Law is a set of rules that are created and are
enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a
science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group
legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in
statutes; by the executive through
decrees and
regulations; or established by judges through
precedent, usually in
common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding
contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt
alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a
constitution, written or tacit, and the
rights encoded therein. The law shapes
politics,
economics,
history and
society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.
Legal systems vary between
jurisdictions, with their differences analysed in
comparative law. In
civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body
codifies and consolidates the law. In
common law systems, judges may make
binding case law through
precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically,
religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities.
Sharia law based on
Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including
Iran and
Saudi Arabia.
To be hanged, drawn and quartered became a
statutory penalty for men convicted of
high treason in the
Kingdom of England from 1352 under
King Edward III (1327–1377), although similar rituals are recorded during the reign of
King Henry III (1216–1272). The convicted traitor was fastened to a hurdle, or wooden panel, and drawn behind a horse to the place of execution, where he was then
hanged (almost to the point of death),
emasculated,
disembowelled,
beheaded, and
quartered. His remains would then often be displayed in prominent places across the country, such as
London Bridge, to serve as a warning of the fate of traitors. For reasons of public decency, women convicted of high treason were instead
burned at the stake.
The severity of the sentence was
measured against the seriousness of the crime. As an attack on the
monarch's authority, high treason was considered a deplorable act demanding the most extreme form of punishment. Although some convicts had their sentences modified and suffered a less ignominious end, over a period of several hundred years many men found guilty of high treason were subjected to the law's ultimate sanction. They included many
Catholic priests executed during the
Elizabethan era, and several of the
regicides involved in the 1649
execution of Charles I. (Full article...)
Sir Aubrey Melford Steed Stevenson,
PC (17 October 1902 – 26 December 1987), usually known as Sir Melford Stevenson, was an English
barrister and, later, a
High Court judge, whose judicial career was marked by his controversial conduct and outspoken views.
Stevenson became a High Court judge in 1957, and acquired a reputation for severity in sentencing. He sentenced the
Kray twins to life imprisonment in 1969, with a recommendation that they serve not less than 30 years each. In 1970 Stevenson passed long sentences on eight Cambridge University students who took part in the
Garden House riot, and the following year gave Jake Prescott of the
Angry Brigade 15 years for conspiracy to cause explosions.
One of his fellow judges,
Sir Robin Dunn, described him as "the worst judge since the war". After Dunn's attack, several high-profile legal figures came to Stevenson's defence, among them fellow judge and biographer
Lord Roskill, who pointed out that Stevenson could be merciful to those he regarded as victims.
Lord Devlin described Stevenson as the "last of the grand eccentrics". Mr Justice Stevenson retired from the bench in 1979 aged 76, and died at
St Leonards in East Sussex on 26 December 1987. (Full article...)
The Ordinances of 1311 (The New Ordinances,
Norman: Les noveles Ordenances) were a series of regulations imposed upon King
Edward II by the
peerage and clergy of the
Kingdom of England to restrict the power of the
English monarch. The twenty-one signatories of the Ordinances are referred to as the Lords Ordainers, or simply the Ordainers. English setbacks in the
Scottish war, combined with perceived extortionate royal fiscal policies, set the background for the writing of the Ordinances in which the administrative prerogatives of the king were largely appropriated by a baronial council. The Ordinances reflect the
Provisions of Oxford and the
Provisions of Westminster from the late 1250s, but unlike the Provisions, the Ordinances featured a new concern with fiscal reform, specifically redirecting revenues from the king's
household to the
exchequer.
Just as instrumental to their conception were other issues, particularly discontent with the king's
favourite,
Piers Gaveston, whom the barons subsequently banished from the realm. Edward II accepted the Ordinances only under coercion, and a long struggle for their repeal ensued that did not end until Earl
Thomas of Lancaster, the leader of the Ordainers, was executed in 1322. (Full article...)
Case law, also used interchangeably with
common law, is a
law that is based on
precedents, that is the
judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on
constitutions,
statutes, or
regulations. Case law uses the detailed facts of a
legal case that have been resolved by
courts or similar
tribunals. These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis—a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions. (Full article...)
The Tichborne case was a legal cause célèbre that captivated Victorian England in the 1860s and 1870s. It concerned the claims by a man sometimes referred to as Thomas Castro or as Arthur Orton, but usually termed "the Claimant", to be the missing heir to the
Tichborne baronetcy. He failed to convince the courts, was convicted of
perjury and served a long prison sentence.
