January 1 – The
United States Government begins to track the on-time-arrival and baggage-handling performance of United States airlines.[3]
January 15 – Since January 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and one against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out two air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.[4]
January 19 –
Mid Pacific Air ceases all passenger service to
Hawaii. It will cease all cargo service to Hawaii a month later.
January 27 – An Iraqi Air Force
Mirage F-1 flies an attack profile against the
United States Navydock landing shipUSS Portland (LSD-37) in the Persian Gulf, apparently not realizing the identity of its target. Another United States Navy ship establishes radio contact with the Mirage pilot and warns him off before he can fire at Portland.[1]
January 30 – A
Boeing 747 sets a new around-the-world record of 36 hours 54 minutes.
January 31 – Since January 16, Iraq has conducted 11 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and Iran has carried out two. Neither country has attacked urban and economic targets on the other's territory.[4]
February 15 – Since February 1, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 27 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out three air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
February 18 – The airline
Binter Canarias, a subsidiary of
Iberia, is founded. It will begin flight operations in
March 1989.
February 27 – The Iraqi Air Force carries out a major raid against the Rey
oil refinery in
Tehran, badly damaging it and forcing Iran to resume rationing of
petroleum products.[2]
February 29 – Since February 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither side has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.[4]
March 6 – Iranian
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps forces aboard small boats and an
oil platform fire on American military helicopters performing routine reconnaissance patrols over the
Persian Gulf. It is the first combat to take place in the Persian Gulf since February 12, ending one of the longest lulls in fighting in the Persian Gulf since
Western forces intervened there in 1987.[8]
March 8
The
Iraqi Air Force hits an Iranian ship for the first time since February 9, beginning a series of regular Iraqi attacks against shipping in the Persian Gulf.
Iraq claims it has hit 23 ships in the Persian Gulf since January 1, but shipping companies confirm only nine ships damaged.[8]
March 15 – As both
Iran and
Iraq escalate their air campaigns against one another, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and 114 against urban and economic targets in Iran since March 1, while Iran has carried out 42 air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq, but none against shipping.[4]
March 19 – The Iraqi Air Force conducts a major raid against Iran's
Kharg Island, setting two
tankers ablaze and killing 46 crewmen.[8]
March 31 – Since March 16, Iraq has conducted 14 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 94 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out 15 air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 129 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
During a major Iraqi ground offensive in northern Iran, the Iraqi Air Force flies an average of 224 sorties per day, losing an average of three aircraft per day. The
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force probably loses a few of its small remaining force of operational
F-5 Freedom Fighters.[9]
April
The
Mexican government-owned airline
Aeroméxico is declared bankrupt and grounded. After privatization, it will resume operations in
October with a new corporate identity but still marketed as Aeroméxico.
April 15 – Since April 1,
Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and 38 against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping and 85 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
April 17 – Iraq launches a major ground offensive to retake
al-Faw from
Iran, claiming that its fixed-wing aircraft and
attack helicopters have flown 318 combat sorties during the day.[11]
April 28 –
Aloha Airlines Flight 243 suffers an explosive decompression in flight over the
Hawaiian Islands, with the roof blowing off the
Boeing 737-200 from the cockpit to just in front of the wings. All 90 passengers and four of the five crew survive; one flight attendant is swept out of the plane and falls to her death.
April 30 – Since April 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and seven against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 58 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
May 8 – The world's smallest airplane, the
Starr Bumble Bee II, makes its first flight, piloted by its builder, Robert H. Starr. It crashes the same day due to engine failure, seriously injuring Starr.
