The timeline of the Palestine region is a
timeline of major events in the history of
Palestine. For more details on the history of Palestine see
History of Palestine. In cases where the year or month is uncertain, it is marked with a slash, for example 636/7 and January/February.
c. 720 BCE – The
Kingdom of Israel is conquered by
Neo-Assyrian Empire and parts of the local population is deported and replaced with deportees from other parts of the empire.[7]
The Babylonian period began with the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar II in 587 or 586 BCE. The Persian period spans the years
539–332 BCE, from the time
Cyrus II of Persia ("the Great") conquered the
Neo-Babylonian Empire, to the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.
Hellenistic period and the Kingdom of Hasmonean Judea
174 BCE – Antiochus appoints
Jason as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple.[12]
172 BCE – Antiochus replaces Jason with
Menelaus as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple as the latter offers to pay a much bigger tribute.[13]
Late 170 BCE/early 169 BCE – Antiochus invades Egypt but decides to return. Perhaps because of disturbances in Palestine. His return is triumphant and he brings many spoils.[14]
169 BCE, autumn – On his way back from Egypt, Antiochus raids the Jerusalem Temple and confiscates its treasures.[15]
168 BCE, spring – Antiochus invades Egypt but the Romans force him to withdraw.[16] Meanwhile, rumors spread in Judea that the king has died and Jason launches a surprise attack on Jerusalem, captures the city, and kills supporters of his rival Menelaus.[17] Antiochus interprets Jason's attack as a rebellion and sends an army that retakes Jerusalem and drives Jason's followers away.[18]
167 BCE, autumn –
Antiochus IV Epiphanes outlaws Judaism in Judea and allows pagan worship at the Jerusalem temple.[19]
165 BCE, spring – Antiochus campaigns against the Parthians.[20]
164 BCE:
spring – Antiochus issues a letter repealing the ban on Judaism and promising amnesty for the insurgents who return before March 164. The provincial land-tax from 167 BCE is abolished. The Maccabees does not take up the Seleucids offer and the insurgency continues.[21]
summer – The Maccabees carries out a number of punitive expeditions, likely led by Judas, against people who had participated in the persecution against Jews.[22]
autumn/winter – Judas enters Jerusalem and the altar to Zeus and other pagan artifacts are removed from the Temple.[23] Meanwhile, Antiochus dies in
Persis,[24] igniting a century-long war of succession in Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid empire.[25]
103 BCE –
Alexander Jannaeus succeeds Aristobulus. He greatly extends the Hasmonean kingdom, concentrating on Greek cities along the Palestinian coast.[32]
A war of succession leads to a civil war among the Hasmoneans in Judea.[33]
Roman period
The Roman period lasted from Pompey's conquest of Palestine in 66 BCE, until the legal establishment of Christianity in the realm. Suggestions for the end date vary between the
Edict of Milan in 313 CE by which
Constantine the Great and co-emperor
Licinius declare Christianity a permitted religion, and the declaration of
Nicene Christianity as the sole state religion by three co-emperors including
Theodosius, emperor of the East, through the
Edict of Thessalonica of 380.
4 BCE – Herod dies and a wave of unrest sweeps Palestine.[51]
6 CE:
Leading Jews and Samaritans ask Augustus to remove
Herod Archelaus from the throne. He obliges and Archelaus is deposed and exiled. His territory, consisting of
Judea,
Samaria, and
Idumea, is organized into the Roman district Iudaea.[52]
222 – Caesarea becomes the metropolitan see for Palestine.[72]
270 –
Zenobia, ruler of the
Palmyrene Empire, conquers most of the Roman east including Palestine.
272 – Palestine is recaptured by Rome.
Byzantine period
Allowing for varying starting dates (see above under
Roman period), this timeline chooses for convenience's sake to set the starting year of the Byzantine period as 313, when Constantine declared Christianity a permitted religion. The period ends with the Muslim conquest of Palestine in 637–641.
313 – Roman co-emperors
Constantine I and
Licinius declare that Christianity is an acceptable religion.[73]
324 – Constantine—having defeated
Emperor Maximian, Caesar of the
Western Roman Empire at the
Battle of the Milvian Bridge—becomes the sole ruler of the re-united Roman Empire with its capital at
Byzantium (
New Rome). Queen Helena, a devout Christian, wife of Eastern Roman Emperor Constantius and mother of Constantine the Great, departs for the Holy Land and begins the construction of churches.
326–333 – Concurrent construction of the world's first 4 state-sponsored purpose-built churches under the tutelage of Constantine and Helena: the
Church of the Nativity is built in
Bethlehem, marking the site where according to Christian tradition
Jesus was born; "
Eleona" (Greek: Olive) on the
Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, also called "Chapel of the Apostles", marking the site where, according to Christian tradition,
Jesus ascended to heaven; the Church of the Holy Cross,[citation needed] later called the Church of the Resurrection and
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is built in
Jerusalem around the hill of
Golgotha, marking the site where, according to Christian tradition, Jesus was
crucified, buried, and
resurrected; and the basilica of St. George at
Mamre (Ramat el-Khalil), near Hebron.
c. 350 – The Christian monk
Hilarion founds the first church in
Haluza and converts a large portion of the population.[74]
363 – An
earthquake with its epicenter in the Galilee rocks Palestine.[78] The earthquake results in, among other things, a halt in the construction of the Jewish Temple, mainly because it ruins the early stages of the construction. Ultimately the plan to rebuild the Temple is scrapped after the death of emperor
Julian in June 363.
