1871 - During the
Siege of Paris (1870-1871) by the
Prussian Army, the inventor
René Dagron proposed to the French authorities to use his
microfilming process to carry the messages by
carrier pigeons across German lines.[1][2] Dagron photographed pages of
newspapers in their entirety which he then converted into miniature photographs. He subsequently removed the collodion film from the glass base and rolled it tightly into a cylindrical shape which he then inserted into miniature tubes that were transported fastened to the tail feathers of the pigeons. Upon receipt the microphotograph was reattached to a glass frame and was then projected by
magic lantern on the wall. The message contained in the microfilm could then be transcribed or copied.[3] By 28 January 1871, when Paris and the
Government of National Defense surrendered, Dagron had delivered 115,000 messages to Paris by carrier pigeon.[4]
1872 - In 1872,
Leland Stanford, a businessman,
race-horse owner, and former
governor of California hired the photographer
Eadweard Muybridge for a
portfolio depicting his
mansion and other possessions, including his race-horse Occident. Stanford also wanted a proper picture of the horse at full speed. He was frustrated that the existing depictions and descriptions seemed incorrect. The human eye could not fully break down the action at the quick gaits of the
trot and
gallop. Up until this time, most artists painted horses at a trot with one foot always on the ground; and at a full gallop with the front legs extended forward and the hind legs extended to the rear, and all feet off the ground.[5] There are stories that Stanford had made a $25,000
bet on his theories about
horse locomotion, but no evidence has been found of such a wager. However, it has been estimated that Stanford spent a total of $50,000 over the next several years to fund his investigations on animal locomotion.[6] Stanford would initially fund Muybridge's experiments with
chronophotography, an important step in the development of
motion pictures.[7][8]
1874 - In 1874,
Jules Janssen made several practice discs for the recording of the passage of
Venus with his series Passage de Vénus, which he intended to record with his
photographic revolver. He used a model of the planet and a light source standing in for the
Sun. While actual recordings of the passage of Venus have not been located, some practice discs survived and the images of one were turned into a short animated film after the development of
cinematography.[13][14] The images were purportedly taken in
Japan by Janssen himself and the Brazilian engineer
Francisco Antônio de Almeida by using Janssen's photographic revolver.[15][16][17]The revolver could take several dozens of exposures at regulated intervals on a
daguerreotype disc.[18] The Janssen revolver was the instrument that originated
chronophotography, a branch of photography based on capturing movement from a sequence of images. To create the apparatus Pierre Janssen was inspired by the revolving cylinder of
Samuel Colt's revolver.[19]
1875 - the
physiologistSigmund Exner showed that, under the right conditions, people will see two quick, spatially separated but stationary electrical sparks as a single light moving from place to place, while quicker flashes were interpreted as motion between two stationary lights. Exner argued that the impression of the moving light was a perception (from a mental process) of the motion between the stationary lights as pure
sense.[20] This is an explanation of the
optical illusion of
illusory motion known as the
beta movement. The illusion of motion caused by
animation and
film is sometimes believed to rely on beta movement, as an alternative to the older explanation known as
persistence of vision.[21]
1877 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud patented the
praxinoscope, an animation device that improved on the
zoetrope. [9][10] Like the zoetrope, the praxinoscope used a strip of pictures placed around the inner surface of a spinning
cylinder. The praxinoscope improved on the zoetrope by replacing its narrow viewing slits with an inner circle of
mirrors that intermittently reflected the images. [23][24]The praxinoscope allowed a much clearer view of the moving image compared to the zoetrope, since the zoetrope's images were actually mostly obscured by the spaces in between its slits.[25]Reynaud mentioned the possibility of projecting the images in his 1877 patent, but did not complete his praxinoscope projection device until 1880. [26][27]
1879 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud registered a modification to the
praxinoscope patent to include the Praxinoscope Théâtre, which utilized the
