Ink wash painting (
simplified Chinese: 水墨画;
traditional Chinese: 水墨畫;
pinyin: shuǐmòhuà); is a type of Chinese
ink brush painting which uses
washes of
black ink, such as that used in
East Asian calligraphy, in different concentrations. It emerged during the
Tang dynasty of China (618–907), and overturned earlier, more
realistic techniques. It is typically
monochrome, using only shades of black, with a great emphasis on
virtuoso brushwork and conveying the perceived "spirit" or "essence" of a subject over direct
imitation.[1][2][3] Ink wash painting flourished from the
Song dynasty in China (960–1279) onwards, as well as in Japan after it was introduced by
Zen Buddhist monks in the
14th century.[4] Some Western scholars divide Chinese painting (including ink wash painting) into three periods: times of representation, times of expression, and historical Oriental art.[5][6] Chinese scholars have their own views which may be different; they believe that contemporary Chinese ink wash paintings are the pluralistic continuation of multiple historical traditions.[7]
In China, Japan and, to a lesser extent, Korea, ink wash painting formed a distinct stylistic tradition with a different set of artists working in it than from those in other types of painting. In China especially it was a gentlemanly occupation associated with poetry and
calligraphy. It was often produced by the
scholar-official or literati class, ideally illustrating their own poetry and producing the paintings as gifts for friends or patrons, rather than painting for payment.
In practice a talented painter often had an advantage in climbing the bureaucratic ladder. In Korea, painters were less segregated, and more willing to paint in two techniques, such as mixing areas of colour with monochrome ink, for example in painting the faces of figures.[1][3][8]
The vertical
hanging scroll was the classic format; the long horizontal
handscroll format tended to be associated with professional coloured painting, but was also used for literati painting. In both formats paintings were generally kept rolled up, and brought out for the owner to admire, often with a small group of friends.[9] Chinese collectors liked to stamp paintings with their
seals and usually in red inkpad; sometimes they would add poems or notes of appreciation. Some old and famous paintings have become very disfigured by this; the
Qianlong Emperor was a particular offender.[2]
In
landscape painting the scenes depicted are typically imaginary or very loose adaptations of actual views. The shan shui style of mountain landscapes are by far the most common, often evoking particular areas traditionally famous for their beauty, from which the artist may have been very distant.[3][10]
Philosophy
East Asian writing on aesthetics is generally consistent in saying that the goal of ink and wash painting is not simply to reproduce the appearance of the subject, but to capture its spirit. To paint a horse the ink-wash painting artist must understand its temperament better than its muscles and bones. To paint a flower there is no need to perfectly match its petals and colors, but it is essential to convey its liveliness and fragrance. It has been compared to the later Western movement of
Impressionism.[1] It is also particularly associated with the
Chán or Zen sect of Buddhism, which emphasizes "simplicity, spontaneity and self-expression", and
Daoism, which emphasizes "spontaneity and harmony with nature,"[4] especially when compared with the less spiritually-oriented
Confucianism.[3][11]
East Asian ink wash painting has long inspired modern artists in the West. In his classic book Composition, American artist and educator
Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: "The painter... put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art".[12] Dow's fascination with ink wash painting not only shaped his own approach to art but also helped free many American modernists of the era, including his student
Georgia O'Keeffe, from what he called a "story-telling" approach. Dow strived for harmonic compositions through three elements: line, shading, and color. He advocated practicing with East Asian brushes and ink to develop aesthetic acuity with line and shading.[3][13]
Technique, materials and tools
Ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. These skills are closely related to those needed for basic writing in East Asian characters, and then for calligraphy, which essentially use the same ink and brushes. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce considerable variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.[14]
Once a stroke is painted it cannot be changed or erased. As a result, ink and wash painting is a technically demanding art form requiring great skill, concentration, and years of training.[13][2]
The Four Treasures is summarized in a
four-word couplet: "文房四寶: 筆、墨、紙、硯," (Pinyin: wénfáng sìbǎo: bǐ, mò, zhǐ, yàn) "The four jewels of the study: Brush, Ink, Paper, Inkstone" by Chinese
scholar-official or literati class, which are also indispensable tools and materials for East Asian painting.[15][16]
Brush
The earliest intact ink brush was found in 1954 in the tomb of a
Chu citizen from the
Warring States period (475-221
BCE) located in an archaeological dig site Zuo Gong Shan 15 near
Changsha. This primitive version of an ink brush found had a wooden stalk and a bamboo tube securing the bundle of hair to the stalk. Legend wrongly credits the invention of the ink brush to the later
Qin general
Meng Tian.[14] Traces of a writing brush, however, were discovered on the Shang jades, and were suggested to be the grounds of the
oracle bone script inscriptions.[17]
The writing brush entered a new stage of development in the
Han dynasty. First, the decorative craft of engraving and inlaying on the pen-holder appeared. Second, some writings on the production of writing brush have also survived. For example, the first
monograph on the selection, production and function of a writing brush was written by
Cai Yong in the eastern Han dynasty. Third, the special form of "hairpin white pen" appeared. Officials in the Han dynasty often sharpened the end of the brush and stuck it in their hair or hat for their convenience. Worshipers also often put pen on their heads to show respect.[14][13]
During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, a group of pen making experts emerged in
Huzhou. They included Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke, Lu Wenbao, Zhang Tianxi, and others. Huzhou has been the center of Chinese brush making since the Qing dynasty. At the same time, many famous brushes were produced in other places, such as the Ruyang Liu brush in Henan province, the Li Dinghe brush in Shanghai, and the Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi province.[14]
Ink wash painting
brushes are similar to the brushes used for calligraphy and are traditionally made from
bamboo with
goat,
cattle,
horse,
sheep,
rabbit,
marten,
badger,
deer,
boar and
wolf hair. The brush hairs are tapered to a fine point, a feature vital to the style of wash paintings.[3][13]
Different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen). A large wool brush (one variation called the 'big cloud') can hold a large volume of water and ink. When the big cloud brush rains down upon the paper, it delivers a graded swath of ink encompassing myriad shades of gray to black.[2][17]
Inkstick
Ink wash painting is usually done on
rice paper (Chinese) or
washi (Japanese paper) both of which are highly absorbent and
unsized.
Silk is also used in some forms of ink painting.[18] Many types of
Xuan paper and washi do not lend themselves readily to a smooth wash the way watercolor paper does. Each brush stroke is visible, so any "wash" in the sense of Western style painting requires partially sized paper. Paper manufacturers today understand artists' demands for more versatile papers and work to produce kinds that are more flexible. If one uses traditional paper, the idea of an "ink wash" refers to a wet-on-wet technique, applying black ink to paper where a lighter ink has already been applied, or by quickly manipulating watery diluted ink once it has been applied to the paper by using a very large brush.[13]
In ink wash paintings, as in calligraphy, artists usually grind
inkstick over an
inkstone to obtain black
ink, but prepared liquid inks (bokuju (墨汁) in Japanese) are also available. Most inksticks are made of
soot from
pine or
oil combined with
animal glue.[19] An artist puts a few drops of water on an inkstone and grinds the inkstick in a circular motion until a smooth, black ink of the desired concentration is made. Prepared liquid inks vary in viscosity, solubility, concentration, etc., but are in general more suitable for practicing
Chinese calligraphy than executing paintings.[20] Inksticks themselves are sometimes ornately decorated with
landscapes or flowers in
bas-relief and some are highlighted with gold.[17][3]
Xuan paper
Paper (Chinese: traditional紙, simplified纸; Pinyin: zhǐⓘ) was first developed in China in the first decade of 100 AD. Previous to its invention, bamboo slips and silks were used for writing material. Several methods of paper production developed over the centuries in China. However, the paper which was considered of highest value was that of the
Jingxian in Anhui Province.
Xuan paper features great tensile strength, smooth surface, pure and clean texture as well as a clean stroke; it has great resistance to crease, corrosion, moth, and mold. Xuan paper has a special ink penetration effect, which is not readily available in paper made in Western countries.[21][22] It was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books Notes of Past Famous Paintings and New Book of Tang. It was originally produced in the
Tang dynasty in
Jing County, which was under the jurisdiction of
Xuan Prefecture (Xuanzhou), hence the name Xuan paper. During the Tang dynasty, the paper was often a mixture of
hemp (the first fiber used for paper in China) and mulberry fiber.[22]
The materials used in Xuan paper are closely related to the geographical environment of Jingxian. The bark of the Pteroceltis tatarinowii, a common variety of
elm, is used as the main material for the production of rice paper in this area. Rice and several other materials were later added to the recipe in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. In those dynasties
bamboo and
mulberry began to be used to produce
rice paper as well.[22][21]
The production of Xuan paper is about an eighteen-step process – taken in detail over a hundred steps may be counted. Some paper makers keep their process strictly secret. The process includes cooking and bleaching the bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and adding various fruit juices.[22][21]
Inkstone
The
inkstone is not only a traditional Chinese stationery device, but also an important tool of ink painting. It is a stone
mortar used for the grinding and containment of
ink. In addition to stones, inkstones can be made of clay, bronze, iron and porcelain. This device evolved from the friction tool used to rub dyes about six to seven thousand years ago.[23]
Ink brush with golden dragon design, used by the Ming
Wanli Emperor (1563–1620), China.
Reconstruction of Emperor
Qianlong's (1711–1799) writing table, China.
Murata Seimin (1761–1837), Brush rest in the shape of a
praying mantis, circa 1800 (late Edo), Medium: bronze, Dimensions: 18 cm (7 in), Japan. Collected By the
Walters Art Museum.
Image from the 17th-century technical document Tiangong Kaiwu (天工開物-松烟制墨法) detailing how pine is burned in a furnace at one end and its soot collected at the other for making inkstick, China.
Fragment of ancient Chinese paper map with features in black ink, found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan, Gansu in China in 1986, from early
Western Han, 2nd century BC, 5.6 cm × 2.6 cm (2.2 in × 1.0 in).
An image of a Ming dynasty woodcut describing five major steps in ancient Chinese papermaking process as outlined by
Cai Lun in 105 AD. The image is from the 17th-century technical document Tiangong Kaiwu (天工開物-覆簾壓紙), China.
A Duan Inkstone of the Song dynasty-In for making Chinese ink using water and an inkstick, 10th century, China.
