̺̩ː, articulated with the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge while both sides (or one side) of the tongue are away from the roof of the mouth. [21] [24] The place of articulation may be retracted to postalveolar. The syllabic /l̩, l̩ː/ are articulated in a similar fashion although their place of articulation may be adjusted to surrounding consonants. [24]
- /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ are postalveolar sibilants tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ with an apico-laminal or (less often) a laminal contact. [25] [26] In apico-laminal variants, the tip of the tongue raised and positioned under the upper gums. A closure or a light contact is made by the tip with the alveolar ridge. In laminal variants, the tip of the tongue is lowered behind the lower teeth and a contact or a constriction is formed by the blade against the alveolar ridge. In either case, the side rims of the tongue are in contact with the upper side teeth. The tongue forms a gentle arch and rises towards the front part of the hard palate, occupying a significant portion of the oral cavity. Pavlík (2004:103) transcribes the main allophones of /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ as apical tʃ̺, dʒ̺, ʃ̺, ʒ̺ which according to Hanulíková & Hamann (2010:374) could be a one of characteristic features of retroflex articulation. [27] However, x-rays images in Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), Tabuľka 40-43 depict a bunched up tongue body inconsistent with retroflexion. Żygis (2003:188–189) concludes in her evaluation of retroflexion in Czech and Slovak that "both articulatory and phonological evidence show that the sibilants in Czech and Slovak are postalveolar ʃ and ʒ and not retroflex as in Polish, Russian or Lower Serbian."
- /ɲ, c, ɟ/ are alveolopalatal ɲ̟, c̟, ɟ̟ or n̻̠ʲ, t̻̠ʲ, d̻̠ʲ, articulated with the front of the tongue creating a closure against the front part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue rested on the lower teeth or more rarely raised towards the upper teeth. [28] [29] [30] Pavlík (2004:100) characterizes the main allophone of /ɲ/ as palatized laminal alveolar [ n̻ʲ]. The plosive /c, ɟ/ are made with a affricated release [c̟ç, ɟ̟ᶨ] which is typical for articulation of (alveolo)palatal stops when a large surface contact is released. [31] [32] The forms [c̟ç, ɟ̟ᶨ] differ from the prototypical alveolopalatal affricates tɕ, dʑ in the brevity of the friction associated with the affricated release. [33]
- /ʎ/ is typically palatalized laminal (denti-)alveolar [ l̻ʲ] or [ l̪ʲ]. [34] [35] It is articulated with the tip of the tongue rested on the lower teeth or pointing towards the upper teeth and the blade of tongue touching the alveolar ridge. The tongue is arched towards the hard patate. [36] Alternatively, /ʎ/ is realized as a alveolopalatal lateral [ ʎ̟] with the front of the tongue making an postalveolo–prepalatal contact. [37] [35] [38] The alveolopalatal realization is the least common one. [1] [35]
- /j/ is a lax (alveolo)palatal approximant [ j̞]. [39] [40] [41] [42]
- /k, ɡ, x/ are velar k, ɡ, x [28] [43] [30]. They are produced by a complete closure or constriction formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. /x/ has a voiced allophone [ ɣ], which occurs as a result of assimilation before a voiced consonant.