Pepper's ghost effect to present the animated figures in an exchangeable background. Later improvements included the "Praxinoscope à projection" (marketed since 1882) which used a double
magic lantern to project the animated figures over a still projection of a background.[28]
1880s
1880 - The
Zoopraxiscope of
Eadweard Muybridge was introduced in 1880 at the
California School of Fine Arts.[29]Muybridge did project moving images from his photographs with his Zoopraxiscope, from 1880 to 1895, but these were painted on discs and his technique was no more advanced than similar earlier demonstrations (for instance those by
Franz von Uchatius in 1853).[30] The first discs were painted on the glass in dark contours. Discs made between 1892 and 1894 had outlines drawn by Erwin Faber photographically printed on the disc and then colored by hand, but these discs were probably never used in Muybridge's lectures.[31]
1881 -
Eadweard Muybridge first visited
Étienne-Jules Marey's studio in France and viewed
stop-motion studies before returning to the United States to further his own work in the same area.[32] The
Chronophotography of Muybridge and Marey was a predecessor to
cinematography and the moving film. It also had a profound influence on the beginnings of
Cubism and
Futurism. Chronophotography involved a series or succession of different images, originally created and used for the scientific study of movement. [33][34]
1884 - Opening of the amusement center
Eden Musée in
New York City. It featured a changing selection of specialty entertainment, including
magic lantern shows and
marionettes. [38]The magic lantern was not only a direct ancestor of the
motion picture projector as a means for visual storytelling, but it could itself be used to project moving images. Some suggestion of movement could be achieved by alternating between pictures of different phases of a motion, but most magic lantern "animations" used two glass slides projected together — one with the stationary part of the picture and the other with the part that could be set in motion by hand or by a simple mechanism.[39]: 689–699
1885 - From spring 1884 to Autumn 1885,
Eadweard Muybridge and his team produced over 100,000 images,[40] mostly at an outdoor studio on the grounds of the
University of Pennsylvania's northeast corner of 36th and Pine, recording the motions of animals from the veterinary hospital, and from humans: University professors, students, athletes,
Blockley Almshouse patients, and local residents.[41]Thomas Eakins worked with him briefly, although the painter preferred working with
multiple exposures on a single negative, whereas Muybridge preferred capturing motion through the use of multiple cameras.[42] Since 1879, Muybridge was working on the
zoöpraxiscope (animal action viewer), a projection device that created cyclical animations of animal movement, incorporating technologies from
photography, the
magic lantern and the
zoetrope. The photographer created painted sequences on the glass zoöpraxiscope discs that were based on his motion-study photographs to produce an early form of animation. Muybridge used these to illustrate his lectures that were presented to audiences in the U.S. and Europe, marking his contribution to photography and film in relation to the "experience of time within modernity."[43][36]
1886 -
Henri Rivière created a form of
shadow theatre at the Chat Noir under the name "ombres chinoises". This was a notable success, lasting for a decade until the cafe closed in 1897. He used back-lit zinc cut-out figures which appeared as
silhouettes. Rivière was soon joined by
Caran d'Ache and other artists, initially performing d'Ache's drama L’Epopee. From 1886 to 1896, Rivière created 43 shadow plays on a great variety of subjects from
myth,
history and the
Bible. He collaborated with many different artists and writers, but made the illustrations for only 9 of the productions himself. He concentrated on improving the technical aspects of the production by using
enamelling and lighting to create extremely delicate effects of light and colour.[44] The Ombres evolved into numerous theatrical productions and had a major influence on
phantasmagoria.[45] The technique is considered a precursor to
silhouette animation. [46]
1887 - Publication of Animal Locomotion, a
chronophotographic series by
Eadweard Muybridge. It comprised 781
collotype plates, each containing up to 36 pictures of the different phases of a specific motion of one subject (over 20,000 images in total).[47] The series is a result of Muybridge's interest in motion studies and his work on the
zoopraxiscope. [48] Historians and theoreticians have proposed that Muybridge's work on animal locomotion influenced a number of other artists, photographers and filmmakers, including
Marcel Duchamp,
Thomas Eakins,
Walt Disney, among others.[49][50][51][52]