East Asian painting-calligraphy's ink stone, ink stick, and usage.
History and artists
Chinese painters and their influence on East Asia
In
Chinese painting, brush painting was one of the "
four arts" expected to be learnt by China's class of
scholar-officials.[4] Ink wash painting appeared during the
Tang dynasty (618–907), and its early development is credited to
Wang Wei (active in the 8th century) and
Zhang Zao, among others.[3] In the
Ming dynasty,
Dong Qichang would identify two distinct styles: a clearer, grander
Northern School北宗画 or 北画; Beizonghua or Beihua,
Japanese: Hokushūga or Hokuga), and a freer, more expressive
Southern School (南宗画 or 南画; Nanzonghua or Nanhua, Japanese: Nanshūga or Nanga), also called "Literati Painting" (文人画; Wenrenhua, Japanese: Bunjinga).[1][13][24][25]
Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties
Western scholars have written that before the Song dynasty, ink wash was primarily used for representation painting, while in the Yuan dynasty, expressive painting predominated.[5][6] Chinese historical views have traditionally found it more appropriate to divide the general artistic features of this historical stage by the theory of
Southern School and
Northern School, as promulgated
Dong Qichang in the Ming dynasty.[7][8][26]: 236
Southern School and painters
Southern School (南宗画; nán zōng huà) of
Chinese painting, often called "
literati painting" (文人画; wén rén huà), is a term used to denote art and artists which stand in opposition to the formal
Northern School of painting. Representing painters are Wang Wei, Dong Yuan, and so on. The Southern School has had a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian paintings.[27]Wang Wei (王維; 699–759),
Zhang Zao (张璪 or 张藻) and
Dong Yuan (董源; Dǒng Yuán; Tung Yüan,
Gan: dung3 ngion4;
c. 934–962) are important representatives of early Chinese ink wash painting of the Southern School. Wang Wei was a Chinese poet, musician, painter, and politician during the
Tang dynasty, 8th century. Wang Wei is the most important representative of early Chinese ink wash painting. He believed that in all forms of painting, ink wash painting is the most advanced.[11][28] Zhang Zao was a Chinese painter, painting theorist and politician during the
Tang dynasty, 8th century.[29] He created the method of using fingers instead of brush to draw ink wash painting.[7]
Dong Yuan was a Chinese
painter during the
Five Dynasties (10th century). His ink wash painting style is considered by
Dong Qichang to be the most typical style of Southern School.[26]: 599
Chinese ink wash painters such as
Li Cheng (李成; Lǐ Chéng; Li Ch'eng; 919–967),
Courtesy nameXiánxī (咸熙),
Fan Kuan (范寬; Fàn Kuān; Fan K'uan,
c. 960–1030),
courtesy name "Zhongli" and "Zhongzheng", better known by his pseudonym "Fan Kuan" and
Guo Xi (郭熙; Guō Xī; Kuo Hsi) (
c. 1020–1090) had a great influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Li Cheng was a
Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He was influenced by
Jing Hao,
Juran. Li Cheng has a profound impact on Japanese and
Korean painters.[30][31]
Fan Kuan was a Chinese
landscape painter of the Song dynasty. He has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean paintings.[32][33][34]
Guoxi was a Chinese
landscape painter from
Henan Province who lived during the
Northern Song dynasty.[35][36] One text entitled "The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams" (Linquan Gaozhi林泉高致) is attributed to him.[37]
As representatives of
scholar painting (or "Literati Painting", the part of the Southern School),[38] painters such as Su Shi, Mi Fu and Mi Youren, especially Muqi, had a decisive influence on East Asian ink wash painting.
Su Shi (蘇軾; 苏轼; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (Chinese: 子瞻), art name Dongpo (Chinese: 東坡), was a Chinese poet, writer, politician, calligrapher, painter, pharmacologist, and gastronome of the Song dynasty.[39]Mi Fu (米芾 or 米黻; Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107)[40] was a Chinese painter,
poet, and calligrapher born in
Taiyuan during the Song dynasty.[41]Mi Youren (米友仁, 1074–1153) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He was the eldest son of Mi Fu.[42]Muqi (牧谿; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (法常), was a Chinese
Chan Buddhistmonk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the
Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one of the greatest Chan painters in history. His ink paintings, such as the
Daitoku-jitriptych and Six Persimmons are regarded as essential Chan paintings.[43] Muqi's style of painting has also profoundly impacted painters from later periods to follow, especially monk painters in
Japan.[44][45]
Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty (元四家; Yuán Sì Jiā) is a name used to collectively describe the four
Chinese painters
Huang Gongwang (
Chinese: 黄公望, 1269–1354),
Wu Zhen (
Chinese: 吳鎮, 1280–1354),
Ni Zan (
Chinese: 倪瓚; 1301–1374), and
Wang Meng (王蒙, Wáng Méng;
Zi: Shūmíng 叔明,
Hao: Xiāngguāng
Jūshì香光居士) (c. 1308–1385), who were active during the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). They were revered during the
Ming dynasty and later periods as major
exponents of the tradition of "
literati painting" (wenrenhua), which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal.[46]
Other notable painters from the Yuan period include
Gao Kegong (高克恭; 髙克恭; Gaō Kègōng; Kao K'o-kung; 1248–1310), also a poet, and was known for his landscapes,[47] and
Fang Congyi.
Li Cheng (李成; Lǐ Chéng; Li Ch'eng; 919–967), A Solitary Temple Amid Clearing Peaks (晴峦萧寺), ink and light color on silk. 111.76 cm × 55.88 cm (44.00 in × 22.00 in). 11th century, China.
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.
Fan Kuan (范寬; Fàn Kuān; Fan K'uan,
c. 960–1030), Travellers among Mountains and Streams (谿山行旅圖), ink and slight color on silk, dimensions of 6.75 ft × 2.5 ft (2.06 m × 0.76 m). 11th century, China.[32]National Palace Museum, Taipei[33]
Guo Xi (郭熙; Guō Xī; Kuo Hsi) (
c. 1020–1090), Early Spring, signed and dated 1072, ink and light lolor on silk. 11th century, China. Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk.
National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Guo Xi, Ping Yuan Tu (窠石平遠圖), 1078, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by the
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Guo Xi, Clearing Autumn Skies over Mountains and Valleys, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Northern
Song dynasty
c. 1070, detail from a horizontal scroll.[48]
Su Shi (
Chinese: 蘇, 1037 – 1101), Withered Tree and Strange Rock, ink on Xuan paper, 11th century, China.
Muqi (法常; 牧谿, 1210?–1269?), Six Persimmons,
Chinese: 六柿圖, ink on Xuan paper, 13th century, Southern Song (Chinese). Collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan.
Muqi, Guanyin, Crane, and Gibbons, Southern Song (Chinese), 13th century, set of three hanging scrolls, ink and color on silk, height: 173.9–174.2 cm (68.5–68.6 in), collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan. Designated
National Treasure.
Gao Kegong (1248–1310), Evening Clouds (
Chinese: 秋山暮靄圖), ink and color on Xuan paper mounted on hanging scroll, 13th century, China. Collected by the
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Huang Gongwang, Stone Cliff at the Pond of Heaven, 1341, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Wang Meng (
Chinese: 王蒙, 1271–1368), Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains (
Chinese: 青卞隱居圖), ink on Xuan paper, 141x42,2 cm, 1366, China. Collected by Shanghai Museum.
Wu Zhen (
Chinese: 吳鎮, 1280–1354), Crooked Pine, 1335, ink on silk, collected by Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Ni Zan, Enjoying the Wilderness in an Autumn Grove (
Chinese: 秋林野興圖), medium: hanging scroll; ink on Xuan paper, dimensions: 38 5/8 × 27 1/8 in. (98.1 × 68.9 cm), 1339, China. Collected by
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Northern School and painters
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) was a manner of Chinese landscape painting centered on a loose group of artists who worked and lived in Northern China during the
Five Dynasties period that occupied the time between the collapse of the
Tang dynasty and the rise of the Song. Representing painters are Ma Yuan, Xia Gui, and so on. The style stands in opposition to the Southern School (南宗画; nán zōng huà) of Chinese painting. Northern School has a profound impact on Japanese and
Southeast Asian paintings.[49]
Li Tang (
Chinese: 李唐;
pinyin: Lǐ Táng;
Wade–Giles: Li T'ang,
courtesy name Xigu (
Chinese: 晞古); c. 1050 – 1130) of the Northern School, especially
Ma Yuan (馬遠; Mǎ Yuǎn; Ma Yüan;
c. 1160–65 – 1225) and Xia Gui's ink wash painting modeling and techniques have a profound influence on Japanese and Korean ink wash paintings. Li Tang was a Chinese
landscape painter who practised at
Kaifeng and
Hangzhou during the
Song dynasty. He forms a link between earlier painters such as
Guo Xi,
Fan Kuan and
Li Cheng and later artists such as
Xia Gui and
Ma Yuan. He perfected the technique of "axe-cut" brush-strokes.[26]: 635
Ma Yuan was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. His works, together with that of
Xia Gui, formed the basis of the so-called Ma-Xia (馬夏) school of painting, and are considered among the finest from the period. His works has inspired both Chinese artists of the
Zhe School, as well as the great early Japanese painters
Shūbun and
Sesshū.[50]Xia Gui (夏圭 or 夏珪; Hsia Kui;
fl. 1195–1225), courtesy name Yuyu (禹玉), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. Very little is known about his life, and only a few of his works survive, but he is generally considered one of China's greatest artists. He continued the tradition of
Li Tang, further simplifying the earlier Song style to achieve a more immediate, striking effect. Together with
Ma Yuan, he founded the so-called Ma-Xia (馬夏) school, one of the most important of the period. Although Xia was popular during his lifetime, his reputation suffered after his death, together with that of all Southern Song academy painters. Nevertheless, a few artists, including the
Japanese master
Sesshū, continued Xia's tradition for hundreds of years, until the early 17th century.[51]
Liang Kai (梁楷; Liáng Kǎi;
c. 1140–1210) was a Chinese painter of the Southern Song dynasty. He was also known as "Madman Liang" because of his very informal pictures. His ink wash painting style has a huge influence on East Asia, especially Japan.[52]Yan Hui (颜辉; 顏輝; Yán Huī; Yen Hui); was a late 13th century Chinese painter who lived during the Southern Song and early Yuan dynasties. Yan Hui's style of painting has also profoundly impacted the painters in Japan.[53]
Li Tang (
Chinese: 李唐;
pinyin: Lǐ Táng;
Wade–Giles: Li T'ang, 1050 – 1130), Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys,
Chinese: 萬壑松風圖, 1124, ink and color on silk, 188.7 cm (74.2 in); Width: 139.8 cm (55 in), collected by National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Li Tang, Duke Wen of Jin Recovering His State, handscroll, ink and color on silk, collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Li Tang, Boy and water buffalo, collected by the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Liang Kai (梁楷, 1140–1210), Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountains, 出山釋迦圖, Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 117.6 cm × 51.9 cm (46.3 in × 20.4 in), collected by
Tokyo National Museum. File:Ma Yuan - Dancing and Singing- Peasants Returning from Work.jpg
Xia Gui (夏圭 or 夏珪; Hsia Kui;
fl. 1195–1225), Sailboat in Rainstorm,
Chinese: 風雨行舟圖, ink and light colors on silk, 23.9 × 25.1 cm (9.4 × 9.8 in), 13th century China. Collected by
Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Yan Hui (颜辉; 顏輝; Yán Huī; Yen Hui), Shi De (拾得), ink and light color on silk, 13th century, Yuan dynasty (Chinese).
