The following content is paraphrased, not directly quoted, so it can be copied into the article exactly as it appears or altered depending on your preference. —
Viriditas |
Talk
05:03, 20 November 2007 (UTC)
This is not exactly ancient, but more of a general perspective of oceanic cuisine.
Upon arriving in the islands, the first Hawaiians found plenty of fish, shellfish, and limu. Flightless birds were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking. Fresh drinking water was available, but aside from a few edible ferns and fruit that grew at higher elevations, the island lacked edible carbohydrates. Botanists believe that the early Hawaiians introduced anywhere between 27 and possibly more than 30 plants to the islands, mainly for food.(Laudan 1996, p.216) These include:
Foods eaten often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Condiments:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Foods eaten not as often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
The agricultural system of the pre-contact Hawaiians was maintained through the use of shared land divisions, or ahupuaʻa, which provided for food and basic needs, and formed the basis for bartering. The ahupua'a was dissolved with the creation of private property in 1848. (Corum 2000, p.1-2) The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes. Beef, chiles salt salmon, bean threads, rice, refined sugar, and wheat were unknown to Hawaiians until contact was established with the West in the 18th century..(Henderson, 1994, p.xvii)
Strict dietary rules pervaded Hawaiian society. Men and women were forbidden to eat together, and except for special occasions, women were not allowed to eat bananas, coconuts, pork, and shark meat. If a woman was caught breaking the eating Kapu, she would be killed by the Mu, official executioners.(Tabrah 1984, p.18; Philpotts 2003, p.X) In 1819, Kamehameha II, the King of Hawaii, ate with women for the first time, leading to the 'Ai Noa, the breakdown of the kapu system. Queen Ka'ahumanu was responsible for the incident, convincing queen consort Keopuolani to eat at the King's table. With the kapu system broken, the rights of Hawaiian women expanded.(cite needed)
The word lu'au wasn't even used until 1856, replacing the previous Hawaiian words for 'aha'aina and pa'ina.(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Cooking methods of the early Hawaiians relied on broiling, boiling, and underground earth ovens. Fish and meat could also be preserved with salt; fish could be cut it into strips, salted, and then hung ot in the sun to dry. Modern Hawaiians use drying boxes.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Broiling over hot coals (ko'ala) and hot ashes (pulehu) was a common cooking method for the early Hawaiians. Fruits and sweet potatoes could be broiled in their skin while meats and fish could be prepared for broiling on coals or ashes by wrapping it in ti leaves. This method was called lawalu. Fish cooked in this way would be placed on a ti leaf, a second leaf placed on top, and a third leaf wrapped over it with the ends tied. The lawalu method maintained the moisture and flavor of the fish. Meats and vegetables would be wrapped and tied in the same way. Boiling (hakui, puholo) with heated stones was a popular method for cooking fish and leafy greens. Since Hawaiians did not have fireproof utensils, they could not boil foods over a fire. Instead, stones would be heated to a high temperature and placed into a calabash ('umeke) with food and water.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Roasting and steaming underground (kalua, imu) was the most important cooking method for Hawaiians. A hole would be dug, wood and kindling added. Stones dropped on top of the wood and then the fire would be started. When the porous stones became red hot, they would be covered with banana trunks, and then another layer of grass or ti leaves. Food which was wrapped in ti or banana leaves would be covered in a cloth like kapa or coconut cloth and added to the grass layer. The modern method is very similar to that of the early Hawaiians.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Whalers brought pilot bread and salt meat to the islands, while trading ships from Hudson's Bay Co. brought barrels of salt salmon from the Pacific Northwest. Salmon was an essential food for the Northwest Indian fur trade. (Adams, p. 38)
We can use this tidbit to introduce the modern "Pacific Rim cuisine" and "Hawaii Regional Cuisine" subsection prior to the part about the well-known Hawaiian chefs:
I'm trying to establish that fine dining has a long history in Hawaii:
Agircultural diversity by the middle of the 19th and early 20th centuries was more diverse than today:
Ethnic foods in Hawaii arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, out of the third migration and diaspora of people to the Hawaiian Islands (I will eventually explain and add the first two, namely the Polynesian and mercahnts/missionaries). Disease decimated the native Hawaiian population, and with the planting of sugar cane and pineapple, there was a labor shortage. Chinese, Japanese Portuguese, Korean, Filipino, and Southeast Asian immigrants came to Hawaii to work on plantations,(Laudan 1996, p.3)(Henderson, 1994, p.xviii) and brought their ethnic cuisines to the islands. Traditional recipes were adapted to whatever ingredients could be found in Hawaii; each ethnic group contributed to the development of folk cuisine in the gardens and camps of the plantations. The Chinese planted lychee trees and star fruit; Japanese planted turnips for pickles and Koreans planted cabbage and chilies for kim chee, while the Portuguese built stone ovens for baking bread, vegetable and bean soups, and vinha d'alhos roasts. By the 1930s, folk cuisine was firmly established in the Hawaiian Islands.(Philpotts 2004, p. XI-XII)
Chinese immigration to Hawaii began in 1852, with indentured laborers from the Guangzhou area of southern China.(Corum 2000, p.25)(But Dorrance & Morgan 200, p.127 state: "The first imported laborers were some 500 Chinese from Amoy Province in 1852.") The Chinese brought Cantonese cuisine and rice to the Islands, cooking the first stir fry, sweet and sour, and dim sum dishes in Hawaii.(Henderson1994, p.xviii)
The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii in 1868 as contract laborers for the sugar cane and pineapple plantations (Morimoto 1997, p. 17) bringing soybean products like soy sauce, miso, and tofu, as well as dried seaweed and pickled vegetables. The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so cooking methods relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and simmering, leading to the popularization of tempura, noodle soups, and sashimi.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
The Portuguese began arriving in 1878, bringing spicy sausages, Portuguese bean soup, sweet breads, egg-based pastries, and malasadas.
See also: History of the Malasada and its intersection with modern Hawaiian Regional Cuisine (Clarke, Joan. July 26, 2000. "Haute doughnut. Evolution of the malassada". Island Life Food. p. 1D The Honolulu Advertiser)
The Koreans came to the Islands in 1903, offering kimchi and barbecued marinated beef.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
Filipinos from Manila reached the shores of Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the abodo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple instead of rice.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups, casseroles, and meat turnovers.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii) Samoans arrived in 1919, and although their style was similar to Hawaiians, they built their ovens above ground instead of below like the imu, and made poi from fruit instead of taro.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnamese immigrants arrived,(Corum 2000, p.194) and Thai and Vietnamese cuisine was added to the menu, featuring Southeast Asian lemongrass, fish sauce and galanga.(Henderson 2000, p.18)
Local food was initially ignored by the media in Hawaii. Instead, published recipes in early 20th century Hawaiian newspapers promoted non-Hawaiian dishes, such as egg sauces, aspic salads, boiled dressings, dried beef and onion juice, and rice cooked in milk. It wasn't until 1920 that Hawaii-based media began acknowledging the existence of local foods with the publication of a recipe for guava gelée in a local newspaper. The guava paste confection made use of the leftover pulp from the local fruit after the juice is removed for guava jelly.(Adams 2006, p. 10)(Adams 2006, p. 20)
Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behind Guam. In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.(Adams, 2006, p.58-59) As documented by reporter Rick Carroll, local dishes use Spam in a variety of ways: in saimin, fried rice, stir-fry with cabbage, mashed with tofu, in cold somen, in baked macaroni and cheese, in chutney for pupu, as sandwich meat with mayo, baked with guava jelly, and in classic form, as a key ingredient in breakfast, fried with eggs and rice. Spam musubi, a slice of sweet and salty marinaded Spam tied to a cake of rice with a strip of nori, became popular in the 1980's. Author Ann Kondo Corum attributes the creation of Spam musubi to Mitsuko Kaneshiro, founder of Michan's Musubi. (Adams, 2006, p.58-59)
Portuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from the Azores in the late 19th century, bringing the recipe for malasadas, an eggy doughut containing milk or cream. In Europe, malasadas were eaten as treats on Shrove Tuesday, the day before fasting began for Lent. (Laudan, 1996, pp. 94-95) With Japanese immigration, the andagi, an Okinawan doughnut, also become popular in Hawaii. Businessman and Japanese-American baker Robert Taira (whose parents are Okinawan) came up with a winning recipe for Portuguese Hawaiian sweet bread in the 1950s. Starting with only $500, Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding to California and South Carolina. By the 1980s, Taira's company was grossing $20 million annually. (Laudan, 1996, p. 134)
This is not ready for prime-time, so just leave this here for now, please.