1888 - On December 1,
Charles-Émile Reynaud files a patent for his animated moving picture system
Théâtre Optique. The patent was issued on 14 January 1889. [53][54][55] Reynaud in the 1888 patent: "The aim of the apparatus is to obtain the illusion of motion, which is no longer limited to the repetition of the same poses at each turn of the instrument, as is necessary in all known apparatus (Zootropes, Praxinoscopes, etc.), but Having, on the contrary, an indefinite variety and duration, and thus producing real scenes animated by unlimited development. Hence the name of Optical Theater given by the inventor to this apparatus" (translated from French).[27]
1891 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud creates the film Pauvre Pierrot (Poor Pete). The film consists of 500 individually painted images, and originally lasted for about 15 minutes. It would not be exhibited to an audience until 1892. [56]
1892 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud signed a contract with the
Musée Grévin, allowing him to start regular public screenings of his films at the museum. The first public screening took place on October 28. [53][54][55] Reynaud received 500 francs (equivalent to $1,465,911 in 2022) per month and 10% of the box office. The contract disadvantaged Reynaud, as he paid for the maintenance of the system and was required to oversee all of the daily showings.[60][54]
1893 -
Eadweard Muybridge produced a series of 50 different paper '
Zoopraxiscope discs' (basically a version of the
phenakistiscopes), with pictures drawn by Erwin F. Faber. The discs were intended for sale at the 1893
World's Columbian Exposition in
Chicago. They seem to have sold very poorly, and surviving discs are quite rare. The discs were printed in
black-and-white, with twelve different discs also produced as
chromolithographed versions. Of the coloured versions, only four different ones are known to still exist (with a total of five or six extant copies).[61]
1894 - Autour d'une cabine (Around A Cabin), directed by
Émile Reynaud. It is an animated film made of 636 individual images hand painted in 1893.The film showed off Reynaud's invention, the
Théâtre Optique. It was shown at the
Musée Grévin from December 1894 until March 1900.[62][63]
1895 - Release of the film The Execution of Mary Stuart, directed by
Alfred Clark. It is the first known film to use
special effects, specifically the
stop trick.
Stop motion is closely related to the stop trick, in which the camera is temporarily stopped during the recording of a scene to create a change before filming is continued (or for which the cause of the change is edited out of the film). In the resulting film, the change will be sudden and a logical cause of the change will be mysteriously absent or replaced with a fake cause that is suggested in the scene. The technique of stop motion can be interpreted as repeatedly applying the stop trick.[64][65][66]
1896 - Auguste Berthier published an article about the history of stereoscopic images in French scientific magazine Le Cosmos, which included his method of creating an
autostereogram.[67]
1897 - The Captain and the Kids is created by
Rudolph Dirks and debuted December 12, 1897. ;
William Harbutt developed
plasticine in 1897. To promote his educational "Plastic Method" he made a handbook that included several photographs that displayed various stages of creative projects. The images suggest phases of motion or change, but the book probably did not have a direct influence on
claymation films. Still, the plasticine product would become the favourite product for clay animators, as it did not dry and harden (unlike normal clay) and was much more malleable than its harder and greasier Italian predecessor plasteline.[68]
1898 - The German toy manufacturer
Gebrüder Bing introduced their toy "kinematograph",[69] at a toy convention in
Leipzig . Other companies soon start production of toy
cinematographs and production of cheaper films by printing
lithographed drawings. These animations were probably made in
black-and-white. The pictures were often traced from live-action films (much like the later
rotoscoping technique).[70][71]
^Newsletter of the Illinois State Archives & The Illinois State Historical Records Advory BoardArchived 16 May 2008 at the
Wayback Machine Jesse White Secretary of State & State Archivist Volume 2 Number 1 Quote: "Despite Dancer’s early work, in 1859, Ree Dagron, a French optician, received the first patent for microfilm. Using Dancer’s techniques, Dagron manufactured and sold microphotograph trinkets. In 1870–71, during the Franco-Prussian War, Dagron demonstrated a practical use for microforms. During the siege of Paris, the French used carrier pigeons to transparrt microfilmed messages across German dices."