Tokyo National Museum.
Xu Wei (徐渭; Xú Wèi; Hsü Wei, 1521–1593) and
Chen Chun (陳淳; 1483–1544) are the main painters of the bold and unconstrained style of literati painting, and their ink wash painting is characterized by the incisive and fluent ink and wash. Their ink wash painting style is considered to have the typical characteristics of the Historical Oriental art.[5] Xu Wei, other department "Qingteng Shanren" (青藤山人; Qīngténg Shānrén), was a
Ming dynasty Chinese painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.[55]
Chen Chun was a
Ming dynasty artist. Born into a wealthy family of
scholar-officials in
Suzhou, he learned
calligraphy from
Wen Zhengming, one of the
Four Masters of the Ming dynasty. Chén Chún later broke with Wen to favor a more freestyle method of ink wash painting.[56]
Dong Qichang (
Chinese: 董其昌;
pinyin: Dǒng Qíchāng;
Wade–Giles: Tung Ch'i-ch'ang; 1555–1636) of the Ming dynasty and the
Four Wangs (四王; Sì Wáng; Ssŭ Wang) of the Qing dynasty are representative painters of retro-style ink wash paintings that imitated the painting style before the Yuan dynasty. Dong Qichang was a Chinese painter,
calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the
Ming dynasty. He is the founder of the theory of
Southern School and
Northern School in ink wash painting. His theoretical system has a great influence on the painting concept and practice of East Asian countries, including Japan and Korea.[26]: 703 [7]
Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang (surname Wang). They are best known for their accomplishments in shan shui painting.They were
Wang Shimin (1592–1680),
Wang Jian (1598–1677),
Wang Hui (1632–1717) and
Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715).[26]: 757
Bada Shanren (朱耷; zhū dā, born "Zhu Da";
c. 1626–1705),
Shitao (石涛; 石濤; Shí Tāo; Shih-t'ao; other department "Yuan Ji" (原濟; 原济; Yuán Jì), 1642–1707) and
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou (扬州八怪; 揚州八怪; Yángzhoū Bā Guài) are the innovative masters of ink wash painting in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.[57][58] Bada Shanren, other department "Bada Shanren" (八大山人; bā dà shān rén), was a
Han Chinese painter of ink wash painting and a calligrapher. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the
Ming dynasty prince
Zhu Quan who had a feudal establishment in
Nanchang. Art historians have named him as a brilliant painter of the period.[59][60]
Shitao, born into the
Ming dynasty imperial clan as "Zhu Ruoji" (朱若極), was one Chinese
landscape painter in early Qing dynasty (1644–1912).[61]
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters active in the 18th century, who were known in the Qing dynasty for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist.[26]: 668
Xu Gu (虚谷; 虛谷; Xū Gǔ; Hsü Ku, 1824–1896) was a Chinese monk painter and poet during the Qing dynasty.[62] His ink wash paintings give the audience a sense of abstraction and illusion.[63]
Shen Zhou (
Chinese: 沈周, 1427–1509), Lofty Mount Lu (
Chinese: 廬山高), Ming dynasty, 1467 (明 成化丁亥), Medium: Hanging scroll, ink and colors on Xuan paper, Dimensions: 193.8 × 98.1 cm (height × width), China. Collected by
National Palace Museum.
Xu Wei (徐渭; Xú Wèi; Hsü Wei, 1521–1593), Grapes,
Chinese: 墨葡萄圖, hanging scroll, ink on silk, 166.3 x 64.5 cm (height x width). Painting is located in the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Dong Qichang (
Chinese: 董其昌;
pinyin: Dǒng Qíchāng;
Wade–Giles: Tung Ch'i-ch'ang; 1555–1636), Wanluan Thatched Hall,
Chinese: 婉孌草堂圖, 1597, hanging scroll, ink on Xuan paper, Ming dynasty, China.
Zhu Da (
Chinese: 朱耷, 1626–1705), Lotus and Birds, ink on Xuan paper, 17th century, Qing dynasty, China,
Shanghai Museum.
Shitao (石涛; 石濤; Shí Tāo; Shih-t'ao, 1642–1707), Pine Pavilion Near a Spring, ink on Xuan paper, 1675, China. The collection of the
Shanghai Museum.
Shitao, Searching for Immortals, ink and light color on paper, 17th century, China. The collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Xu Gu (虚谷; 虛谷; Xū Gǔ; Hsü Ku, 1824–1896), High Mountains and Streams,
Chinese: 溪山高遠圖, ink on Xuan paper, 19th century, Qing dynasty, China.
Modern times
Modern and contemporary Chinese freehand ink wash painting is the most famous of the
Shanghai School, and the most representative ones are the following painters.
Wu Changshuo (吳昌碩; Wú Chāngshuò 12 September 1844 – 29 November 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, 吳昌石; Wú Chāngshí), born Wu Junqing (吳俊卿; Wú Jùnqīng), was a prominent painter, calligrapher and seal artist of the late Qing period. He is the leader of the Shanghai School. Wu Changshuo's style of painting has profoundly impacted the paintings in Japan.[64]Pu Hua (蒲华; 蒲華; Pú Huá; P'u Hua;
c. 1834–1911) was a Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher during the Qing dynasty. His style name was 'Zuo Ying'. Pu painted landscapes and ink bamboo in an unconventional style of free and easy brush strokes. He is one of the important representatives of the Shanghai School.[65]Wang Zhen (王震; Wang Chen; 1867–1938),[66] commonly known by his courtesy name Wang Yiting (王一亭; Wang I-t'ing), was a prominent businessman and celebrated modern Chinese artist of the Shanghai School.
Qi Baishi (齐白石; 齊白石; qí bái shí, 齐璜; 齊璜; qí huáng 1 January 1864 – 16 September 1957) was a Chinese painter noted for the whimsical, often playful style of his ink wash painting works.[67]Huang Binhong (黃賓虹; Huáng Bīnhóng; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and
art historian born in
Jinhua,
Zhejiang province. His
ancestral home was
She County,
Anhui province. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would later be associated with
Shanghai and finally
Hangzhou. He is considered one of the last innovators in the literati style of painting and is noted for his freehand landscapes.[55]: 2056
Important painters who have absorbed Western sketching methods to improve Chinese ink wash painting include Gao Jianfu, Xu Beihong and Liu Haisu, etc.[26]: 1328 Gao Jianfu (1879–1951; 高剑父, pronounced "Gou Gim Fu" in Cantonese) was a Chinese painter and social activist. He is known for leading the
Lingnan School's effort to modernize Chinese traditional ink wash painting as a "new national art."[68][69]Xu Beihong (徐悲鴻; Hsü Pei-hung; 19 July 1895 – 26 September 1953), also known as "Ju Péon", was a Chinese painter.[70] He was primarily known for his Chinese ink paintings of horses and birds and was one of the first Chinese artists to articulate the need for artistic expressions that reflected a modern China at the beginning of the 20th century. He was also regarded as one of the first to create monumental oil paintings with epic Chinese themes – a show of his high proficiency in an essential Western art technique.[71] He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "
The Four Great Academy Presidents".[72]Liu Haisu (刘海粟; Liú Hǎisù; 16 March 1896 – 7 August 1994) was a prominent 20th century Chinese painter and a noted art educator. He excelled in Chinese painting and oil painting. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "The Four Great Academy Presidents".[72]
Pan Tianshou, Zhang Daqian and Fu Baoshi are important ink wash painters who stick to the tradition of Chinese classical Literati Painting.[72]Pan Tianshou (潘天寿; 潘天壽; Pān Tiānshòu; 1897–1971) was a Chinese painter and art educator. Pan was born in Guanzhuang,
Ninghai County,
Zhejiang Province, and graduated from Zhejiang First Normal School (now
Hangzhou High School). He studied
Chinese traditional painting with
Wu Changshuo. Later he created his own ink wash painting style and built the foundation of Chinese traditional painting education. He was persecuted during the
Cultural Revolution until his death in 1971.[73]Zhang Daqian (張大千; Chang Ta-ch'ien; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the 20th century. Originally known as a guohua (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master
forgers of the 20th century.[74]Fu Baoshi (傅抱石; Fù Bàoshí; 1904–1965), was a
Chinese painter. He also taught in the Art Department of Central University (now
Nanjing University). His works of landscape painting employed skillful use of dots and inking methods, creating a new technique encompassing many varieties within traditional rules.[75]
Shi Lu (石鲁; 石魯; Shí Lǔ; 1919–1982), born "Feng Yaheng" (冯亚珩; 馮亞珩; Féng Yàhéng), was a Chinese painter,
wood block printer, poet and calligrapher. He based his pseudonym on two artists who greatly influenced him, the landscape painter
Shitao and writer
Lu Xun. He created two different ink wash painting styles.[76]
Wu Changshuo, Ink Plum Blossom,
Chinese: 墨梅圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1918,Modern times, China.