661 – The
Umayyad family takes control of the caliphate and moves its capital to Damascus, following the assassination of the Caliph
Ali ibn Abi Talib.[92]
687–691 – The
Dome of the Rock is built on the
Temple Mount in Jerusalem at the site where, according to Islam, Muhammad ascended to heaven.[73]
November – Caliph Ibrahim is defeated in battle by
Marwan II who becomes the new caliph.[94]
745 –
Theodore is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[94]
749 January 18 – The
Galilee earthquake destroys
Tiberias, Scythopolis,
Hippos, and
Pella. Many other cities throughout the Jordan valley suffer heavy damage. Tens of thousands of lives are lost.[95][96]
Abbasid period
747–750 – Civil war resulting in the overthrow of the Umayyads; the
Abbasid family seize control of the caliphate.[97]
758 – The Caliph
Al-Mansur visits Jerusalem and possibly orders the renovation of the Dome of the Rock.[98]
762 – The Abbasids found
Baghdad and designate it the caliphate's new capital.[99]
796 – Battles between the tribes of Palestine.[101]
799 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends a mission to the
Frankish kingCharlemagne and the latter returns the favor.[102]
c. 800 – The Jewish High Council, headed by Gaon, moves from Tiberias to Jerusalem.[103]
800 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends another mission to Charlemagne carrying the keys to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, together with a banner.[104]
807 – A rebellion breaks out. Led by Abu'l-Nida', it has its epicenter in Eilat.[105]
August 15 – A massive Fatimid army defeats
Alptakin and the Qarmatians in southern Palestine.[124]
978–979 winter – The Jewish Fatimid general tries to negotiate with the leader of the
Hamdanids, but their leader
Abu Taghlib refuses because Fadl is a Jew.[125] He later agrees to negotiations with Fadl who offers him Ramla in exchange for ousting the Jarrahids.[126]
979 August – Abu Taghlib launches a failed offensive on Ramla and is taken captive and executed.[126]
981:
June – Damascus is besieged by a Fatimid army.[123]
July – The Bedouins, led by the Jarrahids, rebel against the Fatimids.[127]
983 July 5 – Damascus is conquered by a Fatimid army.[123]
984 –
Orestes is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[123]
996–998 –
Revolt in Tyre. The rebels call for and receive support from the Byzantines. The Fatimids put the city under siege and it falls in May 998. The rebel leader is tortured and crucified.[129]
1006–1007 – Russian abbot
Daniel makes pilgrimage to Palestine.[130]
1008 – Caliph
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah forbids Jerusalem Christians from performing the Palm Sunday procession.[106]
1027 – A treaty is signed between the Byzantine emperor and the Fatimid caliph. It permits the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and allows Christians who had converted to Islam under duress to return to their former faith. It also granted the emperor the right to designate the patriarch of Jerusalem. In return, the mosque of Constantinople would be reopened.[138]
1029 –
Anushtakin defeats a Bedouin coalition that challenges Fatimid rule in Palestine and Syria.[139]
1032 – Renovations of the Dome of the Rock ordered by Caliph
al-Zahir are finished.[140]
The Crusader period, sometimes referred to as the medieval period, as it was the only time when the Western-type societal organisation was transplanted to the region, lasted from 1099 when the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, to 1291 when the
Kingdom of Jerusalem's last major possession in the Holy Land,
Acre, was overrun by the
Mamluks. In part of that period, almost every part of the territory changed hands repeatedly between the Crusaders and the Ayyubids.
1219 March – The Ayyubid sultan
Al-Mu'azzam Isa orders the destruction of Jerusalem's city walls to prevent the crusaders from capturing a fortified city.[174]
1229:
February 18 –
Frederick II and the Ayyubid sultan
Al-Kamil signs the
Treaty of Jaffa, a 10-year-truce (hudna) that restores Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem to Christian control in exchange for protection.[175]
July 11 – The
Khwarezmians capture Jerusalem and slaughter its inhabitants.[177]
October 18 –
Battle of La Forbie north-east of Gaza: The Crusaders and their allies, the Ayyubids of Damascus, Homs, and Kerak, suffer a crushing defeat by the Egyptian army and their Khwarezmian mercenaries.[178]
c. 1250 – Rabbi
Yehiel ben Joseph founds a Yeshiva (Jewish religious school) in Acre.[179]
1258 – The Mongols execute the last Abbasid caliph.[97]
1267 – According to tradition,
Nachmanides visits Jerusalem and establishes the
Ramban Synagogue. However, it is doubtful whether Nachmanides ever visited Jerusalem.[180]
1546 January 14 – A devastating earthquake shook the Jordan Rift Valley region. The epicenter of the earthquake was in the
Jordan River in a location between the
Dead Sea and the
Sea of Galilee. The cities of
Jerusalem,
Hebron,
Nablus,
Gaza, and
Damascus were heavily damaged.
17th century
1660 – The towns of
Safed and nearby
Tiberias, with substantial Jewish communities, were destroyed in the turmoil following the 1658 death of
Mulhim Ma'n,[182] with only Safed being repopulated shortly after the destruction.[183][184] Some sources place the destruction of Safed in 1662.[185]
1663–1665 –
Sabbatai Zevi, founder of the
Sabbateans, preaches in Jerusalem before travelling back to his native
Smyrna where he proclaimed himself the
Messiah.
18th century
1700 –
Judah the Pious and 1,000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
1759 October 30 – Another devastating earthquake shook the Jordan Rift Valley region. The epicenter of the earthquake was again in the
Jordan River, in a location between the
Sea of Galilee and the
Hula Valley. The cities of
Safed,
Tiberias,
Acre, and
Sidon were heavily damaged.
1808–1810 – Students of
Elijah ben Solomon Zalman (Gr"a), amounting to 501 families, arrive in the Holy Land. Historians mark their arrival as the beginning of the current
JewishAshkenazi community in the region.
1897 August 29–31 – The
First Zionist Congress is held in
Basel,
Switzerland. During it, the
World Zionist Organization is founded and the
Basel Declaration is approved. The latter determine that the Zionist movement's ultimate aim is to establish and secure under public law a
homeland for the
Jewish people. The homeland is to be located in the Biblical region dubbed variously "The Holy Land" or "Palestine" by the European Christians during the Catholic and later secular
Enlightenment.
1911 – The Arabic newspaper
Filasṭīn is founded.[188]
1915:
January 26–February 4 – A German led Ottoman Army advances from Southern Palestine, and conducts a
Raid on the Suez Canal in an attempt to stop traffic through the canal.