^Brunn, edited by Stanley D.;
Cutter, Susan L.; Harrington, J.W. Jr. (31 March 2004). Geography and technology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 274.
ISBN978-1402018718. {{
cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (
help)
^Chandramouli, Magesh (2021). 3D Modeling & Animation: A Primer. CRC Press. p. 181.
ISBN9781498764926.
^Brookman, Philip; Marta Braun; Andy Grundberg; Corey Keller; Rebecca Solnit (2010). Helios : Eadweard Muybridge in a time of change. [Göttingen, Germany]: Steidl. p. 91.
ISBN9783865219268.
^Tomkins, Calvin (1996). Duchamp: A Biography. U.S.: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.
ISBN0-8050-5789-7
^Catalogue, Henri Rivière: The Thirty-Six Views of the Eiffel Tower (1888-1902), Watermarks Gallery,
Pittsboro, NC, 1995.
^Phillip Dennis Cate and Mary Shaw (eds), The Spirit of Montmartre: Cabarets, Humor and the Avant-Garde, 1875-1905, Rutgers University Press, 1996, pp.55-58 excerpted on line as
Henri Riviere: Le Chat noir and 'Shadow Theatre'.
^Jouvanceau, Pierre (2004). The Silhouette Film. Pagine di Chiavari. trans. Kitson.
Genoa: Le Mani.
ISBN88-8012-299-1.
^Richard Rickitt: Special Effects: The History and Technique, Billboard Books; 2nd edition, 2007; ISBN 0-8230-8408-6
^Berthier, Auguste (May 16 and 23, 1896). "Images stéréoscopiques de grand format" (in French). Cosmos34 (590, 591): 205–210, 227-233 (see 229–231)
^Frierson, Michael (1993). "The Invention of Plasticine and the Use of Clay in Early Motion Pictures". Film History. 5 (2): 142–157.
ISSN0892-2160.
JSTOR27670717.
^"Bing". www.zinnfiguren-bleifiguren.com (in German).
1871 - During the
Siege of Paris (1870-1871) by the
Prussian Army, the inventor
René Dagron proposed to the French authorities to use his
microfilming process to carry the messages by
carrier pigeons across German lines.[1][2] Dagron photographed pages of
newspapers in their entirety which he then converted into miniature photographs. He subsequently removed the collodion film from the glass base and rolled it tightly into a cylindrical shape which he then inserted into miniature tubes that were transported fastened to the tail feathers of the pigeons. Upon receipt the microphotograph was reattached to a glass frame and was then projected by
magic lantern on the wall. The message contained in the microfilm could then be transcribed or copied.[3] By 28 January 1871, when Paris and the
Government of National Defense surrendered, Dagron had delivered 115,000 messages to Paris by carrier pigeon.[4]
1872 - In 1872,
Leland Stanford, a businessman,
race-horse owner, and former
governor of California hired the photographer
Eadweard Muybridge for a
portfolio depicting his
mansion and other possessions, including his race-horse Occident. Stanford also wanted a proper picture of the horse at full speed. He was frustrated that the existing depictions and descriptions seemed incorrect. The human eye could not fully break down the action at the quick gaits of the
trot and
gallop. Up until this time, most artists painted horses at a trot with one foot always on the ground; and at a full gallop with the front legs extended forward and the hind legs extended to the rear, and all feet off the ground.[5] There are stories that Stanford had made a $25,000
bet on his theories about
horse locomotion, but no evidence has been found of such a wager. However, it has been estimated that Stanford spent a total of $50,000 over the next several years to fund his investigations on animal locomotion.[6] Stanford would initially fund Muybridge's experiments with
chronophotography, an important step in the development of
motion pictures.[7][8]
1874 - In 1874,
Jules Janssen made several practice discs for the recording of the passage of
Venus with his series Passage de Vénus, which he intended to record with his
photographic revolver. He used a model of the planet and a light source standing in for the
Sun. While actual recordings of the passage of Venus have not been located, some practice discs survived and the images of one were turned into a short animated film after the development of
cinematography.[13][14] The images were purportedly taken in
Japan by Janssen himself and the Brazilian engineer
Francisco Antônio de Almeida by using Janssen's photographic revolver.[15][16][17]The revolver could take several dozens of exposures at regulated intervals on a
daguerreotype disc.[18] The Janssen revolver was the instrument that originated