Qi Baishi, Ink Shrimp,
Chinese: 墨蝦圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1947, Modern times, China.
QiBaishi, Eagle Standing on Pine Tree, Four-character Couplet in Seal Script,
Chinese: 松柏高立圖·篆書四言聯, ink on Xuan paper, 266 × 100 cm (104.7 × 39.3 in), 1946, Modern times, China.
Huang Binhong, Time and Tide,
Chinese: 歲月勞奔圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1950s, Modern times, China.
Chen Shizeng (
Chinese: 陳師曾, 1876–1923), Ganoderma and Rock,
Chinese: 芝石圖, ink and color on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
Gao Jianfu (
Chinese: 高劍父, 1879–1951), Fire on the Eastern Battlefield,
Chinese: 東戰場的烈焰, ink and color on Xuan paper, 1930s, 166 x 92 cm.
Lingnan School of Painting in Guangzhou Museum of Art, China.
Xu Beihong, Galloping Horse,
Chinese: 奔馬圖, ink on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
Other countries in East Asia
Since the Tang dynasty, Japan, Korea, and East Asian countries have extensively studied Chinese painting and ink wash painting.[8][25] Josetsu (
Chinese: 如拙) who immigrated to Japan from China has been called the "Father of Japanese ink painting".[77] East Asian styles have mainly developed from the painting styles of
Southern School and
Northern School.[8][3][78]
Japan
In Japan, the style was introduced in the 14th century, during the
Muromachi period (1333–1573) through
Zen Buddhist monasteries,[79] and in particular
Josetsu, a painter who immigrated from China and taught the first major early painter
Tenshō Shūbun (d.
c. 1450). Both he and his pupil
Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) were monks, although Sesshū eventually left the clergy, and spent a year or so in China in 1468–69.[80] By the end of the period the style had been adopted by several professional or commercial artists, especially from the large
Kanō school founded by
Kanō Masanobu (1434–1530); his son
Kanō Motonobu was also very important. In the Japanese way, the most promising pupils married daughters of the family, and changed their names to Kanō. The school continued to paint in the traditional Japanese yamato-e and other coloured styles as well.[24][2]
A Japanese innovation of the
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) was to use the monochrome style on a much larger scale in byōbufolding screens, often produced in sets so that they ran all round even large rooms. The Shōrin-zu byōbu of about 1595 is a famous example; only some 15% of the paper is painted.[81]
Josetsu (如拙, fl. 1405–1496) was one of the first suiboku (ink wash) style
ZenJapanese painters in the
Muromachi period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of
Tenshō Shūbun at the
Shōkoku-ji monastery in
Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in 1470 and is known as the "Father of Japanese ink painting".[77]
Kanō school, a Japanese ink wash painting genre, was born under the significant influence of Chinese Taoism and Buddhist culture.[78]Kanō Masanobu (狩野 元信, 1434? – August 2, 1530?,
Kyoto) was the leader of Kano school, laid the foundation for the school's dominant position in Japanese mainstream painting for centuries. He was mainly influenced by Xia Gui (active in 1195–1225), a Chinese court painter of the Southern Song dynasty.[82] He was the chief painter of the
Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the
Kanō school of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and Bodhisattvas.[83]Tenshō Shūbun (天章 周文, died c. 1444–50) was a Japanese
Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the
Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) of
Chinese painting and
Josetsu.[84]Sesshū Tōyō (
Japanese: 雪舟 等楊; Oda Tōyō since 1431, also known as Tōyō, Unkoku, or Bikeisai; 1420 – 26 August 1506) was the most prominent Japanese master of
ink and wash painting from the middle
Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) of
Chinese painting, especially
Ma Yuan and
Xia Gui.[85]
After studying landscape painting in China, he drew "秋冬山水図". This painting was drawn the landscape of Song dynasty in China.
He painted the natural landscape of winter. The feature of this painting is the thick line that represents the cliff.
Sesson Shukei (雪村 周継, 1504–1589) and Hasegawa Tōhaku (長谷川 等伯, 1539 – 19 March 1610) mainly imitated the ink wash painting styles of the Chinese Song dynasty monk painter
Muqi.[5] Sesson Shukei was one of the main representatives of Japanese ink wash painting, a learned and prolific Zen monk painter. He studied a wide range of early Chinese ink wash painting styles and played an important role in the development of Japanese Zen ink wash painting. Colleagues of Chinese ink painter
Muqi (active in 13th century) first brought Muxi painting to Japan in the late 13th century. Japanese Zen monks follow and learn the gibbon pictures painted by Chinese monk painter Muqi. By the late 15th century, the animal image of Muqi style had become a hot topic in large-scale Japanese painting projects.[86]
The smaller, more purist and less flamboyant
Hasegawa school was founded by
Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), and lasted until the 18th century. The nanga (meaning "Southern painting") or bunjinga ("literati") style or school ran from the 18th century until the death of
Tomioka Tessai (1837–1924) who was widely regarded as the last of the nanga artists.[13][24]
Hasegawa Tōhaku was a
Japanesepainter and founder of the
Hasegawa school. He is considered one of the great painters of the
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), and he is best known for his byōbu folding screens, such as Pine Trees and Pine Tree and Flowering Plants (both registered
National Treasures), or the paintings in walls and sliding doors at
Chishaku-in, attributed to him and his son (also National Treasures). He was deeply influenced by
Chinese painting of the
Song dynasty, especially
Liang Kai and
Muqi.[87][88]
The ink wash paintings of
Mi Fu and his son had a profound influence on Japanese ink painters, and Ike no Taiga is one of them.[78]Ike no Taiga (池大雅, 1723–1776) was a
Japanese painter and calligrapher born in
Kyoto during the
Edo period. Together with
Yosa Buson, he perfected the bunjinga (or nanga) genre. The majority of his works reflected his passion for classical Chinese culture and painting techniques, though he also incorporated revolutionary and modern techniques into his otherwise very traditional paintings. As a bunjin (文人, literati, man of letters), Ike was close to many of the prominent social and artistic circles in Kyoto, and in other parts of the country, throughout his lifetime.[25]
Korea
In Korea, the
Dohwaseo or court academy was very important, and most major painters came from it, although the emphasis of the academy was on realistic decorative works and official portraits, so something of a break from this was required.[89] However the high official and painter
Gang Se-hwang and others championed amateur literati or seonbi painting in the Chinese sensibility. Many painters made both Chinese-style landscapes and
genre paintings of everyday life, and there was a tradition of more realistic landscapes of real locations, as well as mountains as fantastical as any Chinese paintings, for which the
Taebaek Mountains along the eastern side of Korea offered plenty of inspiration.[90]
The Korean painters influenced by the Northern School in the Song dynasty include Gang Hui-an, Kim Hong-do, Jang Seung-eop and so on.
Gang Hui-an (1417?–1464), pen name Injae 인재, was a prominent scholar and painter of the early
Joseon period. He was good at poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He entered royal service by passing
gwageo in 1441 under the reign of king
Sejong (1397–1418–1450).[95][96]Kim Hong-do (김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?–1814?), also known as "Kim Hong-do", most often styled "Danwon" (단원), was a full-time painter of the
Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new trends of his time, the 'true view painting'. Gim Hong-do was an exceptional artist in every field of traditional painting. His ink wash paintings of figures are deeply influenced by the
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou.
Jang Seung-eop (1843–1897) (commonly known by his pen name "Owon") was a painter of the late
Joseon dynasty in
Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film Chi-hwa-seon directed by
Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court.[97][98]
Jeong Seon (
Korean: 정선) (1676–1759) was a Korean landscape painter, also known by his pen name "Kyomjae" ("humble study"). His works include ink and oriental water paintings, such as Inwangjesaekdo (1751), Geumgang jeondo (1734), and Ingokjeongsa (1742), as well as numerous "true-view" landscape paintings on the subject of Korea and the history of its culture. He is counted among the most famous Korean painters.[99] His style is realistic rather than abstract.[100]
Josetsu (A Chinese immigrant, "Father of Japanese ink wash painting"),[77]Catching catfish with a gourd (瓢鮎図, Hyōnen-zu), ink on paper, 111.5 cm × 75.8 cm (43.9 in × 29.8 in), 1415, Japan.
Kanō Masanobu, The Four Accomplishments, ink and light lolor on silk, 67 in. × 12 ft. 6 in. (170.2 × 381 cm), mid-16th century, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[82]
Ahn Gyeon, Late Winter (만동), ink on silk, 15th century. Korea.
Gang Hui-an, Scholar gazing at the running river, ink on silk, Gosagwansudo, 15th century. Korea.
Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506), Autumn Landscape (Shūkei-sansui), ink on silk, Japan.
Sesshū, Landscape, Mountain landscapes are by far the most common scenes depicted in ink wash
landscape paintings, Japan.[8]
Sesson Shūkei (雪村 周継), Gibbons in a Landscape, ink on Xuan paper, 62 in. x 11 ft. 5 in. (157.5 x 348 cm), 1570, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[86]
^
abcdLoehr, Max (1970). The Period and Content of Chinese Painting-Collection of Essays from the International Symposium on Chinese Painting. Taipei:
National Palace Museum. pp. 186–192 and 285–297.
^
abcdZhiying, Hu (2007). New Literature-Reconstructing the Framework of a Poetic Art Theory and Its Significance.
Zhengzhou: Elephant Publisher House. pp. 184–202.
ISBN9787534747816.
^
abcdFei Wen Tsai; Dianne van der Reyden,
Technology, treatment, and care of a chinese wood block print(PDF), Smithsonian Institution, p. 4,
archived(PDF) from the original on 2 July 2021, retrieved 26 July 2021 originally appeared as "Analysis of modern Chinese paper and treatment of a Chinese woodblock print" in The Paper Conservator, 1997, pp. 48–62
^Bio dates: Ch'en and Bullock, 49 and 53; Stimson, 22; Watson, 10 and 170; and Wu, 225. Note, however, other sources, such as Chang, 58, and Davis, x, give his years as 701–761
^"Zhang Zao". Boya Renwu.
Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
^Hearn, Maxwell K. Cultivated Landscapes: Chinese Paintings from the Collection of Marie-Hélène and Guy Weill. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Yale University Press, 2002.