In 1905, George R. Carter, Territorial Governor of Hawai'i, promoted increasing local agricultural production: "There was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour; also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here." Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grown guavas were rotting on the ground while agribusiness were planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns weren't addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."(Adams 2006, p. 10) Regional cuisine focused on basic island foods eaten by Ancient Hawaiians - local fish, tropical fruit, local vegetables - and the mixture of ethnic foods. (Henderson, 1994, pp.xvi-xvii)
Six of Hawaii's islands have major farms, but the majority of agricultural production is found on the island of Hawaii (Big Island). [2] Island restaurants featuring Hawaii regional cuisine are supplied with foods mainly from the Big Island. This includes fish caught on the coastline of Hawaii, such as ahi (tuna), shutome (swordfish), opah (moonfish), opakapaka (snapper), and Kona cold lobsters. Ranches supply cattle and sheep, as well as Puna goat cheese. Vegetables, nuts, and fruits grown on the Big Island include hydroponic lettuce, cocoa beans, macadamia nuts, and of course, Kona coffee. Taro, mango, durian, rambutan, star fruit, cheremoya, figs, lychee, and dragon fruit are also grown. [2]
(Brennan, 2000, p. 249)
I just wanted to point out that the description of the ancient Hawaiian use of the imu holds for contemporary use as well. I think it would help to state that the practice hasn't changed. There's a chapter called "The Traditional Lu'au Feast" in Philpotts Great Chefs of Hawaii (2004) that illustrates the modern practice in extensive detail, with Sam Choy directing the operation. It will make a great addition to this section. We should think about splitting it out of the Ancient times section into a subsection of its own as the practice has barely changed over the centuries. Also, the section makes it seem like Hawaiians only cooked with an imu, which I think is incorrect considering the intensive labor required. — Viriditas | Talk 23:41, 20 November 2007 (UTC)
(Brennan, 2000, pp.267-270)
(Brennan, 2000, pp.252-267)
The following content is paraphrased, not directly quoted, so it can be copied into the article exactly as it appears or altered depending on your preference. —
Viriditas |
Talk
05:03, 20 November 2007 (UTC)
This is not exactly ancient, but more of a general perspective of oceanic cuisine.
Upon arriving in the islands, the first Hawaiians found plenty of fish, shellfish, and limu. Flightless birds were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking. Fresh drinking water was available, but aside from a few edible ferns and fruit that grew at higher elevations, the island lacked edible carbohydrates. Botanists believe that the early Hawaiians introduced anywhere between 27 and possibly more than 30 plants to the islands, mainly for food.(Laudan 1996, p.216) These include:
Foods eaten often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Condiments:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Foods eaten not as often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
The agricultural system of the pre-contact Hawaiians was maintained through the use of shared land divisions, or ahupuaʻa, which provided for food and basic needs, and formed the basis for bartering. The ahupua'a was dissolved with the creation of private property in 1848. (Corum 2000, p.1-2) The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes. Beef, chiles salt salmon, bean threads, rice, refined sugar, and wheat were unknown to Hawaiians until contact was established with the West in the 18th century..(Henderson, 1994, p.xvii)
Strict dietary rules pervaded Hawaiian society. Men and women were forbidden to eat together, and except for special occasions, women were not allowed to eat bananas, coconuts, pork, and shark meat. If a woman was caught breaking the eating Kapu, she would be killed by the Mu, official executioners.(Tabrah 1984, p.18; Philpotts 2003, p.X) In 1819, Kamehameha II, the King of Hawaii, ate with women for the first time, leading to the 'Ai Noa, the breakdown of the kapu system. Queen Ka'ahumanu was responsible for the incident, convincing queen consort Keopuolani to eat at the King's table. With the kapu system broken, the rights of Hawaiian women expanded.(cite needed)
The word lu'au wasn't even used until 1856, replacing the previous Hawaiian words for 'aha'aina and pa'ina.(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