chronophotography, a branch of photography based on capturing movement from a sequence of images. To create the apparatus Pierre Janssen was inspired by the revolving cylinder of
Samuel Colt's revolver.[19]
1875 - the
physiologistSigmund Exner showed that, under the right conditions, people will see two quick, spatially separated but stationary electrical sparks as a single light moving from place to place, while quicker flashes were interpreted as motion between two stationary lights. Exner argued that the impression of the moving light was a perception (from a mental process) of the motion between the stationary lights as pure
sense.[20] This is an explanation of the
optical illusion of
illusory motion known as the
beta movement. The illusion of motion caused by
animation and
film is sometimes believed to rely on beta movement, as an alternative to the older explanation known as
persistence of vision.[21]
1877 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud patented the
praxinoscope, an animation device that improved on the
zoetrope. [9][10] Like the zoetrope, the praxinoscope used a strip of pictures placed around the inner surface of a spinning
cylinder. The praxinoscope improved on the zoetrope by replacing its narrow viewing slits with an inner circle of
mirrors that intermittently reflected the images. [23][24]The praxinoscope allowed a much clearer view of the moving image compared to the zoetrope, since the zoetrope's images were actually mostly obscured by the spaces in between its slits.[25]Reynaud mentioned the possibility of projecting the images in his 1877 patent, but did not complete his praxinoscope projection device until 1880. [26][27]
1879 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud registered a modification to the
praxinoscope patent to include the Praxinoscope Théâtre, which utilized the
Pepper's ghost effect to present the animated figures in an exchangeable background. Later improvements included the "Praxinoscope à projection" (marketed since 1882) which used a double
magic lantern to project the animated figures over a still projection of a background.[28]
1880s
1880 - The
Zoopraxiscope of
Eadweard Muybridge was introduced in 1880 at the
California School of Fine Arts.[29]Muybridge did project moving images from his photographs with his Zoopraxiscope, from 1880 to 1895, but these were painted on discs and his technique was no more advanced than similar earlier demonstrations (for instance those by
Franz von Uchatius in 1853).[30] The first discs were painted on the glass in dark contours. Discs made between 1892 and 1894 had outlines drawn by Erwin Faber photographically printed on the disc and then colored by hand, but these discs were probably never used in Muybridge's lectures.[31]
1881 -
Eadweard Muybridge first visited
Étienne-Jules Marey's studio in France and viewed
stop-motion studies before returning to the United States to further his own work in the same area.[32] The
Chronophotography of Muybridge and Marey was a predecessor to
cinematography and the moving film. It also had a profound influence on the beginnings of
Cubism and
Futurism. Chronophotography involved a series or succession of different images, originally created and used for the scientific study of movement. [33][34]
1884 - Opening of the amusement center
Eden Musée in
New York City. It featured a changing selection of specialty entertainment, including
magic lantern shows and
marionettes. [38]The magic lantern was not only a direct ancestor of the
motion picture projector as a means for visual storytelling, but it could itself be used to project moving images. Some suggestion of movement could be achieved by alternating between pictures of different phases of a motion, but most magic lantern "animations" used two glass slides projected together — one with the stationary part of the picture and the other with the part that could be set in motion by hand or by a simple mechanism.[39]: 689–699
1885 - From spring 1884 to Autumn 1885,
Eadweard Muybridge and his team produced over 100,000 images,[40] mostly at an outdoor studio on the grounds of the
University of Pennsylvania's northeast corner of 36th and Pine, recording the motions of animals from the veterinary hospital, and from humans: University professors, students, athletes,
Blockley Almshouse patients, and local residents.[41]Thomas Eakins worked with him briefly, although the painter preferred working with
multiple exposures on a single negative, whereas Muybridge preferred capturing motion through the use of multiple cameras.[42] Since 1879, Muybridge was working on the