^Barnhart: 373. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), and Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史)
^"Mi Youren". Boya Renwu.
Archived from the original on 16 June 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
^Lachman, Charles (2005). "Art". In Lopez, Donald S. (ed.). Critical terms for the study of Buddhism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 4~5.
ISBN9780226493237.
OCLC270606633.
^Rio, Aaron (2015). Ink painting in medieval kamakura. pp. 67~113.
^Glaze, Anna. Landscapes, Tradition, and the Seventeenth-Century Art Market: A Different Side of Bada Shanren. Master's Thesis, University of California, Davis., June, 2008.
^"The Lingnan School Painting". The Lingnan School of Painting: Art and Revolution in Modern China. 2014.
Archived from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
^Gao Minglu, and Norman Bryson. Inside Out: New Chinese Art. San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 1998, page 26.
Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., The Art and Architecture of China, Pelican History of Art, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), 3rd ed 1971. LOC 70-125675
Ink wash painting (
simplified Chinese: 水墨画;
traditional Chinese: 水墨畫;
pinyin: shuǐmòhuà); is a type of Chinese
ink brush painting which uses
washes of
black ink, such as that used in
East Asian calligraphy, in different concentrations. It emerged during the
Tang dynasty of China (618–907), and overturned earlier, more
realistic techniques. It is typically
monochrome, using only shades of black, with a great emphasis on
virtuoso brushwork and conveying the perceived "spirit" or "essence" of a subject over direct
imitation.[1][2][3] Ink wash painting flourished from the
Song dynasty in China (960–1279) onwards, as well as in Japan after it was introduced by
Zen Buddhist monks in the
14th century.[4] Some Western scholars divide Chinese painting (including ink wash painting) into three periods: times of representation, times of expression, and historical Oriental art.[5][6] Chinese scholars have their own views which may be different; they believe that contemporary Chinese ink wash paintings are the pluralistic continuation of multiple historical traditions.[7]
In China, Japan and, to a lesser extent, Korea, ink wash painting formed a distinct stylistic tradition with a different set of artists working in it than from those in other types of painting. In China especially it was a gentlemanly occupation associated with poetry and
calligraphy. It was often produced by the
scholar-official or literati class, ideally illustrating their own poetry and producing the paintings as gifts for friends or patrons, rather than painting for payment.
In practice a talented painter often had an advantage in climbing the bureaucratic ladder. In Korea, painters were less segregated, and more willing to paint in two techniques, such as mixing areas of colour with monochrome ink, for example in painting the faces of figures.[1][3][8]
The vertical
hanging scroll was the classic format; the long horizontal
handscroll format tended to be associated with professional coloured painting, but was also used for literati painting. In both formats paintings were generally kept rolled up, and brought out for the owner to admire, often with a small group of friends.[9] Chinese collectors liked to stamp paintings with their
seals and usually in red inkpad; sometimes they would add poems or notes of appreciation. Some old and famous paintings have become very disfigured by this; the
Qianlong Emperor was a particular offender.[2]
In
landscape painting the scenes depicted are typically imaginary or very loose adaptations of actual views. The shan shui style of mountain landscapes are by far the most common, often evoking particular areas traditionally famous for their beauty, from which the artist may have been very distant.[3][10]
Philosophy
East Asian writing on aesthetics is generally consistent in saying that the goal of ink and wash painting is not simply to reproduce the appearance of the subject, but to capture its spirit. To paint a horse the ink-wash painting artist must understand its temperament better than its muscles and bones. To paint a flower there is no need to perfectly match its petals and colors, but it is essential to convey its liveliness and fragrance. It has been compared to the later Western movement of
Impressionism.[1] It is also particularly associated with the
Chán or Zen sect of Buddhism, which emphasizes "simplicity, spontaneity and self-expression", and
Daoism, which emphasizes "spontaneity and harmony with nature,"[4] especially when compared with the less spiritually-oriented
Confucianism.[3][11]
East Asian ink wash painting has long inspired modern artists in the West. In his classic book Composition, American artist and educator
Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: "The painter... put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art".[12] Dow's fascination with ink wash painting not only shaped his own approach to art but also helped free many American modernists of the era, including his student
Georgia O'Keeffe, from what he called a "story-telling" approach. Dow strived for harmonic compositions through three elements: line, shading, and color. He advocated practicing with East Asian brushes and ink to develop aesthetic acuity with line and shading.[3][13]
Technique, materials and tools
Ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. These skills are closely related to those needed for basic writing in East Asian characters, and then for calligraphy, which essentially use the same ink and brushes. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce considerable variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.[14]
Once a stroke is painted it cannot be changed or erased. As a result, ink and wash painting is a technically demanding art form requiring great skill, concentration, and years of training.[13][2]
The Four Treasures is summarized in a
four-word couplet: "文房四寶: 筆、墨、紙、硯," (Pinyin: wénfáng sìbǎo: bǐ, mò, zhǐ, yàn) "The four jewels of the study: Brush, Ink, Paper, Inkstone" by Chinese
scholar-official or literati class, which are also indispensable tools and materials for East Asian painting.[15][16]
Brush
The earliest intact ink brush was found in 1954 in the tomb of a
Chu citizen from the
Warring States period (475-221
BCE) located in an archaeological dig site Zuo Gong Shan 15 near
Changsha. This primitive version of an ink brush found had a wooden stalk and a bamboo tube securing the bundle of hair to the stalk. Legend wrongly credits the invention of the ink brush to the later
Qin general
Meng Tian.[14] Traces of a writing brush, however, were discovered on the Shang jades, and were suggested to be the grounds of the
oracle bone script inscriptions.[17]
The writing brush entered a new stage of development in the
Han dynasty. First, the decorative craft of engraving and inlaying on the pen-holder appeared. Second, some writings on the production of writing brush have also survived. For example, the first
monograph on the selection, production and function of a writing brush was written by
Cai Yong in the eastern Han dynasty. Third, the special form of "hairpin white pen" appeared. Officials in the Han dynasty often sharpened the end of the brush and stuck it in their hair or hat for their convenience. Worshipers also often put pen on their heads to show respect.[14][13]
During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, a group of pen making experts emerged in
Huzhou. They included Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke, Lu Wenbao, Zhang Tianxi, and others. Huzhou has been the center of Chinese brush making since the Qing dynasty. At the same time, many famous brushes were produced in other places, such as the Ruyang Liu brush in Henan province, the Li Dinghe brush in Shanghai, and the Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi province.[14]
Ink wash painting
brushes are similar to the brushes used for calligraphy and are traditionally made from
bamboo with
goat,
cattle,
horse,
sheep,
rabbit,
marten,
badger,
deer,
boar and
wolf hair. The brush hairs are tapered to a fine point, a feature vital to the style of wash paintings.[3][13]
Different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen). A large wool brush (one variation called the 'big cloud') can hold a large volume of water and ink. When the big cloud brush rains down upon the paper, it delivers a graded swath of ink encompassing myriad shades of gray to black.[2][17]
Inkstick
Ink wash painting is usually done on
rice paper (Chinese) or
washi (Japanese paper) both of which are highly absorbent and
unsized.
Silk is also used in some forms of ink painting.[18] Many types of
Xuan paper and washi do not lend themselves readily to a smooth wash the way watercolor paper does. Each brush stroke is visible, so any "wash" in the sense of Western style painting requires partially sized paper. Paper manufacturers today understand artists' demands for more versatile papers and work to produce kinds that are more flexible. If one uses traditional paper, the idea of an "ink wash" refers to a wet-on-wet technique, applying black ink to paper where a lighter ink has already been applied, or by quickly manipulating watery diluted ink once it has been applied to the paper by using a very large brush.[13]
In ink wash paintings, as in calligraphy, artists usually grind
inkstick over an
inkstone to obtain black
ink, but prepared liquid inks (bokuju (墨汁) in Japanese) are also available. Most inksticks are made of
soot from
pine or
oil combined with
animal glue.[19] An artist puts a few drops of water on an inkstone and grinds the inkstick in a circular motion until a smooth, black ink of the desired concentration is made. Prepared liquid inks vary in viscosity, solubility, concentration, etc., but are in general more suitable for practicing
Chinese calligraphy than executing paintings.[20] Inksticks themselves are sometimes ornately decorated with
landscapes or flowers in
bas-relief and some are highlighted with gold.[17][3]
Xuan paper
Paper (Chinese: traditional紙, simplified纸; Pinyin: zhǐⓘ) was first developed in China in the first decade of 100 AD. Previous to its invention, bamboo slips and silks were used for writing material. Several methods of paper production developed over the centuries in China. However, the paper which was considered of highest value was that of the
Jingxian in Anhui Province.
Xuan paper features great tensile strength, smooth surface, pure and clean texture as well as a clean stroke; it has great resistance to crease, corrosion, moth, and mold. Xuan paper has a special ink penetration effect, which is not readily available in paper made in Western countries.[21][22] It was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books Notes of Past Famous Paintings and New Book of Tang. It was originally produced in the
Tang dynasty in
Jing County, which was under the jurisdiction of
Xuan Prefecture (Xuanzhou), hence the name Xuan paper. During the Tang dynasty, the paper was often a mixture of
hemp (the first fiber used for paper in China) and mulberry fiber.[22]
The materials used in Xuan paper are closely related to the geographical environment of Jingxian. The bark of the Pteroceltis tatarinowii, a common variety of
elm, is used as the main material for the production of rice paper in this area. Rice and several other materials were later added to the recipe in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. In those dynasties
bamboo and
mulberry began to be used to produce
rice paper as well.[22][21]
The production of Xuan paper is about an eighteen-step process – taken in detail over a hundred steps may be counted. Some paper makers keep their process strictly secret. The process includes cooking and bleaching the bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and adding various fruit juices.[22][21]
Inkstone
The
inkstone is not only a traditional Chinese stationery device, but also an important tool of ink painting. It is a stone
mortar used for the grinding and containment of
ink. In addition to stones, inkstones can be made of clay, bronze, iron and porcelain. This device evolved from the friction tool used to rub dyes about six to seven thousand years ago.[23]
Ink brush with golden dragon design, used by the Ming
Wanli Emperor (1563–1620), China.
Reconstruction of Emperor
Qianlong's (1711–1799) writing table, China.