May 14; An Iraqi airforce jet fires missiles at an oil tanker, the
Jahre Viking ( at the time the biggest tanker in the world ). The ship is on fire and sinks, but it is refloated repaired and used for some more years.[13]
May 15 – Since May 1,
Iraq has conducted 12 airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out no airstrikes.[4]
May 31 – Since May 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
June 15 – Since June 1,
Iraq has conducted three airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf, but nine against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out no air attacks.[4]
June 23 – The
Iraqi Air Force launches its heaviest attack against urban and economic targets in Iran in two months, setting six
crude oil production units in
Ahwaz, two oil pumping stations in
Bibi Hakemeh, and two oil installations at
Kaj Saran ablaze.[14]
June 25 – Iraqi ground forces launch a major ground offensive against Iranian forces around
Majnoon and behind the
Majnoon Islands. Iraqi Air Force jets and Iraqi attack helicopters apparently fly over 40 sorties in support of the offensive. The
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force commits 35 aircraft to countering the Iraqi offensive and suffers heavy losses.[19]
June 30 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes an Iranian
natural gas facility and an Iranian
offshore oil platform.[14] Since June 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out one against urban and economic targets in Iraq. Neither country had launched air raids against shipping in the Persian Gulf.[4]
July 12 – Two
United States Army helicopters exchange fire with two Iranian gunboats in the Persian Gulf east of
Farsi Island, forcing the Iranian vessels to break off their attack on the
tankerUniversal Monarch.[21]
July 15 – Since July 1,
Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and three against urban and economic targets in Iran, while
Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
July 31 – Since July 16, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but Iran has carried out no air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither country has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.[4]
Since August 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but has not attacked
Persian Gulf shipping, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping but has not launched air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
A ceasefire officially brings the seven-year-eleven-month-long
Iran–Iraq War to an end, although Iran and Iraq had formally announced an end to all fighting on August 8.[24]
September 7 –
Trans World Airlines stockholders approve majority owner
Carl Icahn's proposal to take the company private. The transaction earns $610.3 million for the stockholders – of which $469 million goes to Icahn – and adds $539.7 million to the airline's debt.[25]
September 30 – American race car driver
Al Holbert is fatally injured when the
Piper PA-60-601P Aerostar he is piloting crashes near
Columbus,
Ohio, just after takeoff because its clamshell door is not closed.[27]
October
October 1 – The privately owned airline Aerovias de Mexico SA de CV begins flight operations, using the remaining assets of its predecessor, the
Mexican government-owned
Aeroméxico, which had ceased operations in
April due to bankruptcy. The new airline also operates as Aeroméxico.
October 12 – A
Bar Harbor AirlinesATR 42 loses the required separation between it and
Air Force One while both are descending to land at
Newark International Airport. The minimum distance between the two aircraft was 500 feet (150 meters) vertically and 1.58 miles (2.54 kilometers) horizontally.[28]
December 8 – A
United States Air ForceA-10 Thunderbolt II on a low-level flying exercise crashes into the upper floor of an apartment complex in a residential area of
Remscheid,
West Germany, killing the pilot and five people on the ground and injuring 50 others.
December 21 –
Pan American World Airways Flight 103, a
Boeing 747 flying from London to New York City, and carrying many American passengers home for
Christmas, explodes over
Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 on board and eleven on the ground. English rock musician
Paul Jeffreys and his new wife, flying to their honeymoon, are among the dead.[27]Libyan terrorists are blamed for the tragedy.
The deadliest crash of this year was
Iran Air Flight 655, a
Airbus A300 which was shot down over the
Strait of Hormuz on 3 July, killing all 290 people onboard. Later that year, a terrorist bomb exploded aboard
Pan Am Flight 103, a
Boeing 747 which then crashed into
Lockerbie,
Scotland on 21 December, killing all 259 people on board as well as 11 on the ground; this disaster may have been aided by Iran in reaction to the shootdown of Flight 655 not six months earlier.[44]
References
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 352n.
^
abcdCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 363.
^Associated Press, "Carriers Do Better On Arrival Time, Liggage," The Washington Post, August 10, 2012, p. A9.
^
abcdefghijklmnoCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 365.
^Brogan, Patrick, The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to Global Conflict Since 1945, New York: Vintage Books, 1990,
ISBN0-679-72033-2, p. 67.
^
abCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran–Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 340.
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 368.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 371.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 372.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 374.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 375.
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 388.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 3393.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 387.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 389-390.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 391–394.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 395.
^Brogan, Patrick, The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to Global Conflict Since 1945, New York: Vintage Books, 1990,
ISBN0-679-72033-2, pp. 207, 211.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran–Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 398–399.
^"Loading..."twaflightattendants.com. Archived from
the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 99.