Cooking methods of the early Hawaiians relied on broiling, boiling, and underground earth ovens. Fish and meat could also be preserved with salt; fish could be cut it into strips, salted, and then hung ot in the sun to dry. Modern Hawaiians use drying boxes.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Broiling over hot coals (ko'ala) and hot ashes (pulehu) was a common cooking method for the early Hawaiians. Fruits and sweet potatoes could be broiled in their skin while meats and fish could be prepared for broiling on coals or ashes by wrapping it in ti leaves. This method was called lawalu. Fish cooked in this way would be placed on a ti leaf, a second leaf placed on top, and a third leaf wrapped over it with the ends tied. The lawalu method maintained the moisture and flavor of the fish. Meats and vegetables would be wrapped and tied in the same way. Boiling (hakui, puholo) with heated stones was a popular method for cooking fish and leafy greens. Since Hawaiians did not have fireproof utensils, they could not boil foods over a fire. Instead, stones would be heated to a high temperature and placed into a calabash ('umeke) with food and water.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Roasting and steaming underground (kalua, imu) was the most important cooking method for Hawaiians. A hole would be dug, wood and kindling added. Stones dropped on top of the wood and then the fire would be started. When the porous stones became red hot, they would be covered with banana trunks, and then another layer of grass or ti leaves. Food which was wrapped in ti or banana leaves would be covered in a cloth like kapa or coconut cloth and added to the grass layer. The modern method is very similar to that of the early Hawaiians.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
Whalers brought pilot bread and salt meat to the islands, while trading ships from Hudson's Bay Co. brought barrels of salt salmon from the Pacific Northwest. Salmon was an essential food for the Northwest Indian fur trade. (Adams, p. 38)
We can use this tidbit to introduce the modern "Pacific Rim cuisine" and "Hawaii Regional Cuisine" subsection prior to the part about the well-known Hawaiian chefs:
I'm trying to establish that fine dining has a long history in Hawaii:
Agircultural diversity by the middle of the 19th and early 20th centuries was more diverse than today:
Ethnic foods in Hawaii arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, out of the third migration and diaspora of people to the Hawaiian Islands (I will eventually explain and add the first two, namely the Polynesian and mercahnts/missionaries). Disease decimated the native Hawaiian population, and with the planting of sugar cane and pineapple, there was a labor shortage. Chinese, Japanese Portuguese, Korean, Filipino, and Southeast Asian immigrants came to Hawaii to work on plantations,(Laudan 1996, p.3)(Henderson, 1994, p.xviii) and brought their ethnic cuisines to the islands. Traditional recipes were adapted to whatever ingredients could be found in Hawaii; each ethnic group contributed to the development of folk cuisine in the gardens and camps of the plantations. The Chinese planted lychee trees and star fruit; Japanese planted turnips for pickles and Koreans planted cabbage and chilies for kim chee, while the Portuguese built stone ovens for baking bread, vegetable and bean soups, and vinha d'alhos roasts. By the 1930s, folk cuisine was firmly established in the Hawaiian Islands.(Philpotts 2004, p. XI-XII)
Chinese immigration to Hawaii began in 1852, with indentured laborers from the Guangzhou area of southern China.(Corum 2000, p.25)(But Dorrance & Morgan 200, p.127 state: "The first imported laborers were some 500 Chinese from Amoy Province in 1852.") The Chinese brought Cantonese cuisine and rice to the Islands, cooking the first stir fry, sweet and sour, and dim sum dishes in Hawaii.(Henderson1994, p.xviii)
The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii in 1868 as contract laborers for the sugar cane and pineapple plantations (Morimoto 1997, p. 17) bringing soybean products like soy sauce, miso, and tofu, as well as dried seaweed and pickled vegetables. The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so cooking methods relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and simmering, leading to the popularization of tempura, noodle soups, and sashimi.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
The Portuguese began arriving in 1878, bringing spicy sausages, Portuguese bean soup, sweet breads, egg-based pastries, and malasadas.