zoöpraxiscope (animal action viewer), a projection device that created cyclical animations of animal movement, incorporating technologies from
photography, the
magic lantern and the
zoetrope. The photographer created painted sequences on the glass zoöpraxiscope discs that were based on his motion-study photographs to produce an early form of animation. Muybridge used these to illustrate his lectures that were presented to audiences in the U.S. and Europe, marking his contribution to photography and film in relation to the "experience of time within modernity."[43][36]
1886 -
Henri Rivière created a form of
shadow theatre at the Chat Noir under the name "ombres chinoises". This was a notable success, lasting for a decade until the cafe closed in 1897. He used back-lit zinc cut-out figures which appeared as
silhouettes. Rivière was soon joined by
Caran d'Ache and other artists, initially performing d'Ache's drama L’Epopee. From 1886 to 1896, Rivière created 43 shadow plays on a great variety of subjects from
myth,
history and the
Bible. He collaborated with many different artists and writers, but made the illustrations for only 9 of the productions himself. He concentrated on improving the technical aspects of the production by using
enamelling and lighting to create extremely delicate effects of light and colour.[44] The Ombres evolved into numerous theatrical productions and had a major influence on
phantasmagoria.[45] The technique is considered a precursor to
silhouette animation. [46]
1887 - Publication of Animal Locomotion, a
chronophotographic series by
Eadweard Muybridge. It comprised 781
collotype plates, each containing up to 36 pictures of the different phases of a specific motion of one subject (over 20,000 images in total).[47] The series is a result of Muybridge's interest in motion studies and his work on the
zoopraxiscope. [48] Historians and theoreticians have proposed that Muybridge's work on animal locomotion influenced a number of other artists, photographers and filmmakers, including
Marcel Duchamp,
Thomas Eakins,
Walt Disney, among others.[49][50][51][52]
1888 - On December 1,
Charles-Émile Reynaud files a patent for his animated moving picture system
Théâtre Optique. The patent was issued on 14 January 1889. [53][54][55] Reynaud in the 1888 patent: "The aim of the apparatus is to obtain the illusion of motion, which is no longer limited to the repetition of the same poses at each turn of the instrument, as is necessary in all known apparatus (Zootropes, Praxinoscopes, etc.), but Having, on the contrary, an indefinite variety and duration, and thus producing real scenes animated by unlimited development. Hence the name of Optical Theater given by the inventor to this apparatus" (translated from French).[27]
1891 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud creates the film Pauvre Pierrot (Poor Pete). The film consists of 500 individually painted images, and originally lasted for about 15 minutes. It would not be exhibited to an audience until 1892. [56]
1892 -
Charles-Émile Reynaud signed a contract with the
Musée Grévin, allowing him to start regular public screenings of his films at the museum. The first public screening took place on October 28. [53][54][55] Reynaud received 500 francs (equivalent to $1,465,911 in 2022) per month and 10% of the box office. The contract disadvantaged Reynaud, as he paid for the maintenance of the system and was required to oversee all of the daily showings.[60][54]
1893 -
Eadweard Muybridge produced a series of 50 different paper '
Zoopraxiscope discs' (basically a version of the
phenakistiscopes), with pictures drawn by Erwin F. Faber. The discs were intended for sale at the 1893
World's Columbian Exposition in
Chicago. They seem to have sold very poorly, and surviving discs are quite rare. The discs were printed in
black-and-white, with twelve different discs also produced as
chromolithographed versions. Of the coloured versions, only four different ones are known to still exist (with a total of five or six extant copies).[61]
1894 - Autour d'une cabine (Around A Cabin), directed by
Émile Reynaud. It is an animated film made of 636 individual images hand painted in 1893.The film showed off Reynaud's invention, the
Théâtre Optique. It was shown at the
Musée Grévin from December 1894 until March 1900.[62][63]
1895 - Release of the film The Execution of Mary Stuart, directed by
Alfred Clark. It is the first known film to use
special effects, specifically the
stop trick.