January 1 – The
United States Government begins to track the on-time-arrival and baggage-handling performance of United States airlines.[3]
January 15 – Since January 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and one against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out two air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.[4]
January 19 –
Mid Pacific Air ceases all passenger service to
Hawaii. It will cease all cargo service to Hawaii a month later.
January 27 – An Iraqi Air Force
Mirage F-1 flies an attack profile against the
United States Navydock landing shipUSS Portland (LSD-37) in the Persian Gulf, apparently not realizing the identity of its target. Another United States Navy ship establishes radio contact with the Mirage pilot and warns him off before he can fire at Portland.[1]
January 30 – A
Boeing 747 sets a new around-the-world record of 36 hours 54 minutes.
January 31 – Since January 16, Iraq has conducted 11 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and Iran has carried out two. Neither country has attacked urban and economic targets on the other's territory.[4]
February 15 – Since February 1, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 27 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out three air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
February 18 – The airline
Binter Canarias, a subsidiary of
Iberia, is founded. It will begin flight operations in
March 1989.
February 27 – The Iraqi Air Force carries out a major raid against the Rey
oil refinery in
Tehran, badly damaging it and forcing Iran to resume rationing of
petroleum products.[2]
February 29 – Since February 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither side has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.[4]
March 6 – Iranian
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps forces aboard small boats and an
oil platform fire on American military helicopters performing routine reconnaissance patrols over the
Persian Gulf. It is the first combat to take place in the Persian Gulf since February 12, ending one of the longest lulls in fighting in the Persian Gulf since
Western forces intervened there in 1987.[8]
March 8
The
Iraqi Air Force hits an Iranian ship for the first time since February 9, beginning a series of regular Iraqi attacks against shipping in the Persian Gulf.
Iraq claims it has hit 23 ships in the Persian Gulf since January 1, but shipping companies confirm only nine ships damaged.[8]
March 15 – As both
Iran and
Iraq escalate their air campaigns against one another, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and 114 against urban and economic targets in Iran since March 1, while Iran has carried out 42 air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq, but none against shipping.[4]
March 19 – The Iraqi Air Force conducts a major raid against Iran's
Kharg Island, setting two
tankers ablaze and killing 46 crewmen.[8]
March 31 – Since March 16, Iraq has conducted 14 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 94 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out 15 air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 129 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
During a major Iraqi ground offensive in northern Iran, the Iraqi Air Force flies an average of 224 sorties per day, losing an average of three aircraft per day. The
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force probably loses a few of its small remaining force of operational
F-5 Freedom Fighters.[9]
April
The
Mexican government-owned airline
Aeroméxico is declared bankrupt and grounded. After privatization, it will resume operations in
October with a new corporate identity but still marketed as Aeroméxico.
April 15 – Since April 1,
Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and 38 against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping and 85 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
April 17 – Iraq launches a major ground offensive to retake
al-Faw from
Iran, claiming that its fixed-wing aircraft and
attack helicopters have flown 318 combat sorties during the day.[11]
April 28 –
Aloha Airlines Flight 243 suffers an explosive decompression in flight over the
Hawaiian Islands, with the roof blowing off the
Boeing 737-200 from the cockpit to just in front of the wings. All 90 passengers and four of the five crew survive; one flight attendant is swept out of the plane and falls to her death.
April 30 – Since April 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and seven against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 58 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
May 8 – The world's smallest airplane, the
Starr Bumble Bee II, makes its first flight, piloted by its builder, Robert H. Starr. It crashes the same day due to engine failure, seriously injuring Starr.