See also: History of the Malasada and its intersection with modern Hawaiian Regional Cuisine (Clarke, Joan. July 26, 2000. "Haute doughnut. Evolution of the malassada". Island Life Food. p. 1D The Honolulu Advertiser)
The Koreans came to the Islands in 1903, offering kimchi and barbecued marinated beef.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
Filipinos from Manila reached the shores of Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the abodo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple instead of rice.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups, casseroles, and meat turnovers.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii) Samoans arrived in 1919, and although their style was similar to Hawaiians, they built their ovens above ground instead of below like the imu, and made poi from fruit instead of taro.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)
After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnamese immigrants arrived,(Corum 2000, p.194) and Thai and Vietnamese cuisine was added to the menu, featuring Southeast Asian lemongrass, fish sauce and galanga.(Henderson 2000, p.18)
Local food was initially ignored by the media in Hawaii. Instead, published recipes in early 20th century Hawaiian newspapers promoted non-Hawaiian dishes, such as egg sauces, aspic salads, boiled dressings, dried beef and onion juice, and rice cooked in milk. It wasn't until 1920 that Hawaii-based media began acknowledging the existence of local foods with the publication of a recipe for guava gelée in a local newspaper. The guava paste confection made use of the leftover pulp from the local fruit after the juice is removed for guava jelly.(Adams 2006, p. 10)(Adams 2006, p. 20)
Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behind Guam. In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.(Adams, 2006, p.58-59) As documented by reporter Rick Carroll, local dishes use Spam in a variety of ways: in saimin, fried rice, stir-fry with cabbage, mashed with tofu, in cold somen, in baked macaroni and cheese, in chutney for pupu, as sandwich meat with mayo, baked with guava jelly, and in classic form, as a key ingredient in breakfast, fried with eggs and rice. Spam musubi, a slice of sweet and salty marinaded Spam tied to a cake of rice with a strip of nori, became popular in the 1980's. Author Ann Kondo Corum attributes the creation of Spam musubi to Mitsuko Kaneshiro, founder of Michan's Musubi. (Adams, 2006, p.58-59)
Portuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from the Azores in the late 19th century, bringing the recipe for malasadas, an eggy doughut containing milk or cream. In Europe, malasadas were eaten as treats on Shrove Tuesday, the day before fasting began for Lent. (Laudan, 1996, pp. 94-95) With Japanese immigration, the andagi, an Okinawan doughnut, also become popular in Hawaii. Businessman and Japanese-American baker Robert Taira (whose parents are Okinawan) came up with a winning recipe for Portuguese Hawaiian sweet bread in the 1950s. Starting with only $500, Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding to California and South Carolina. By the 1980s, Taira's company was grossing $20 million annually. (Laudan, 1996, p. 134)
This is not ready for prime-time, so just leave this here for now, please.
In 1905, George R. Carter, Territorial Governor of Hawai'i, promoted increasing local agricultural production: "There was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour; also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here." Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grown guavas were rotting on the ground while agribusiness were planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns weren't addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."(Adams 2006, p. 10) Regional cuisine focused on basic island foods eaten by Ancient Hawaiians - local fish, tropical fruit, local vegetables - and the mixture of ethnic foods. (Henderson, 1994, pp.xvi-xvii)
Six of Hawaii's islands have major farms, but the majority of agricultural production is found on the island of Hawaii (Big Island). [2] Island restaurants featuring Hawaii regional cuisine are supplied with foods mainly from the Big Island. This includes fish caught on the coastline of Hawaii, such as ahi (tuna), shutome (swordfish), opah (moonfish), opakapaka (snapper), and Kona cold lobsters. Ranches supply cattle and sheep, as well as Puna goat cheese. Vegetables, nuts, and fruits grown on the Big Island include hydroponic lettuce, cocoa beans, macadamia nuts, and of course, Kona coffee. Taro, mango, durian, rambutan, star fruit, cheremoya, figs, lychee, and dragon fruit are also grown. [2]
(Brennan, 2000, p. 249)
I just wanted to point out that the description of the ancient Hawaiian use of the imu holds for contemporary use as well. I think it would help to state that the practice hasn't changed. There's a chapter called "The Traditional Lu'au Feast" in Philpotts Great Chefs of Hawaii (2004) that illustrates the modern practice in extensive detail, with Sam Choy directing the operation. It will make a great addition to this section. We should think about splitting it out of the Ancient times section into a subsection of its own as the practice has barely changed over the centuries. Also, the section makes it seem like Hawaiians only cooked with an imu, which I think is incorrect considering the intensive labor required. — Viriditas | Talk 23:41, 20 November 2007 (UTC)
(Brennan, 2000, pp.267-270)
(Brennan, 2000, pp.252-267)