16 May –
Britain and
France conclude the secret
Sykes-Picot Agreement, which defines their respective
spheres of influence and control in
Western Asia after the expected demise of the
Ottoman Empire at the end of
World War I. It was largely a trade agreement with a large area set aside for indirect control through an Arab state or a confederation of Arab states.
August 3–5 – A German led Ottoman Army attacks British Empire forces defending the Suez Canal at the
Battle of Romani.
March 26 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
First Battle of Gaza – British attack strong Ottoman defences at Gaza, but fail after 17,000 German led Ottoman troops block their advance in the
Southern Coastal Plain.
April 6 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
The Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation – Ottoman authorities deport the entire civilian population of
Jaffa and
Tel Aviv pursuant to the order from
Ahmed Jamal Pasha, the military governor of Ottoman Syria during the
First World War. Although
Muslim evacuees are allowed to return before long, Jewish evacuees were not able to return until after the British conquest of Palestine.[189]
April 19 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Second Battle of Gaza – Ottoman defenders repel the second British assault on
Gaza.
November 15 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign: Australian and New Zealand troops capture
Jaffa after the
Battle of Mughar Ridge fought on November 13.
November 17–December 30 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Battle of Jerusalem – The Ottoman Empire is defeated by British Empire forces at the Battle of Jerusalem. The
British Army's General
Allenby enters
Jerusalem on foot, in a reference to the entrance of Caliph
Umar in 637.
March 8–12– Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Battle of Tell 'Asur – series of attacks along the Jaffa to Jerusalem line which pushed the front line a few miles north.
March 21–April 2 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
First Transjordan attack on Amman including the
First Battle of Amman – an infantry and a mounted division invade Ottoman Empire territory only to be forced by superior Ottoman forces to retreat back to the
Jordan Valley.
April 30–May 4 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt – second attempt to capture Ottoman Empire territory east of the
Jordan River when three divisions are again forced back to the Jordan Valley by superior Ottoman defenders.
October 30 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The British Sinai and Palestine Campaign officially ends with the signing of the
Armistice of Mudros. Shortly thereafter, the
Ottoman Empire is dissolved.
OETA and Mandatory Palestine
1927 July 11 –
1927 Jericho earthquake – A powerful earthquake occurs in the Jordan Rift Valley region.
1948 May 14–1949 January 7 – The
1948 Arab–Israeli War: a large-scale war between Israel and five Arab countries and the
Palestinian-Arabs. The war results in an Israeli victory, with Israel annexing territory beyond the borders of the proposed Jewish state and into the borders of the proposed Arab state and West Jerusalem.[192]Jordan,
Syria,
Lebanon, and
Egypt signed the
1949 Armistice Agreements with Israel. The
Gaza Strip and the
West Bank, were occupied by
Egypt and
Transjordan, respectively, until 1967. In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that some 711,000 Palestinian refugees were displaced by the war.[193]
1949:
February 24 – Israel and Egypt sign an armistice agreement.[194]
March 23 – Israel and Lebanon sign an armistice agreement.[194]
April 3 – Israel and Jordan sign an armistice agreement.[194]
July 20 – Israel and Syria sign an armistice agreement.[194]
1956 October 29–November 5 – The
Sinai Campaign. This war followed Egypt's decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal. Initiated by United Kingdom and France, the war was conducted in cooperation with Israel, and aimed at occupying the Sinai Peninsula, with the Europeans regaining control over the Suez Canal. Although the Israeli occupation of the Sinai was successful, the US and USSR forced it to abandon this conquest. Israel, however, managed to re-open the
Straits of Tiran and secure its southern border.
1973 October 6–24 – The
Yom Kippur War was fought. The war began with a surprise joint attack on two fronts by the armies of Syria (in the Golan Heights) and Egypt (in the Suez Canal), deliberately initiated during the Jewish holiday of
Yom Kippur. The Egyptian Army got back Sinai that was occupied by the Israeli armies for almost 7 years.
1974 – The
PLO is allowed to represent the
Palestinian Arab refugees in the
UN as their sole political representative organisation.
1978 September 18 – Israel and Egypt sign a comprehensive peace
agreement at Camp David which included a condition of Israel's withdrawal from the Rest of Sinai.
1979 March 26 – The peace treaty with Egypt was signed by the Israeli Prime Minister
Menachem Begin, the Egyptian President
Anwar Sadat and U.S. President
Jimmy Carter.
1982 June–December – The
First Lebanon War took place during which Israel invaded southern Lebanon due to the constant terror attacks on northern Israel by the Palestinian guerrilla organizations resident there. The war resulted in the expulsion of the PLO from Lebanon, and created an Israeli Security Zone in southern Lebanon.
1984 November 21–1985 January 5 – Operation Moses: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 8,000 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel from Sudan.
1988 November 15 –
Palestinian Declaration of Independence (1988) – The Palestinian National Council, the legislative body of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), in Algiers on 15 November 1988 unilaterally proclaimed the establishment of a new independent state called the "State of Palestine".
1991 May 24–25 –
Operation Solomon: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 14,400 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel within 34 hours in 30 IAF and El Al aircraft.
2000–2005 (unclear) – The
Second Intifada: The second
Palestinianuprising took place in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank against the
Israeli occupation of the Palestinian Territories. The uprising which began as massive protests carried out by Palestinians in the Palestinian Territories, soon turned into a violent Palestinian guerrilla campaign which included numerous suicide attacks carried out against Israeli civilians within the state of Israel.
2002 June – As a result of the significant increase of suicide bombing attacks within Israeli population centers during the first years of the Second Intifada, Israel began the construction of the West Bank Fence along the Green Line border arguing that the barrier is necessary to protect Israeli civilians from
Palestinian militants. The significantly reduced number of incidents of suicide bombings from 2002 to 2005 has been partly attributed to the barrier.[195] The barrier's construction, which has been highly controversial, became a major issue of contention between the two sides.