Roger Tichborne, heir to the family's title and fortunes, was presumed to have died in a shipwreck in 1854 at age 25. His mother clung to a belief that he might have survived, and after hearing rumours that he had made his way to Australia, she advertised extensively in Australian newspapers, offering a reward for information. In 1866, a
Wagga Wagga butcher known as Thomas Castro came forward claiming to be Roger Tichborne. Although his manners and bearing were unrefined, he gathered support and travelled to England. He was instantly accepted by Lady Tichborne as her son, although other family members were dismissive and sought to expose him as an impostor.
During protracted enquiries before the case went to court in 1871, details emerged suggesting that the Claimant might be
Arthur Orton, a butcher's son from
Wapping in London, who had gone to sea as a boy and had last been heard of in Australia. After a
civil court had rejected the Claimant's case, he was charged with perjury; while awaiting trial he campaigned throughout the country to gain popular support. In 1874, a criminal court jury decided that he was not Roger Tichborne and declared him to be Arthur Orton. Before passing a sentence of 14 years, the judge condemned the behaviour of the Claimant's counsel,
Edward Kenealy, who was subsequently
disbarred because of his conduct. (Full article...)
... that 90 percent of Indonesia's village-owned enterprises are not legal entities, hampering their ability to attract investors or open bank accounts?
... that in a court case, William Gregson was awarded £30 for every enslaved person that his crew had murdered in the
Zong massacre?
... that American legal scholar John Hart Ely penned a law review article castigating the Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade, despite being
pro-choice?
... that Singaporean broadcaster Lee Fook Hong legally changed his name to Lee Dai Sor (literally 'Lee Big Fool' in
Cantonese) after being accused of tax evasion?
Image 12The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words (from Legal history)
This is a list of recognized content, updated weekly by
JL-Bot (
talk·contribs) (typically on Saturdays). There is no need to edit the list yourself. If an article is missing from the list, make sure it is
tagged (e.g. {{
WikiProject Law}}) or
categorized correctly and wait for the next update. See
WP:RECOG for configuration options.
Law is a set of rules that are created and are
enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a
science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group
legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in
statutes; by the executive through
decrees and
regulations; or established by judges through
precedent, usually in
common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding
contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt
alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a
constitution, written or tacit, and the
rights encoded therein. The law shapes
politics,
economics,
history and
society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.
Legal systems vary between
jurisdictions, with their differences analysed in
comparative law. In
civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body
codifies and consolidates the law. In
common law systems, judges may make
binding case law through
precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically,
religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities.
Sharia law based on
Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including
Iran and
Saudi Arabia.
To be hanged, drawn and quartered became a
statutory penalty for men convicted of
high treason in the
Kingdom of England from 1352 under
King Edward III (1327–1377), although similar rituals are recorded during the reign of
King Henry III (1216–1272). The convicted traitor was fastened to a hurdle, or wooden panel, and drawn behind a horse to the place of execution, where he was then
hanged (almost to the point of death),
emasculated,
disembowelled,
beheaded, and
quartered. His remains would then often be displayed in prominent places across the country, such as
London Bridge, to serve as a warning of the fate of traitors. For reasons of public decency, women convicted of high treason were instead
burned at the stake.
The severity of the sentence was
measured against the seriousness of the crime. As an attack on the
monarch's authority, high treason was considered a deplorable act demanding the most extreme form of punishment. Although some convicts had their sentences modified and suffered a less ignominious end, over a period of several hundred years many men found guilty of high treason were subjected to the law's ultimate sanction. They included many
Catholic priests executed during the
Elizabethan era, and several of the
regicides involved in the 1649
execution of Charles I. (Full article...)
Sir Aubrey Melford Steed Stevenson,
PC (17 October 1902 – 26 December 1987), usually known as Sir Melford Stevenson, was an English
barrister and, later, a
High Court judge, whose judicial career was marked by his controversial conduct and outspoken views.
Stevenson became a High Court judge in 1957, and acquired a reputation for severity in sentencing. He sentenced the
Kray twins to life imprisonment in 1969, with a recommendation that they serve not less than 30 years each. In 1970 Stevenson passed long sentences on eight Cambridge University students who took part in the
Garden House riot, and the following year gave Jake Prescott of the
Angry Brigade 15 years for conspiracy to cause explosions.