May 14; An Iraqi airforce jet fires missiles at an oil tanker, the
Jahre Viking ( at the time the biggest tanker in the world ). The ship is on fire and sinks, but it is refloated repaired and used for some more years.[13]
May 15 – Since May 1,
Iraq has conducted 12 airstrikes against shipping in the
Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out no airstrikes.[4]
May 31 – Since May 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
June 15 – Since June 1,
Iraq has conducted three airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf, but nine against urban and economic targets in
Iran, while Iran has carried out no air attacks.[4]
June 23 – The
Iraqi Air Force launches its heaviest attack against urban and economic targets in Iran in two months, setting six
crude oil production units in
Ahwaz, two oil pumping stations in
Bibi Hakemeh, and two oil installations at
Kaj Saran ablaze.[14]
June 25 – Iraqi ground forces launch a major ground offensive against Iranian forces around
Majnoon and behind the
Majnoon Islands. Iraqi Air Force jets and Iraqi attack helicopters apparently fly over 40 sorties in support of the offensive. The
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force commits 35 aircraft to countering the Iraqi offensive and suffers heavy losses.[19]
June 30 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes an Iranian
natural gas facility and an Iranian
offshore oil platform.[14] Since June 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out one against urban and economic targets in Iraq. Neither country had launched air raids against shipping in the Persian Gulf.[4]
July 12 – Two
United States Army helicopters exchange fire with two Iranian gunboats in the Persian Gulf east of
Farsi Island, forcing the Iranian vessels to break off their attack on the
tankerUniversal Monarch.[21]
July 15 – Since July 1,
Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and three against urban and economic targets in Iran, while
Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
July 31 – Since July 16, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but Iran has carried out no air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither country has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.[4]
Since August 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but has not attacked
Persian Gulf shipping, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping but has not launched air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq.[4]
A ceasefire officially brings the seven-year-eleven-month-long
Iran–Iraq War to an end, although Iran and Iraq had formally announced an end to all fighting on August 8.[24]
September 7 –
Trans World Airlines stockholders approve majority owner
Carl Icahn's proposal to take the company private. The transaction earns $610.3 million for the stockholders – of which $469 million goes to Icahn – and adds $539.7 million to the airline's debt.[25]
September 30 – American race car driver
Al Holbert is fatally injured when the
Piper PA-60-601P Aerostar he is piloting crashes near
Columbus,
Ohio, just after takeoff because its clamshell door is not closed.[27]
October
October 1 – The privately owned airline Aerovias de Mexico SA de CV begins flight operations, using the remaining assets of its predecessor, the
Mexican government-owned
Aeroméxico, which had ceased operations in
April due to bankruptcy. The new airline also operates as Aeroméxico.
October 12 – A
Bar Harbor AirlinesATR 42 loses the required separation between it and
Air Force One while both are descending to land at
Newark International Airport. The minimum distance between the two aircraft was 500 feet (150 meters) vertically and 1.58 miles (2.54 kilometers) horizontally.[28]
December 8 – A
United States Air ForceA-10 Thunderbolt II on a low-level flying exercise crashes into the upper floor of an apartment complex in a residential area of
Remscheid,
West Germany, killing the pilot and five people on the ground and injuring 50 others.
December 21 –
Pan American World Airways Flight 103, a
Boeing 747 flying from London to New York City, and carrying many American passengers home for
Christmas, explodes over
Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 on board and eleven on the ground. English rock musician
Paul Jeffreys and his new wife, flying to their honeymoon, are among the dead.[27]Libyan terrorists are blamed for the tragedy.
The deadliest crash of this year was
Iran Air Flight 655, a
Airbus A300 which was shot down over the
Strait of Hormuz on 3 July, killing all 290 people onboard. Later that year, a terrorist bomb exploded aboard
Pan Am Flight 103, a
Boeing 747 which then crashed into
Lockerbie,
Scotland on 21 December, killing all 259 people on board as well as 11 on the ground; this disaster may have been aided by Iran in reaction to the shootdown of Flight 655 not six months earlier.[44]
References
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 352n.
^
abcdCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 363.
^Associated Press, "Carriers Do Better On Arrival Time, Liggage," The Washington Post, August 10, 2012, p. A9.
^
abcdefghijklmnoCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 365.
^Brogan, Patrick, The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to Global Conflict Since 1945, New York: Vintage Books, 1990,
ISBN0-679-72033-2, p. 67.
^
abCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran–Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 340.
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 368.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 371.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 372.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 374.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 375.
^
abcCordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 388.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 3393.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 387.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 389-390.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 391–394.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 395.
^Brogan, Patrick, The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to Global Conflict Since 1945, New York: Vintage Books, 1990,
ISBN0-679-72033-2, pp. 207, 211.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran–Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, pp. 398–399.
^"Loading..."twaflightattendants.com. Archived from
the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
^Cordesman, Anthony H., and Abraham R. Wagner, The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: The Iran-Iraq War, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990,
ISBN0-8133-1330-9, p. 99.