2006 July 12–August 14 – The
Second Lebanon War took place, which began as a military operation in response to the abduction of two Israeli reserve soldiers by the Hezbollah, and gradually grew to a wider conflict. 1,191 Lebanese were killed, 4,409 were injured.
2008 December 27–2009 January 18 –
Operation Cast Lead: IDF forces conducted a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip during which dozens of targets were attacked in the Gaza Strip in response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev. 1,291 Palestinians were killed.
2012:
November 14–November 21 –
Operation Pillar of Cloud: IDF forces launches a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip in response to Palestinian militants firing over a hundred rockets from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel beginning on 10 November, with the aims of restoring quiet to southern Israel and to strike at what it considers terror organizations.[196] The operation officially began with the assassination of
Ahmed Jabari, chief of the Gaza military wing of Hamas.[197] 158 Palestinians were killed.
2016 December 23 – United Nations Security Council resolution 2334: Condemning Israeli occupation of Palestinian lands.[199]
2017 December 6 – US President Donald Trump announced the United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[200]
2023 October 7 –
2023 Israel–Hamas war: Hamas launched a
large-scale offensive against Israel, during which Hamas initially fired thousands of rockets at Israel from the Gaza Strip, while at the same time over a thousand Palestinian militants broke through the border and entered Israel by foot and with motor vehicles, as they engaged in gun battles with the Israeli security forces, conducting massacres and shootings of Israeli civilians, took over Israeli towns and military bases, as well as kidnapped over 200 Israeli soldiers and civilians. As a result Israel's
Security Cabinet formally
declares war for the first time since the
Yom Kippur War in 1973.[201]
^Fornai, Cinzia; Benazzi, Stefano; Gopher, Avi; Barkai, Ran; Sarig, Rachel; Bookstein, Fred L.; Hershkovitz, Israel; Weber, Gerhard W. (2016). "The Qesem Cave hominin material (part 2): A morphometric analysis of dm2-QC2 deciduous lower second molar". Quaternary International. 398: 175–189.
Bibcode:
2016QuInt.398..175F.
doi:
10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.102.
ISSN1040-6182. The Qesem Cave...site...has yielded...teeth associated to the...(AYCC) and dated to about 420-220 ka.[dead link]
^Rahner (page 731) states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BCE. Sanders supports c. 4 BCE. Vermes supports c. 6/5 BCE. Finegan supports c. 3/2 BCE. Sanders refers to the general consensus, Vermes a common 'early' date, Finegan defends comprehensively the date according to early Christian traditions.
^Haensch 2010, p. 2;
Ben-Sasson 1976, p. 246: When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea.;
Schwartz 2009, p. 48
^Schäfer 2003, p. 198: the capture of Jerusalem in 638;
Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 49: The conquerors had already taken Damascus in 635, and in 637 Jerusalem fell.
^Barnai, Jacob. The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: under the patronage of the Istanbul Committee of Officials for Palestine (University of Alabama Press 1992)
ISBN978-0-8173-0572-7; p. 14
^Joel Rappel. History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), Vol.2, p.531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned..."
^Gershom Gerhard Scholem (1976-01-01).
Sabbatai Sevi: the Mystical Messiah, 1626–1676.
Princeton University Press. p. 368.
ISBN978-0-691-01809-6. In Safed, too, the [Sabbatai] movement gathered strength during the autumn of 1665. The reports about the utter destruction, in 1662 [sic], of the Jewish settlement there seem greatly exaggerated, and the conclusions based on them are false. ... Rosanes' account of the destruction of the Safed community is based on a misunderstanding of his sources; the community declined in numbers but continued to exist ... A very lively account of the Jewish community is given by French trader d'Arvieux who visited Safed in 1660.
^Nissenbaum, Dion (10 January 2007).
"Death toll of Israeli civilians killed by Palestinians hit a low in 3015". Washington Bureau.
McClatchy Newspapers. Archived from
the original on November 20, 2008. Retrieved April 16, 2007. Fewer Israeli civilians died in Palestinian attacks in 2006 than in any year since the Palestinian uprising began in 2000. Palestinian militants killed 23 Israelis and foreign visitors in 2006, down from a high of 289 in 2002 during the height of the uprising. Most significant, successful suicide bombings in Israel nearly came to a halt. Last year, only two Palestinian suicide bombers managed to sneak into Israel for attacks that killed 11 people and wounded 30 others. Israel has gone nearly nine months without a suicide bombing inside its borders, the longest period without such an attack since 2000[...] An Israeli military spokeswoman said one major factor in that success had been Israel's controversial separation barrier, a still-growing 250-mile (400 km) network of concrete walls, high-tech fencing and other obstacles that cuts through parts of the West Bank. 'The security fence was put up to stop terror, and that's what it's doing,' said Capt. Noa Meir, a spokeswoman for the Israel Defense Forces. [...] Opponents of the wall grudgingly acknowledge that it's been effective in stopping bombers, though they complain that its route should have followed the border between Israel and the Palestinian territories known as the Green Line. [...] IDF spokeswoman Meir said Israeli military operations that disrupted militants planning attacks from the West Bank also deserved credit for the drop in Israeli fatalities.
Lev, Yaacov (2006).
"Palestine". In Josef W. Meri (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index. Taylor & Francis. pp. 590–2.
ISBN978-0-415-96692-4.
Lock, Peter (2006). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge.
ISBN9-78-0-415-39312-6.
Barber, Malcolm (2012). The Crusader States. Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-11312-9.
Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969). "The Latin States under Baldwin III and Amalric I, 1143–1174; The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174–1189". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). A History of the Crusades, Volume One: The First Hundred Years. The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 528–561, 590–621.
ISBN1-58684-251-X.
Jotischky, Andrew (2017). Crusading and the Crusader States. Routledge.
ISBN978-1-138-80806-5.