Murata Seimin (1761–1837), Brush rest in the shape of a
praying mantis, circa 1800 (late Edo), Medium: bronze, Dimensions: 18 cm (7 in), Japan. Collected By the
Walters Art Museum.
Image from the 17th-century technical document Tiangong Kaiwu (天工開物-松烟制墨法) detailing how pine is burned in a furnace at one end and its soot collected at the other for making inkstick, China.
Fragment of ancient Chinese paper map with features in black ink, found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan, Gansu in China in 1986, from early
Western Han, 2nd century BC, 5.6 cm × 2.6 cm (2.2 in × 1.0 in).
An image of a Ming dynasty woodcut describing five major steps in ancient Chinese papermaking process as outlined by
Cai Lun in 105 AD. The image is from the 17th-century technical document Tiangong Kaiwu (天工開物-覆簾壓紙), China.
A Duan Inkstone of the Song dynasty-In for making Chinese ink using water and an inkstick, 10th century, China.
East Asian painting-calligraphy's ink stone, ink stick, and usage.
History and artists
Chinese painters and their influence on East Asia
In
Chinese painting, brush painting was one of the "
four arts" expected to be learnt by China's class of
scholar-officials.[4] Ink wash painting appeared during the
Tang dynasty (618–907), and its early development is credited to
Wang Wei (active in the 8th century) and
Zhang Zao, among others.[3] In the
Ming dynasty,
Dong Qichang would identify two distinct styles: a clearer, grander
Northern School北宗画 or 北画; Beizonghua or Beihua,
Japanese: Hokushūga or Hokuga), and a freer, more expressive
Southern School (南宗画 or 南画; Nanzonghua or Nanhua, Japanese: Nanshūga or Nanga), also called "Literati Painting" (文人画; Wenrenhua, Japanese: Bunjinga).[1][13][24][25]
Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties
Western scholars have written that before the Song dynasty, ink wash was primarily used for representation painting, while in the Yuan dynasty, expressive painting predominated.[5][6] Chinese historical views have traditionally found it more appropriate to divide the general artistic features of this historical stage by the theory of
Southern School and
Northern School, as promulgated
Dong Qichang in the Ming dynasty.[7][8][26]: 236
Southern School and painters
Southern School (南宗画; nán zōng huà) of
Chinese painting, often called "
literati painting" (文人画; wén rén huà), is a term used to denote art and artists which stand in opposition to the formal
Northern School of painting. Representing painters are Wang Wei, Dong Yuan, and so on. The Southern School has had a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian paintings.[27]Wang Wei (王維; 699–759),
Zhang Zao (张璪 or 张藻) and
Dong Yuan (董源; Dǒng Yuán; Tung Yüan,
Gan: dung3 ngion4;
c. 934–962) are important representatives of early Chinese ink wash painting of the Southern School. Wang Wei was a Chinese poet, musician, painter, and politician during the
Tang dynasty, 8th century. Wang Wei is the most important representative of early Chinese ink wash painting. He believed that in all forms of painting, ink wash painting is the most advanced.[11][28] Zhang Zao was a Chinese painter, painting theorist and politician during the
Tang dynasty, 8th century.[29] He created the method of using fingers instead of brush to draw ink wash painting.[7]
Dong Yuan was a Chinese
painter during the
Five Dynasties (10th century). His ink wash painting style is considered by
Dong Qichang to be the most typical style of Southern School.[26]: 599
Chinese ink wash painters such as
Li Cheng (李成; Lǐ Chéng; Li Ch'eng; 919–967),
Courtesy nameXiánxī (咸熙),
Fan Kuan (范寬; Fàn Kuān; Fan K'uan,
c. 960–1030),
courtesy name "Zhongli" and "Zhongzheng", better known by his pseudonym "Fan Kuan" and
Guo Xi (郭熙; Guō Xī; Kuo Hsi) (
c. 1020–1090) had a great influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Li Cheng was a
Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He was influenced by
Jing Hao,
Juran. Li Cheng has a profound impact on Japanese and
Korean painters.[30][31]
Fan Kuan was a Chinese
landscape painter of the Song dynasty. He has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean paintings.[32][33][34]
Guoxi was a Chinese
landscape painter from
Henan Province who lived during the
Northern Song dynasty.[35][36] One text entitled "The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams" (Linquan Gaozhi林泉高致) is attributed to him.[37]
As representatives of
scholar painting (or "Literati Painting", the part of the Southern School),[38] painters such as Su Shi, Mi Fu and Mi Youren, especially Muqi, had a decisive influence on East Asian ink wash painting.
Su Shi (蘇軾; 苏轼; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (Chinese: 子瞻), art name Dongpo (Chinese: 東坡), was a Chinese poet, writer, politician, calligrapher, painter, pharmacologist, and gastronome of the Song dynasty.[39]Mi Fu (米芾 or 米黻; Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107)[40] was a Chinese painter,
poet, and calligrapher born in
Taiyuan during the Song dynasty.[41]Mi Youren (米友仁, 1074–1153) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He was the eldest son of Mi Fu.[42]Muqi (牧谿; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (法常), was a Chinese
Chan Buddhistmonk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the
Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one of the greatest Chan painters in history. His ink paintings, such as the
Daitoku-jitriptych and Six Persimmons are regarded as essential Chan paintings.[43] Muqi's style of painting has also profoundly impacted painters from later periods to follow, especially monk painters in
Japan.[44][45]
Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty (元四家; Yuán Sì Jiā) is a name used to collectively describe the four
Chinese painters
Huang Gongwang (
Chinese: 黄公望, 1269–1354),
Wu Zhen (
Chinese: 吳鎮, 1280–1354),
Ni Zan (
Chinese: 倪瓚; 1301–1374), and
Wang Meng (王蒙, Wáng Méng;
Zi: Shūmíng 叔明,
Hao: Xiāngguāng
Jūshì香光居士) (c. 1308–1385), who were active during the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). They were revered during the
Ming dynasty and later periods as major
exponents of the tradition of "
literati painting" (wenrenhua), which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal.[46]
Other notable painters from the Yuan period include
Gao Kegong (高克恭; 髙克恭; Gaō Kègōng; Kao K'o-kung; 1248–1310), also a poet, and was known for his landscapes,[47] and
Fang Congyi.
Li Cheng (李成; Lǐ Chéng; Li Ch'eng; 919–967), A Solitary Temple Amid Clearing Peaks (晴峦萧寺), ink and light color on silk. 111.76 cm × 55.88 cm (44.00 in × 22.00 in). 11th century, China.
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.
Fan Kuan (范寬; Fàn Kuān; Fan K'uan,
c. 960–1030), Travellers among Mountains and Streams (谿山行旅圖), ink and slight color on silk, dimensions of 6.75 ft × 2.5 ft (2.06 m × 0.76 m). 11th century, China.[32]National Palace Museum, Taipei[33]
Guo Xi (郭熙; Guō Xī; Kuo Hsi) (
c. 1020–1090), Early Spring, signed and dated 1072, ink and light lolor on silk. 11th century, China. Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk.
National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Guo Xi, Ping Yuan Tu (窠石平遠圖), 1078, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by the
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Guo Xi, Clearing Autumn Skies over Mountains and Valleys, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Northern
Song dynasty
c. 1070, detail from a horizontal scroll.[48]
Su Shi (
Chinese: 蘇, 1037 – 1101), Withered Tree and Strange Rock, ink on Xuan paper, 11th century, China.
Muqi (法常; 牧谿, 1210?–1269?), Six Persimmons,
Chinese: 六柿圖, ink on Xuan paper, 13th century, Southern Song (Chinese). Collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan.
Muqi, Guanyin, Crane, and Gibbons, Southern Song (Chinese), 13th century, set of three hanging scrolls, ink and color on silk, height: 173.9–174.2 cm (68.5–68.6 in), collected in Daitokuji, Kyoto, Japan. Designated
National Treasure.
Gao Kegong (1248–1310), Evening Clouds (
Chinese: 秋山暮靄圖), ink and color on Xuan paper mounted on hanging scroll, 13th century, China. Collected by the
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Huang Gongwang, Stone Cliff at the Pond of Heaven, 1341, ink and light lolor on silk, China. Collected by
Palace Museum, Beijing.
Wang Meng (
Chinese: 王蒙, 1271–1368), Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains (
Chinese: 青卞隱居圖), ink on Xuan paper, 141x42,2 cm, 1366, China. Collected by Shanghai Museum.