- /ɦ/ is a breathy voiced glottal [ ɦ]. [28] [44] [30]
- Dvončová, Jana; Jenča, Gejza; Kráľ, Ábel (1969), Atlas slovenských hlások [Atlas of Slovak sounds] (in Slovak), Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied
- Hála, Bohuslav (1960), Fonetické obrazy hlásek [Phonetic images of sounds] (in Czech), Praha: Státní pedagogické nakldatelství
- Hamann, Silke (2004), "Retroflex fricatives in Slavic languages" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 53–67, doi: 10.1017/S0025100304001604, S2CID 2224095
- Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi: 10.1017/S0025100310000162
- Kráľ, Ábel (1988), Pravidlá slovenskej výslovnosti [Slovak Pronunciation Rules], Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
- Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), "7.3.15 Slowakisch", Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German), Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6
- Očenáš, Ivan (2003), Fonetika so základmi fonológie a morfológia slovenského jazyka [Phonetics with the Basics of Phonology and Morphology of the Slovak language] (in Slovak), Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja Bela
- Pauliny, Eugen (1979), Slovenská fonológia [Slovak Phonology] (in Slovak), Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo
- Recasens, Daniel (2013), "On the articulatory classification of (alveolo)palatal consonants" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 1–22, doi: 10.1017/S0025100312000199, S2CID 145463946
- Rubach, Jerzy (1993), The Lexical Phonology of Slovak, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198240006
- Short, David (2002), "Slovak", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 533–592, ISBN 9780415280785
- Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), Bosák, Ján; Petrufová, Magdaléna (eds.), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" [Slovak Speech Sounds and the International Phonetic Alphabet] (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis [The Linguistic Journal] (in Slovak) (55/2), Bratislava: Slovak Academic Press, spol. s r. o.: 87–109, ISSN 0021-5597
- Żygis, Marzena (2003), "Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Slavic Sibilant Fricatives" (PDF), ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 3: 175–213, doi: 10.21248/zaspil.32.2003.191
- ^ a b c d e Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 374.
- ^ a b Pavlík (2004), pp. 99, 106.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 73–75.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 70.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 76-77.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 110.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 72–73.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 78–80.
- ^ a b Kráľ (1988), p. 154.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 98.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 73–74.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 80–83.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), pp. 103–104.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 77–78.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 85–86, 153.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 84.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 101.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 78.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b c Kráľ (1988), p. 79.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 85.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 86.
- ^ a b Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 87–88.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 88–91.
- ^ Hamann 2004, p. 56, "Summing up the articulatory criteria for retroflex fricatives, they are all articulated behind the alveolar ridge, show a sub-lingual cavity, are articulated with the tongue tip (though this is not always discernible in the x-ray tracings), and with a retracted and flat tongue body."
- ^ a b c Kráľ (1988), pp. 80–81.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 91–93.
- ^ a b c Pavlík (2004), pp. 99–100.
- ^ Pavlík (2004:100) Prirodzenou vlastnosťou tvrdopodnebných, resp. ďasnovopodnebných explozív je ich afrikovanosť (Isačenko, 1968, s. 237; Kráľ, 1969, s. 92). Tento jav možno vyjadriť znakmi afrikácie – ç a [ᶨ]. [The natural feature of palatals, respectively of alveolopalatal plosives is their affrication (Isačenko, 1968, p. 237; Kráľ, 1969, p. 92). This phenomenon can be expressed by affrication diacritics - ç and [ᶨ].]
- ^ Hála (1960:29) Pokud se týče sykavosti explose, ta je přirozeným důsledkem pevného přitlačeni jazyka k patru, neboť odtržení jazyka při detensi se tím pozdrží a takto vzniknuvší úzká štěrbina přivodí sykavost náhle a prudce ucházejícího vzdušného proudu. [As for the hissing sound of the plosion, it is a natural consequence of the firm pressing of the tongue to the palate, as the detachment of the tongue during release is thereby prolonged and the resulting narrow slit produces the hissing sound of the suddenly and rapidly escaping air stream.]
- ^ Cruttenden (2014:172) defines affricated stops and differentiates them from affricates. Refer as well to Pavlík (2004:100) on affrication of alveolar stops in English.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 22.
- ^ a b c Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 94–95.
- ^ Pavlík (2004:105) describes this variant as a palatalized apical alveolar [l̺ʲ] by which he probably means an apicolaminal as some laminal contact in the alveolar region is necessitated by the palatalization.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), p. 82.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 105.
- ^ Recasens (2013), p. 15.
- ^ Pavlík (2004), p. 106.
- ^ Kráľ (1988), pp. 83–84.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969:95–96) describes this allophone as a palatal fricative without necessary referring to a significantly different articulation.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), pp. 96–99.
- ^ Dvončová, Jenča & Kráľ (1969), p. 100.