The timeline of the Palestine region is a
timeline of major events in the history of
Palestine. For more details on the history of Palestine see
History of Palestine. In cases where the year or month is uncertain, it is marked with a slash, for example 636/7 and January/February.
c. 720 BCE – The
Kingdom of Israel is conquered by
Neo-Assyrian Empire and parts of the local population is deported and replaced with deportees from other parts of the empire.[7]
The Babylonian period began with the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar II in 587 or 586 BCE. The Persian period spans the years
539–332 BCE, from the time
Cyrus II of Persia ("the Great") conquered the
Neo-Babylonian Empire, to the conquest of the region by Alexander the Great.
Hellenistic period and the Kingdom of Hasmonean Judea
174 BCE – Antiochus appoints
Jason as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple.[12]
172 BCE – Antiochus replaces Jason with
Menelaus as high priest of the Jerusalem Temple as the latter offers to pay a much bigger tribute.[13]
Late 170 BCE/early 169 BCE – Antiochus invades Egypt but decides to return. Perhaps because of disturbances in Palestine. His return is triumphant and he brings many spoils.[14]
169 BCE, autumn – On his way back from Egypt, Antiochus raids the Jerusalem Temple and confiscates its treasures.[15]
168 BCE, spring – Antiochus invades Egypt but the Romans force him to withdraw.[16] Meanwhile, rumors spread in Judea that the king has died and Jason launches a surprise attack on Jerusalem, captures the city, and kills supporters of his rival Menelaus.[17] Antiochus interprets Jason's attack as a rebellion and sends an army that retakes Jerusalem and drives Jason's followers away.[18]
167 BCE, autumn –
Antiochus IV Epiphanes outlaws Judaism in Judea and allows pagan worship at the Jerusalem temple.[19]
165 BCE, spring – Antiochus campaigns against the Parthians.[20]
164 BCE:
spring – Antiochus issues a letter repealing the ban on Judaism and promising amnesty for the insurgents who return before March 164. The provincial land-tax from 167 BCE is abolished. The Maccabees does not take up the Seleucids offer and the insurgency continues.[21]
summer – The Maccabees carries out a number of punitive expeditions, likely led by Judas, against people who had participated in the persecution against Jews.[22]
autumn/winter – Judas enters Jerusalem and the altar to Zeus and other pagan artifacts are removed from the Temple.[23] Meanwhile, Antiochus dies in
Persis,[24] igniting a century-long war of succession in Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid empire.[25]
103 BCE –
Alexander Jannaeus succeeds Aristobulus. He greatly extends the Hasmonean kingdom, concentrating on Greek cities along the Palestinian coast.[32]
A war of succession leads to a civil war among the Hasmoneans in Judea.[33]
Roman period
The Roman period lasted from Pompey's conquest of Palestine in 66 BCE, until the legal establishment of Christianity in the realm. Suggestions for the end date vary between the
Edict of Milan in 313 CE by which
Constantine the Great and co-emperor
Licinius declare Christianity a permitted religion, and the declaration of
Nicene Christianity as the sole state religion by three co-emperors including
Theodosius, emperor of the East, through the
Edict of Thessalonica of 380.
4 BCE – Herod dies and a wave of unrest sweeps Palestine.[51]
6 CE:
Leading Jews and Samaritans ask Augustus to remove
Herod Archelaus from the throne. He obliges and Archelaus is deposed and exiled. His territory, consisting of
Judea,
Samaria, and
Idumea, is organized into the Roman district Iudaea.[52]
222 – Caesarea becomes the metropolitan see for Palestine.[72]
270 –
Zenobia, ruler of the
Palmyrene Empire, conquers most of the Roman east including Palestine.
272 – Palestine is recaptured by Rome.
Byzantine period
Allowing for varying starting dates (see above under
Roman period), this timeline chooses for convenience's sake to set the starting year of the Byzantine period as 313, when Constantine declared Christianity a permitted religion. The period ends with the Muslim conquest of Palestine in 637–641.
313 – Roman co-emperors
Constantine I and
Licinius declare that Christianity is an acceptable religion.[73]
324 – Constantine—having defeated
Emperor Maximian, Caesar of the
Western Roman Empire at the
Battle of the Milvian Bridge—becomes the sole ruler of the re-united Roman Empire with its capital at
Byzantium (
New Rome). Queen Helena, a devout Christian, wife of Eastern Roman Emperor Constantius and mother of Constantine the Great, departs for the Holy Land and begins the construction of churches.
326–333 – Concurrent construction of the world's first 4 state-sponsored purpose-built churches under the tutelage of Constantine and Helena: the
Church of the Nativity is built in
Bethlehem, marking the site where according to Christian tradition
Jesus was born; "
Eleona" (Greek: Olive) on the
Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, also called "Chapel of the Apostles", marking the site where, according to Christian tradition,
Jesus ascended to heaven; the Church of the Holy Cross,[citation needed] later called the Church of the Resurrection and
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is built in
Jerusalem around the hill of
Golgotha, marking the site where, according to Christian tradition, Jesus was
crucified, buried, and
resurrected; and the basilica of St. George at
Mamre (Ramat el-Khalil), near Hebron.
c. 350 – The Christian monk
Hilarion founds the first church in
Haluza and converts a large portion of the population.[74]
363 – An
earthquake with its epicenter in the Galilee rocks Palestine.[78] The earthquake results in, among other things, a halt in the construction of the Jewish Temple, mainly because it ruins the early stages of the construction. Ultimately the plan to rebuild the Temple is scrapped after the death of emperor
Julian in June 363.