Wu Zhen (
Chinese: 吳鎮, 1280–1354), Crooked Pine, 1335, ink on silk, collected by Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Ni Zan, Enjoying the Wilderness in an Autumn Grove (
Chinese: 秋林野興圖), medium: hanging scroll; ink on Xuan paper, dimensions: 38 5/8 × 27 1/8 in. (98.1 × 68.9 cm), 1339, China. Collected by
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Northern School and painters
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) was a manner of Chinese landscape painting centered on a loose group of artists who worked and lived in Northern China during the
Five Dynasties period that occupied the time between the collapse of the
Tang dynasty and the rise of the Song. Representing painters are Ma Yuan, Xia Gui, and so on. The style stands in opposition to the Southern School (南宗画; nán zōng huà) of Chinese painting. Northern School has a profound impact on Japanese and
Southeast Asian paintings.[49]
Li Tang (
Chinese: 李唐;
pinyin: Lǐ Táng;
Wade–Giles: Li T'ang,
courtesy name Xigu (
Chinese: 晞古); c. 1050 – 1130) of the Northern School, especially
Ma Yuan (馬遠; Mǎ Yuǎn; Ma Yüan;
c. 1160–65 – 1225) and Xia Gui's ink wash painting modeling and techniques have a profound influence on Japanese and Korean ink wash paintings. Li Tang was a Chinese
landscape painter who practised at
Kaifeng and
Hangzhou during the
Song dynasty. He forms a link between earlier painters such as
Guo Xi,
Fan Kuan and
Li Cheng and later artists such as
Xia Gui and
Ma Yuan. He perfected the technique of "axe-cut" brush-strokes.[26]: 635
Ma Yuan was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. His works, together with that of
Xia Gui, formed the basis of the so-called Ma-Xia (馬夏) school of painting, and are considered among the finest from the period. His works has inspired both Chinese artists of the
Zhe School, as well as the great early Japanese painters
Shūbun and
Sesshū.[50]Xia Gui (夏圭 or 夏珪; Hsia Kui;
fl. 1195–1225), courtesy name Yuyu (禹玉), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. Very little is known about his life, and only a few of his works survive, but he is generally considered one of China's greatest artists. He continued the tradition of
Li Tang, further simplifying the earlier Song style to achieve a more immediate, striking effect. Together with
Ma Yuan, he founded the so-called Ma-Xia (馬夏) school, one of the most important of the period. Although Xia was popular during his lifetime, his reputation suffered after his death, together with that of all Southern Song academy painters. Nevertheless, a few artists, including the
Japanese master
Sesshū, continued Xia's tradition for hundreds of years, until the early 17th century.[51]
Liang Kai (梁楷; Liáng Kǎi;
c. 1140–1210) was a Chinese painter of the Southern Song dynasty. He was also known as "Madman Liang" because of his very informal pictures. His ink wash painting style has a huge influence on East Asia, especially Japan.[52]Yan Hui (颜辉; 顏輝; Yán Huī; Yen Hui); was a late 13th century Chinese painter who lived during the Southern Song and early Yuan dynasties. Yan Hui's style of painting has also profoundly impacted the painters in Japan.[53]
Li Tang (
Chinese: 李唐;
pinyin: Lǐ Táng;
Wade–Giles: Li T'ang, 1050 – 1130), Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys,
Chinese: 萬壑松風圖, 1124, ink and color on silk, 188.7 cm (74.2 in); Width: 139.8 cm (55 in), collected by National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Li Tang, Duke Wen of Jin Recovering His State, handscroll, ink and color on silk, collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Li Tang, Boy and water buffalo, collected by the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Liang Kai (梁楷, 1140–1210), Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountains, 出山釋迦圖, Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 117.6 cm × 51.9 cm (46.3 in × 20.4 in), collected by
Tokyo National Museum. File:Ma Yuan - Dancing and Singing- Peasants Returning from Work.jpg
Xia Gui (夏圭 or 夏珪; Hsia Kui;
fl. 1195–1225), Sailboat in Rainstorm,
Chinese: 風雨行舟圖, ink and light colors on silk, 23.9 × 25.1 cm (9.4 × 9.8 in), 13th century China. Collected by
Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Yan Hui (颜辉; 顏輝; Yán Huī; Yen Hui), Shi De (拾得), ink and light color on silk, 13th century, Yuan dynasty (Chinese).
Tokyo National Museum.
Xu Wei (徐渭; Xú Wèi; Hsü Wei, 1521–1593) and
Chen Chun (陳淳; 1483–1544) are the main painters of the bold and unconstrained style of literati painting, and their ink wash painting is characterized by the incisive and fluent ink and wash. Their ink wash painting style is considered to have the typical characteristics of the Historical Oriental art.[5] Xu Wei, other department "Qingteng Shanren" (青藤山人; Qīngténg Shānrén), was a
Ming dynasty Chinese painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.[55]
Chen Chun was a
Ming dynasty artist. Born into a wealthy family of
scholar-officials in
Suzhou, he learned
calligraphy from
Wen Zhengming, one of the
Four Masters of the Ming dynasty. Chén Chún later broke with Wen to favor a more freestyle method of ink wash painting.[56]
Dong Qichang (
Chinese: 董其昌;
pinyin: Dǒng Qíchāng;
Wade–Giles: Tung Ch'i-ch'ang; 1555–1636) of the Ming dynasty and the
Four Wangs (四王; Sì Wáng; Ssŭ Wang) of the Qing dynasty are representative painters of retro-style ink wash paintings that imitated the painting style before the Yuan dynasty. Dong Qichang was a Chinese painter,
calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the
Ming dynasty. He is the founder of the theory of
Southern School and
Northern School in ink wash painting. His theoretical system has a great influence on the painting concept and practice of East Asian countries, including Japan and Korea.[26]: 703 [7]
Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang (surname Wang). They are best known for their accomplishments in shan shui painting.They were
Wang Shimin (1592–1680),
Wang Jian (1598–1677),
Wang Hui (1632–1717) and
Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715).[26]: 757
Bada Shanren (朱耷; zhū dā, born "Zhu Da";
c. 1626–1705),
Shitao (石涛; 石濤; Shí Tāo; Shih-t'ao; other department "Yuan Ji" (原濟; 原济; Yuán Jì), 1642–1707) and
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou (扬州八怪; 揚州八怪; Yángzhoū Bā Guài) are the innovative masters of ink wash painting in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.[57][58] Bada Shanren, other department "Bada Shanren" (八大山人; bā dà shān rén), was a
Han Chinese painter of ink wash painting and a calligrapher. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the
Ming dynasty prince
Zhu Quan who had a feudal establishment in
Nanchang. Art historians have named him as a brilliant painter of the period.[59][60]
Shitao, born into the
Ming dynasty imperial clan as "Zhu Ruoji" (朱若極), was one Chinese
landscape painter in early Qing dynasty (1644–1912).[61]
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters active in the 18th century, who were known in the Qing dynasty for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist.[26]: 668
Xu Gu (虚谷; 虛谷; Xū Gǔ; Hsü Ku, 1824–1896) was a Chinese monk painter and poet during the Qing dynasty.[62] His ink wash paintings give the audience a sense of abstraction and illusion.[63]
Shen Zhou (
Chinese: 沈周, 1427–1509), Lofty Mount Lu (
Chinese: 廬山高), Ming dynasty, 1467 (明 成化丁亥), Medium: Hanging scroll, ink and colors on Xuan paper, Dimensions: 193.8 × 98.1 cm (height × width), China. Collected by
National Palace Museum.
Xu Wei (徐渭; Xú Wèi; Hsü Wei, 1521–1593), Grapes,
Chinese: 墨葡萄圖, hanging scroll, ink on silk, 166.3 x 64.5 cm (height x width). Painting is located in the Palace Museum, Beijing.
Dong Qichang (
Chinese: 董其昌;
pinyin: Dǒng Qíchāng;
Wade–Giles: Tung Ch'i-ch'ang; 1555–1636), Wanluan Thatched Hall,
Chinese: 婉孌草堂圖, 1597, hanging scroll, ink on Xuan paper, Ming dynasty, China.
Zhu Da (
Chinese: 朱耷, 1626–1705), Lotus and Birds, ink on Xuan paper, 17th century, Qing dynasty, China,
Shanghai Museum.
Shitao (石涛; 石濤; Shí Tāo; Shih-t'ao, 1642–1707), Pine Pavilion Near a Spring, ink on Xuan paper, 1675, China. The collection of the
Shanghai Museum.
Shitao, Searching for Immortals, ink and light color on paper, 17th century, China. The collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Xu Gu (虚谷; 虛谷; Xū Gǔ; Hsü Ku, 1824–1896), High Mountains and Streams,
Chinese: 溪山高遠圖, ink on Xuan paper, 19th century, Qing dynasty, China.
Modern times
Modern and contemporary Chinese freehand ink wash painting is the most famous of the
Shanghai School, and the most representative ones are the following painters.
Wu Changshuo (吳昌碩; Wú Chāngshuò 12 September 1844 – 29 November 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, 吳昌石; Wú Chāngshí), born Wu Junqing (吳俊卿; Wú Jùnqīng), was a prominent painter, calligrapher and seal artist of the late Qing period. He is the leader of the Shanghai School. Wu Changshuo's style of painting has profoundly impacted the paintings in Japan.[64]Pu Hua (蒲华; 蒲華; Pú Huá; P'u Hua;
c. 1834–1911) was a Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher during the Qing dynasty. His style name was 'Zuo Ying'. Pu painted landscapes and ink bamboo in an unconventional style of free and easy brush strokes. He is one of the important representatives of the Shanghai School.[65]Wang Zhen (王震; Wang Chen; 1867–1938),[66] commonly known by his courtesy name Wang Yiting (王一亭; Wang I-t'ing), was a prominent businessman and celebrated modern Chinese artist of the Shanghai School.
Qi Baishi (齐白石; 齊白石; qí bái shí, 齐璜; 齊璜; qí huáng 1 January 1864 – 16 September 1957) was a Chinese painter noted for the whimsical, often playful style of his ink wash painting works.[67]Huang Binhong (黃賓虹; Huáng Bīnhóng; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and
art historian born in
Jinhua,
Zhejiang province. His
ancestral home was
She County,
Anhui province. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would later be associated with
Shanghai and finally
Hangzhou. He is considered one of the last innovators in the literati style of painting and is noted for his freehand landscapes.[55]: 2056
Important painters who have absorbed Western sketching methods to improve Chinese ink wash painting include Gao Jianfu, Xu Beihong and Liu Haisu, etc.[26]: 1328 Gao Jianfu (1879–1951; 高剑父, pronounced "Gou Gim Fu" in Cantonese) was a Chinese painter and social activist. He is known for leading the
Lingnan School's effort to modernize Chinese traditional ink wash painting as a "new national art."[68][69]Xu Beihong (徐悲鴻; Hsü Pei-hung; 19 July 1895 – 26 September 1953), also known as "Ju Péon", was a Chinese painter.[70] He was primarily known for his Chinese ink paintings of horses and birds and was one of the first Chinese artists to articulate the need for artistic expressions that reflected a modern China at the beginning of the 20th century. He was also regarded as one of the first to create monumental oil paintings with epic Chinese themes – a show of his high proficiency in an essential Western art technique.[71] He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "
The Four Great Academy Presidents".[72]Liu Haisu (刘海粟; Liú Hǎisù; 16 March 1896 – 7 August 1994) was a prominent 20th century Chinese painter and a noted art educator. He excelled in Chinese painting and oil painting. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "The Four Great Academy Presidents".[72]
Pan Tianshou, Zhang Daqian and Fu Baoshi are important ink wash painters who stick to the tradition of Chinese classical Literati Painting.[72]Pan Tianshou (潘天寿; 潘天壽; Pān Tiānshòu; 1897–1971) was a Chinese painter and art educator. Pan was born in Guanzhuang,
Ninghai County,
Zhejiang Province, and graduated from Zhejiang First Normal School (now
Hangzhou High School). He studied
Chinese traditional painting with
Wu Changshuo. Later he created his own ink wash painting style and built the foundation of Chinese traditional painting education. He was persecuted during the
Cultural Revolution until his death in 1971.[73]Zhang Daqian (張大千; Chang Ta-ch'ien; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the 20th century. Originally known as a guohua (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master
forgers of the 20th century.[74]Fu Baoshi (傅抱石; Fù Bàoshí; 1904–1965), was a
Chinese painter. He also taught in the Art Department of Central University (now
Nanjing University). His works of landscape painting employed skillful use of dots and inking methods, creating a new technique encompassing many varieties within traditional rules.[75]
Shi Lu (石鲁; 石魯; Shí Lǔ; 1919–1982), born "Feng Yaheng" (冯亚珩; 馮亞珩; Féng Yàhéng), was a Chinese painter,
wood block printer, poet and calligrapher. He based his pseudonym on two artists who greatly influenced him, the landscape painter
Shitao and writer
Lu Xun. He created two different ink wash painting styles.[76]
Wu Changshuo, Ink Plum Blossom,
Chinese: 墨梅圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1918,Modern times, China.