Stop motion is closely related to the stop trick, in which the camera is temporarily stopped during the recording of a scene to create a change before filming is continued (or for which the cause of the change is edited out of the film). In the resulting film, the change will be sudden and a logical cause of the change will be mysteriously absent or replaced with a fake cause that is suggested in the scene. The technique of stop motion can be interpreted as repeatedly applying the stop trick.[64][65][66]
1896 - Auguste Berthier published an article about the history of stereoscopic images in French scientific magazine Le Cosmos, which included his method of creating an
autostereogram.[67]
1897 - The Captain and the Kids is created by
Rudolph Dirks and debuted December 12, 1897. ;
William Harbutt developed
plasticine in 1897. To promote his educational "Plastic Method" he made a handbook that included several photographs that displayed various stages of creative projects. The images suggest phases of motion or change, but the book probably did not have a direct influence on
claymation films. Still, the plasticine product would become the favourite product for clay animators, as it did not dry and harden (unlike normal clay) and was much more malleable than its harder and greasier Italian predecessor plasteline.[68]
1898 - The German toy manufacturer
Gebrüder Bing introduced their toy "kinematograph",[69] at a toy convention in
Leipzig . Other companies soon start production of toy
cinematographs and production of cheaper films by printing
lithographed drawings. These animations were probably made in
black-and-white. The pictures were often traced from live-action films (much like the later
rotoscoping technique).[70][71]
^Newsletter of the Illinois State Archives & The Illinois State Historical Records Advory BoardArchived 16 May 2008 at the
Wayback Machine Jesse White Secretary of State & State Archivist Volume 2 Number 1 Quote: "Despite Dancer’s early work, in 1859, Ree Dagron, a French optician, received the first patent for microfilm. Using Dancer’s techniques, Dagron manufactured and sold microphotograph trinkets. In 1870–71, during the Franco-Prussian War, Dagron demonstrated a practical use for microforms. During the siege of Paris, the French used carrier pigeons to transparrt microfilmed messages across German dices."
^Brunn, edited by Stanley D.;
Cutter, Susan L.; Harrington, J.W. Jr. (31 March 2004). Geography and technology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 274.
ISBN978-1402018718. {{
cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (
help)
^Chandramouli, Magesh (2021). 3D Modeling & Animation: A Primer. CRC Press. p. 181.
ISBN9781498764926.
^Brookman, Philip; Marta Braun; Andy Grundberg; Corey Keller; Rebecca Solnit (2010). Helios : Eadweard Muybridge in a time of change. [Göttingen, Germany]: Steidl. p. 91.
ISBN9783865219268.
^Tomkins, Calvin (1996). Duchamp: A Biography. U.S.: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.
ISBN0-8050-5789-7
^Catalogue, Henri Rivière: The Thirty-Six Views of the Eiffel Tower (1888-1902), Watermarks Gallery,
Pittsboro, NC, 1995.
^Phillip Dennis Cate and Mary Shaw (eds), The Spirit of Montmartre: Cabarets, Humor and the Avant-Garde, 1875-1905, Rutgers University Press, 1996, pp.55-58 excerpted on line as
Henri Riviere: Le Chat noir and 'Shadow Theatre'.
^Jouvanceau, Pierre (2004). The Silhouette Film. Pagine di Chiavari. trans. Kitson.
Genoa: Le Mani.
ISBN88-8012-299-1.
^Richard Rickitt: Special Effects: The History and Technique, Billboard Books; 2nd edition, 2007; ISBN 0-8230-8408-6
^Berthier, Auguste (May 16 and 23, 1896). "Images stéréoscopiques de grand format" (in French). Cosmos34 (590, 591): 205–210, 227-233 (see 229–231)
^Frierson, Michael (1993). "The Invention of Plasticine and the Use of Clay in Early Motion Pictures". Film History. 5 (2): 142–157.
ISSN0892-2160.
JSTOR27670717.
^"Bing". www.zinnfiguren-bleifiguren.com (in German).