661 – The
Umayyad family takes control of the caliphate and moves its capital to Damascus, following the assassination of the Caliph
Ali ibn Abi Talib.[92]
687–691 – The
Dome of the Rock is built on the
Temple Mount in Jerusalem at the site where, according to Islam, Muhammad ascended to heaven.[73]
November – Caliph Ibrahim is defeated in battle by
Marwan II who becomes the new caliph.[94]
745 –
Theodore is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[94]
749 January 18 – The
Galilee earthquake destroys
Tiberias, Scythopolis,
Hippos, and
Pella. Many other cities throughout the Jordan valley suffer heavy damage. Tens of thousands of lives are lost.[95][96]
Abbasid period
747–750 – Civil war resulting in the overthrow of the Umayyads; the
Abbasid family seize control of the caliphate.[97]
758 – The Caliph
Al-Mansur visits Jerusalem and possibly orders the renovation of the Dome of the Rock.[98]
762 – The Abbasids found
Baghdad and designate it the caliphate's new capital.[99]
796 – Battles between the tribes of Palestine.[101]
799 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends a mission to the
Frankish kingCharlemagne and the latter returns the favor.[102]
c. 800 – The Jewish High Council, headed by Gaon, moves from Tiberias to Jerusalem.[103]
800 – The Patriarch of Jerusalem sends another mission to Charlemagne carrying the keys to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, together with a banner.[104]
807 – A rebellion breaks out. Led by Abu'l-Nida', it has its epicenter in Eilat.[105]
August 15 – A massive Fatimid army defeats
Alptakin and the Qarmatians in southern Palestine.[124]
978–979 winter – The Jewish Fatimid general tries to negotiate with the leader of the
Hamdanids, but their leader
Abu Taghlib refuses because Fadl is a Jew.[125] He later agrees to negotiations with Fadl who offers him Ramla in exchange for ousting the Jarrahids.[126]
979 August – Abu Taghlib launches a failed offensive on Ramla and is taken captive and executed.[126]
981:
June – Damascus is besieged by a Fatimid army.[123]
July – The Bedouins, led by the Jarrahids, rebel against the Fatimids.[127]
983 July 5 – Damascus is conquered by a Fatimid army.[123]
984 –
Orestes is appointed patriarch of Jerusalem.[123]
996–998 –
Revolt in Tyre. The rebels call for and receive support from the Byzantines. The Fatimids put the city under siege and it falls in May 998. The rebel leader is tortured and crucified.[129]
1006–1007 – Russian abbot
Daniel makes pilgrimage to Palestine.[130]
1008 – Caliph
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah forbids Jerusalem Christians from performing the Palm Sunday procession.[106]
1027 – A treaty is signed between the Byzantine emperor and the Fatimid caliph. It permits the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and allows Christians who had converted to Islam under duress to return to their former faith. It also granted the emperor the right to designate the patriarch of Jerusalem. In return, the mosque of Constantinople would be reopened.[138]
1029 –
Anushtakin defeats a Bedouin coalition that challenges Fatimid rule in Palestine and Syria.[139]
1032 – Renovations of the Dome of the Rock ordered by Caliph
al-Zahir are finished.[140]
The Crusader period, sometimes referred to as the medieval period, as it was the only time when the Western-type societal organisation was transplanted to the region, lasted from 1099 when the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, to 1291 when the
Kingdom of Jerusalem's last major possession in the Holy Land,
Acre, was overrun by the
Mamluks. In part of that period, almost every part of the territory changed hands repeatedly between the Crusaders and the Ayyubids.
1219 March – The Ayyubid sultan
Al-Mu'azzam Isa orders the destruction of Jerusalem's city walls to prevent the crusaders from capturing a fortified city.[174]
1229:
February 18 –
Frederick II and the Ayyubid sultan
Al-Kamil signs the
Treaty of Jaffa, a 10-year-truce (hudna) that restores Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem to Christian control in exchange for protection.[175]
July 11 – The
Khwarezmians capture Jerusalem and slaughter its inhabitants.[177]
October 18 –
Battle of La Forbie north-east of Gaza: The Crusaders and their allies, the Ayyubids of Damascus, Homs, and Kerak, suffer a crushing defeat by the Egyptian army and their Khwarezmian mercenaries.[178]
c. 1250 – Rabbi
Yehiel ben Joseph founds a Yeshiva (Jewish religious school) in Acre.[179]
1258 – The Mongols execute the last Abbasid caliph.[97]
1267 – According to tradition,
Nachmanides visits Jerusalem and establishes the
Ramban Synagogue. However, it is doubtful whether Nachmanides ever visited Jerusalem.[180]
1546 January 14 – A devastating earthquake shook the Jordan Rift Valley region. The epicenter of the earthquake was in the
Jordan River in a location between the
Dead Sea and the
Sea of Galilee. The cities of
Jerusalem,
Hebron,
Nablus,
Gaza, and
Damascus were heavily damaged.
17th century
1660 – The towns of
Safed and nearby
Tiberias, with substantial Jewish communities, were destroyed in the turmoil following the 1658 death of
Mulhim Ma'n,[182] with only Safed being repopulated shortly after the destruction.[183][184] Some sources place the destruction of Safed in 1662.[185]
1663–1665 –
Sabbatai Zevi, founder of the
Sabbateans, preaches in Jerusalem before travelling back to his native
Smyrna where he proclaimed himself the
Messiah.
18th century
1700 –
Judah the Pious and 1,000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
1759 October 30 – Another devastating earthquake shook the Jordan Rift Valley region. The epicenter of the earthquake was again in the
Jordan River, in a location between the
Sea of Galilee and the
Hula Valley. The cities of
Safed,
Tiberias,
Acre, and
Sidon were heavily damaged.
1808–1810 – Students of
Elijah ben Solomon Zalman (Gr"a), amounting to 501 families, arrive in the Holy Land. Historians mark their arrival as the beginning of the current
JewishAshkenazi community in the region.
1897 August 29–31 – The
First Zionist Congress is held in
Basel,
Switzerland. During it, the
World Zionist Organization is founded and the
Basel Declaration is approved. The latter determine that the Zionist movement's ultimate aim is to establish and secure under public law a
homeland for the
Jewish people. The homeland is to be located in the Biblical region dubbed variously "The Holy Land" or "Palestine" by the European Christians during the Catholic and later secular
Enlightenment.
1911 – The Arabic newspaper
Filasṭīn is founded.[188]
1915:
January 26–February 4 – A German led Ottoman Army advances from Southern Palestine, and conducts a
Raid on the Suez Canal in an attempt to stop traffic through the canal.