Qi Baishi, Ink Shrimp,
Chinese: 墨蝦圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1947, Modern times, China.
QiBaishi, Eagle Standing on Pine Tree, Four-character Couplet in Seal Script,
Chinese: 松柏高立圖·篆書四言聯, ink on Xuan paper, 266 × 100 cm (104.7 × 39.3 in), 1946, Modern times, China.
Huang Binhong, Time and Tide,
Chinese: 歲月勞奔圖, ink on Xuan paper, 1950s, Modern times, China.
Chen Shizeng (
Chinese: 陳師曾, 1876–1923), Ganoderma and Rock,
Chinese: 芝石圖, ink and color on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
Gao Jianfu (
Chinese: 高劍父, 1879–1951), Fire on the Eastern Battlefield,
Chinese: 東戰場的烈焰, ink and color on Xuan paper, 1930s, 166 x 92 cm.
Lingnan School of Painting in Guangzhou Museum of Art, China.
Xu Beihong, Galloping Horse,
Chinese: 奔馬圖, ink on Xuan paper, Modern times, China.
Other countries in East Asia
Since the Tang dynasty, Japan, Korea, and East Asian countries have extensively studied Chinese painting and ink wash painting.[8][25] Josetsu (
Chinese: 如拙) who immigrated to Japan from China has been called the "Father of Japanese ink painting".[77] East Asian styles have mainly developed from the painting styles of
Southern School and
Northern School.[8][3][78]
Japan
In Japan, the style was introduced in the 14th century, during the
Muromachi period (1333–1573) through
Zen Buddhist monasteries,[79] and in particular
Josetsu, a painter who immigrated from China and taught the first major early painter
Tenshō Shūbun (d.
c. 1450). Both he and his pupil
Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) were monks, although Sesshū eventually left the clergy, and spent a year or so in China in 1468–69.[80] By the end of the period the style had been adopted by several professional or commercial artists, especially from the large
Kanō school founded by
Kanō Masanobu (1434–1530); his son
Kanō Motonobu was also very important. In the Japanese way, the most promising pupils married daughters of the family, and changed their names to Kanō. The school continued to paint in the traditional Japanese yamato-e and other coloured styles as well.[24][2]
A Japanese innovation of the
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) was to use the monochrome style on a much larger scale in byōbufolding screens, often produced in sets so that they ran all round even large rooms. The Shōrin-zu byōbu of about 1595 is a famous example; only some 15% of the paper is painted.[81]
Josetsu (如拙, fl. 1405–1496) was one of the first suiboku (ink wash) style
ZenJapanese painters in the
Muromachi period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of
Tenshō Shūbun at the
Shōkoku-ji monastery in
Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in 1470 and is known as the "Father of Japanese ink painting".[77]
Kanō school, a Japanese ink wash painting genre, was born under the significant influence of Chinese Taoism and Buddhist culture.[78]Kanō Masanobu (狩野 元信, 1434? – August 2, 1530?,
Kyoto) was the leader of Kano school, laid the foundation for the school's dominant position in Japanese mainstream painting for centuries. He was mainly influenced by Xia Gui (active in 1195–1225), a Chinese court painter of the Southern Song dynasty.[82] He was the chief painter of the
Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the
Kanō school of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and Bodhisattvas.[83]Tenshō Shūbun (天章 周文, died c. 1444–50) was a Japanese
Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the
Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) of
Chinese painting and
Josetsu.[84]Sesshū Tōyō (
Japanese: 雪舟 等楊; Oda Tōyō since 1431, also known as Tōyō, Unkoku, or Bikeisai; 1420 – 26 August 1506) was the most prominent Japanese master of
ink and wash painting from the middle
Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the
Northern School (北宗画; běi zōng huà) of
Chinese painting, especially
Ma Yuan and
Xia Gui.[85]
After studying landscape painting in China, he drew "秋冬山水図". This painting was drawn the landscape of Song dynasty in China.
He painted the natural landscape of winter. The feature of this painting is the thick line that represents the cliff.
Sesson Shukei (雪村 周継, 1504–1589) and Hasegawa Tōhaku (長谷川 等伯, 1539 – 19 March 1610) mainly imitated the ink wash painting styles of the Chinese Song dynasty monk painter
Muqi.[5] Sesson Shukei was one of the main representatives of Japanese ink wash painting, a learned and prolific Zen monk painter. He studied a wide range of early Chinese ink wash painting styles and played an important role in the development of Japanese Zen ink wash painting. Colleagues of Chinese ink painter
Muqi (active in 13th century) first brought Muxi painting to Japan in the late 13th century. Japanese Zen monks follow and learn the gibbon pictures painted by Chinese monk painter Muqi. By the late 15th century, the animal image of Muqi style had become a hot topic in large-scale Japanese painting projects.[86]
The smaller, more purist and less flamboyant
Hasegawa school was founded by
Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539–1610), and lasted until the 18th century. The nanga (meaning "Southern painting") or bunjinga ("literati") style or school ran from the 18th century until the death of
Tomioka Tessai (1837–1924) who was widely regarded as the last of the nanga artists.[13][24]
Hasegawa Tōhaku was a
Japanesepainter and founder of the
Hasegawa school. He is considered one of the great painters of the
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), and he is best known for his byōbu folding screens, such as Pine Trees and Pine Tree and Flowering Plants (both registered
National Treasures), or the paintings in walls and sliding doors at
Chishaku-in, attributed to him and his son (also National Treasures). He was deeply influenced by
Chinese painting of the
Song dynasty, especially
Liang Kai and
Muqi.[87][88]
The ink wash paintings of
Mi Fu and his son had a profound influence on Japanese ink painters, and Ike no Taiga is one of them.[78]Ike no Taiga (池大雅, 1723–1776) was a
Japanese painter and calligrapher born in
Kyoto during the
Edo period. Together with
Yosa Buson, he perfected the bunjinga (or nanga) genre. The majority of his works reflected his passion for classical Chinese culture and painting techniques, though he also incorporated revolutionary and modern techniques into his otherwise very traditional paintings. As a bunjin (文人, literati, man of letters), Ike was close to many of the prominent social and artistic circles in Kyoto, and in other parts of the country, throughout his lifetime.[25]
Korea
In Korea, the
Dohwaseo or court academy was very important, and most major painters came from it, although the emphasis of the academy was on realistic decorative works and official portraits, so something of a break from this was required.[89] However the high official and painter
Gang Se-hwang and others championed amateur literati or seonbi painting in the Chinese sensibility. Many painters made both Chinese-style landscapes and
genre paintings of everyday life, and there was a tradition of more realistic landscapes of real locations, as well as mountains as fantastical as any Chinese paintings, for which the
Taebaek Mountains along the eastern side of Korea offered plenty of inspiration.[90]
The Korean painters influenced by the Northern School in the Song dynasty include Gang Hui-an, Kim Hong-do, Jang Seung-eop and so on.
Gang Hui-an (1417?–1464), pen name Injae 인재, was a prominent scholar and painter of the early
Joseon period. He was good at poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He entered royal service by passing
gwageo in 1441 under the reign of king
Sejong (1397–1418–1450).[95][96]Kim Hong-do (김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?–1814?), also known as "Kim Hong-do", most often styled "Danwon" (단원), was a full-time painter of the
Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new trends of his time, the 'true view painting'. Gim Hong-do was an exceptional artist in every field of traditional painting. His ink wash paintings of figures are deeply influenced by the
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou.
Jang Seung-eop (1843–1897) (commonly known by his pen name "Owon") was a painter of the late
Joseon dynasty in
Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film Chi-hwa-seon directed by
Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court.[97][98]
Jeong Seon (
Korean: 정선) (1676–1759) was a Korean landscape painter, also known by his pen name "Kyomjae" ("humble study"). His works include ink and oriental water paintings, such as Inwangjesaekdo (1751), Geumgang jeondo (1734), and Ingokjeongsa (1742), as well as numerous "true-view" landscape paintings on the subject of Korea and the history of its culture. He is counted among the most famous Korean painters.[99] His style is realistic rather than abstract.[100]
Josetsu (A Chinese immigrant, "Father of Japanese ink wash painting"),[77]Catching catfish with a gourd (瓢鮎図, Hyōnen-zu), ink on paper, 111.5 cm × 75.8 cm (43.9 in × 29.8 in), 1415, Japan.
Kanō Masanobu, The Four Accomplishments, ink and light lolor on silk, 67 in. × 12 ft. 6 in. (170.2 × 381 cm), mid-16th century, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[82]
Ahn Gyeon, Late Winter (만동), ink on silk, 15th century. Korea.
Gang Hui-an, Scholar gazing at the running river, ink on silk, Gosagwansudo, 15th century. Korea.
Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506), Autumn Landscape (Shūkei-sansui), ink on silk, Japan.
Sesshū, Landscape, Mountain landscapes are by far the most common scenes depicted in ink wash
landscape paintings, Japan.[8]
Sesson Shūkei (雪村 周継), Gibbons in a Landscape, ink on Xuan paper, 62 in. x 11 ft. 5 in. (157.5 x 348 cm), 1570, Japan. Collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[86]
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