One of his fellow judges,
Sir Robin Dunn, described him as "the worst judge since the war". After Dunn's attack, several high-profile legal figures came to Stevenson's defence, among them fellow judge and biographer
Lord Roskill, who pointed out that Stevenson could be merciful to those he regarded as victims.
Lord Devlin described Stevenson as the "last of the grand eccentrics". Mr Justice Stevenson retired from the bench in 1979 aged 76, and died at
St Leonards in East Sussex on 26 December 1987. (Full article...)
The Ordinances of 1311 (The New Ordinances,
Norman: Les noveles Ordenances) were a series of regulations imposed upon King
Edward II by the
peerage and clergy of the
Kingdom of England to restrict the power of the
English monarch. The twenty-one signatories of the Ordinances are referred to as the Lords Ordainers, or simply the Ordainers. English setbacks in the
Scottish war, combined with perceived extortionate royal fiscal policies, set the background for the writing of the Ordinances in which the administrative prerogatives of the king were largely appropriated by a baronial council. The Ordinances reflect the
Provisions of Oxford and the
Provisions of Westminster from the late 1250s, but unlike the Provisions, the Ordinances featured a new concern with fiscal reform, specifically redirecting revenues from the king's
household to the
exchequer.
Just as instrumental to their conception were other issues, particularly discontent with the king's
favourite,
Piers Gaveston, whom the barons subsequently banished from the realm. Edward II accepted the Ordinances only under coercion, and a long struggle for their repeal ensued that did not end until Earl
Thomas of Lancaster, the leader of the Ordainers, was executed in 1322. (Full article...)
Case law, also used interchangeably with
common law, is a
law that is based on
precedents, that is the
judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on
constitutions,
statutes, or
regulations. Case law uses the detailed facts of a
legal case that have been resolved by
courts or similar
tribunals. These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis—a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions. (Full article...)
The Tichborne case was a legal cause célèbre that captivated Victorian England in the 1860s and 1870s. It concerned the claims by a man sometimes referred to as Thomas Castro or as Arthur Orton, but usually termed "the Claimant", to be the missing heir to the
Tichborne baronetcy. He failed to convince the courts, was convicted of
perjury and served a long prison sentence.
Roger Tichborne, heir to the family's title and fortunes, was presumed to have died in a shipwreck in 1854 at age 25. His mother clung to a belief that he might have survived, and after hearing rumours that he had made his way to Australia, she advertised extensively in Australian newspapers, offering a reward for information. In 1866, a
Wagga Wagga butcher known as Thomas Castro came forward claiming to be Roger Tichborne. Although his manners and bearing were unrefined, he gathered support and travelled to England. He was instantly accepted by Lady Tichborne as her son, although other family members were dismissive and sought to expose him as an impostor.
During protracted enquiries before the case went to court in 1871, details emerged suggesting that the Claimant might be
Arthur Orton, a butcher's son from
Wapping in London, who had gone to sea as a boy and had last been heard of in Australia. After a
civil court had rejected the Claimant's case, he was charged with perjury; while awaiting trial he campaigned throughout the country to gain popular support. In 1874, a criminal court jury decided that he was not Roger Tichborne and declared him to be Arthur Orton. Before passing a sentence of 14 years, the judge condemned the behaviour of the Claimant's counsel,
Edward Kenealy, who was subsequently
disbarred because of his conduct. (Full article...)
... that 90 percent of Indonesia's village-owned enterprises are not legal entities, hampering their ability to attract investors or open bank accounts?
... that in a court case, William Gregson was awarded £30 for every enslaved person that his crew had murdered in the
Zong massacre?
... that American legal scholar John Hart Ely penned a law review article castigating the Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade, despite being
pro-choice?
... that Singaporean broadcaster Lee Fook Hong legally changed his name to Lee Dai Sor (literally 'Lee Big Fool' in
Cantonese) after being accused of tax evasion?
Image 12The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words (from Legal history)
This is a list of recognized content, updated weekly by
JL-Bot (
talk·contribs) (typically on Saturdays). There is no need to edit the list yourself. If an article is missing from the list, make sure it is
tagged (e.g. {{
WikiProject Law}}) or
categorized correctly and wait for the next update. See
WP:RECOG for configuration options.