16 May –
Britain and
France conclude the secret
Sykes-Picot Agreement, which defines their respective
spheres of influence and control in
Western Asia after the expected demise of the
Ottoman Empire at the end of
World War I. It was largely a trade agreement with a large area set aside for indirect control through an Arab state or a confederation of Arab states.
August 3–5 – A German led Ottoman Army attacks British Empire forces defending the Suez Canal at the
Battle of Romani.
March 26 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
First Battle of Gaza – British attack strong Ottoman defences at Gaza, but fail after 17,000 German led Ottoman troops block their advance in the
Southern Coastal Plain.
April 6 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
The Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation – Ottoman authorities deport the entire civilian population of
Jaffa and
Tel Aviv pursuant to the order from
Ahmed Jamal Pasha, the military governor of Ottoman Syria during the
First World War. Although
Muslim evacuees are allowed to return before long, Jewish evacuees were not able to return until after the British conquest of Palestine.[189]
April 19 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Second Battle of Gaza – Ottoman defenders repel the second British assault on
Gaza.
November 15 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign: Australian and New Zealand troops capture
Jaffa after the
Battle of Mughar Ridge fought on November 13.
November 17–December 30 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Battle of Jerusalem – The Ottoman Empire is defeated by British Empire forces at the Battle of Jerusalem. The
British Army's General
Allenby enters
Jerusalem on foot, in a reference to the entrance of Caliph
Umar in 637.
March 8–12– Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Battle of Tell 'Asur – series of attacks along the Jaffa to Jerusalem line which pushed the front line a few miles north.
March 21–April 2 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
First Transjordan attack on Amman including the
First Battle of Amman – an infantry and a mounted division invade Ottoman Empire territory only to be forced by superior Ottoman forces to retreat back to the
Jordan Valley.
April 30–May 4 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign:
Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt – second attempt to capture Ottoman Empire territory east of the
Jordan River when three divisions are again forced back to the Jordan Valley by superior Ottoman defenders.
October 30 – Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The British Sinai and Palestine Campaign officially ends with the signing of the
Armistice of Mudros. Shortly thereafter, the
Ottoman Empire is dissolved.
OETA and Mandatory Palestine
1927 July 11 –
1927 Jericho earthquake – A powerful earthquake occurs in the Jordan Rift Valley region.
1948 May 14–1949 January 7 – The
1948 Arab–Israeli War: a large-scale war between Israel and five Arab countries and the
Palestinian-Arabs. The war results in an Israeli victory, with Israel annexing territory beyond the borders of the proposed Jewish state and into the borders of the proposed Arab state and West Jerusalem.[192]Jordan,
Syria,
Lebanon, and
Egypt signed the
1949 Armistice Agreements with Israel. The
Gaza Strip and the
West Bank, were occupied by
Egypt and
Transjordan, respectively, until 1967. In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that some 711,000 Palestinian refugees were displaced by the war.[193]
1949:
February 24 – Israel and Egypt sign an armistice agreement.[194]
March 23 – Israel and Lebanon sign an armistice agreement.[194]
April 3 – Israel and Jordan sign an armistice agreement.[194]
July 20 – Israel and Syria sign an armistice agreement.[194]
1956 October 29–November 5 – The
Sinai Campaign. This war followed Egypt's decision of 26 July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal. Initiated by United Kingdom and France, the war was conducted in cooperation with Israel, and aimed at occupying the Sinai Peninsula, with the Europeans regaining control over the Suez Canal. Although the Israeli occupation of the Sinai was successful, the US and USSR forced it to abandon this conquest. Israel, however, managed to re-open the
Straits of Tiran and secure its southern border.
1973 October 6–24 – The
Yom Kippur War was fought. The war began with a surprise joint attack on two fronts by the armies of Syria (in the Golan Heights) and Egypt (in the Suez Canal), deliberately initiated during the Jewish holiday of
Yom Kippur. The Egyptian Army got back Sinai that was occupied by the Israeli armies for almost 7 years.
1974 – The
PLO is allowed to represent the
Palestinian Arab refugees in the
UN as their sole political representative organisation.
1978 September 18 – Israel and Egypt sign a comprehensive peace
agreement at Camp David which included a condition of Israel's withdrawal from the Rest of Sinai.
1979 March 26 – The peace treaty with Egypt was signed by the Israeli Prime Minister
Menachem Begin, the Egyptian President
Anwar Sadat and U.S. President
Jimmy Carter.
1982 June–December – The
First Lebanon War took place during which Israel invaded southern Lebanon due to the constant terror attacks on northern Israel by the Palestinian guerrilla organizations resident there. The war resulted in the expulsion of the PLO from Lebanon, and created an Israeli Security Zone in southern Lebanon.
1984 November 21–1985 January 5 – Operation Moses: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 8,000 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel from Sudan.
1988 November 15 –
Palestinian Declaration of Independence (1988) – The Palestinian National Council, the legislative body of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), in Algiers on 15 November 1988 unilaterally proclaimed the establishment of a new independent state called the "State of Palestine".
1991 May 24–25 –
Operation Solomon: IDF forces conduct a secret operation in which approximately 14,400 Ethiopian Jews were brought to Israel within 34 hours in 30 IAF and El Al aircraft.
2000–2005 (unclear) – The
Second Intifada: The second
Palestinianuprising took place in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank against the
Israeli occupation of the Palestinian Territories. The uprising which began as massive protests carried out by Palestinians in the Palestinian Territories, soon turned into a violent Palestinian guerrilla campaign which included numerous suicide attacks carried out against Israeli civilians within the state of Israel.
2002 June – As a result of the significant increase of suicide bombing attacks within Israeli population centers during the first years of the Second Intifada, Israel began the construction of the West Bank Fence along the Green Line border arguing that the barrier is necessary to protect Israeli civilians from
Palestinian militants. The significantly reduced number of incidents of suicide bombings from 2002 to 2005 has been partly attributed to the barrier.[195] The barrier's construction, which has been highly controversial, became a major issue of contention between the two sides.
2006 July 12–August 14 – The
Second Lebanon War took place, which began as a military operation in response to the abduction of two Israeli reserve soldiers by the Hezbollah, and gradually grew to a wider conflict. 1,191 Lebanese were killed, 4,409 were injured.
2008 December 27–2009 January 18 –
Operation Cast Lead: IDF forces conducted a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip during which dozens of targets were attacked in the Gaza Strip in response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev. 1,291 Palestinians were killed.
2012:
November 14–November 21 –
Operation Pillar of Cloud: IDF forces launches a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip in response to Palestinian militants firing over a hundred rockets from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel beginning on 10 November, with the aims of restoring quiet to southern Israel and to strike at what it considers terror organizations.[196] The operation officially began with the assassination of
Ahmed Jabari, chief of the Gaza military wing of Hamas.[197] 158 Palestinians were killed.
2016 December 23 – United Nations Security Council resolution 2334: Condemning Israeli occupation of Palestinian lands.[199]
2017 December 6 – US President Donald Trump announced the United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[200]
2023 October 7 –
2023 Israel–Hamas war: Hamas launched a
large-scale offensive against Israel, during which Hamas initially fired thousands of rockets at Israel from the Gaza Strip, while at the same time over a thousand Palestinian militants broke through the border and entered Israel by foot and with motor vehicles, as they engaged in gun battles with the Israeli security forces, conducting massacres and shootings of Israeli civilians, took over Israeli towns and military bases, as well as kidnapped over 200 Israeli soldiers and civilians. As a result Israel's
Security Cabinet formally
declares war for the first time since the
Yom Kippur War in 1973.[201]
^Fornai, Cinzia; Benazzi, Stefano; Gopher, Avi; Barkai, Ran; Sarig, Rachel; Bookstein, Fred L.; Hershkovitz, Israel; Weber, Gerhard W. (2016). "The Qesem Cave hominin material (part 2): A morphometric analysis of dm2-QC2 deciduous lower second molar". Quaternary International. 398: 175–189.
Bibcode:
2016QuInt.398..175F.
doi:
10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.102.
ISSN1040-6182. The Qesem Cave...site...has yielded...teeth associated to the...(AYCC) and dated to about 420-220 ka.[dead link]
^Rahner (page 731) states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BCE. Sanders supports c. 4 BCE. Vermes supports c. 6/5 BCE. Finegan supports c. 3/2 BCE. Sanders refers to the general consensus, Vermes a common 'early' date, Finegan defends comprehensively the date according to early Christian traditions.
^Haensch 2010, p. 2;
Ben-Sasson 1976, p. 246: When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea.;
Schwartz 2009, p. 48
^Schäfer 2003, p. 198: the capture of Jerusalem in 638;
Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 49: The conquerors had already taken Damascus in 635, and in 637 Jerusalem fell.
^Barnai, Jacob. The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: under the patronage of the Istanbul Committee of Officials for Palestine (University of Alabama Press 1992)
ISBN978-0-8173-0572-7; p. 14
^Joel Rappel. History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), Vol.2, p.531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned..."
^Gershom Gerhard Scholem (1976-01-01).
Sabbatai Sevi: the Mystical Messiah, 1626–1676.
Princeton University Press. p. 368.
ISBN978-0-691-01809-6. In Safed, too, the [Sabbatai] movement gathered strength during the autumn of 1665. The reports about the utter destruction, in 1662 [sic], of the Jewish settlement there seem greatly exaggerated, and the conclusions based on them are false. ... Rosanes' account of the destruction of the Safed community is based on a misunderstanding of his sources; the community declined in numbers but continued to exist ... A very lively account of the Jewish community is given by French trader d'Arvieux who visited Safed in 1660.
^Nissenbaum, Dion (10 January 2007).
"Death toll of Israeli civilians killed by Palestinians hit a low in 3015". Washington Bureau.
McClatchy Newspapers. Archived from
the original on November 20, 2008. Retrieved April 16, 2007. Fewer Israeli civilians died in Palestinian attacks in 2006 than in any year since the Palestinian uprising began in 2000. Palestinian militants killed 23 Israelis and foreign visitors in 2006, down from a high of 289 in 2002 during the height of the uprising. Most significant, successful suicide bombings in Israel nearly came to a halt. Last year, only two Palestinian suicide bombers managed to sneak into Israel for attacks that killed 11 people and wounded 30 others. Israel has gone nearly nine months without a suicide bombing inside its borders, the longest period without such an attack since 2000[...] An Israeli military spokeswoman said one major factor in that success had been Israel's controversial separation barrier, a still-growing 250-mile (400 km) network of concrete walls, high-tech fencing and other obstacles that cuts through parts of the West Bank. 'The security fence was put up to stop terror, and that's what it's doing,' said Capt. Noa Meir, a spokeswoman for the Israel Defense Forces. [...] Opponents of the wall grudgingly acknowledge that it's been effective in stopping bombers, though they complain that its route should have followed the border between Israel and the Palestinian territories known as the Green Line. [...] IDF spokeswoman Meir said Israeli military operations that disrupted militants planning attacks from the West Bank also deserved credit for the drop in Israeli fatalities.
Lev, Yaacov (2006).
"Palestine". In Josef W. Meri (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index. Taylor & Francis. pp. 590–2.
ISBN978-0-415-96692-4.
Lock, Peter (2006). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge.
ISBN9-78-0-415-39312-6.
Barber, Malcolm (2012). The Crusader States. Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-11312-9.
Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969). "The Latin States under Baldwin III and Amalric I, 1143–1174; The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174–1189". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). A History of the Crusades, Volume One: The First Hundred Years. The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 528–561, 590–621.
ISBN1-58684-251-X.
Jotischky, Andrew (2017). Crusading and the Crusader States. Routledge.
ISBN978-1-138-80806-5.