Xenddi, sometimes spelled as Xendi, [1] was a discriminatory religious tax imposed on non-Christians ( Hindus and Muslims) by the colonial era Portuguese Christian government in Goa, Daman and Diu in 1704 and expanded to all of Portuguese colonies in the Indian subcontinent by 1705. [2] [3] It was similar to the discriminatory Jizya religious tax imposed on Hindus by Muslim rulers in the region. [2]
The term Xenddi also spelled Xendim or Xendy meant " hair tuft", a term for the top-knot hair style of Hindus, was likely derived from the Konkani word for the same. [4] [5] The Xenddi tax on the Hindu artisans and merchants was higher than on the Hindu peasants in Portuguese colonies in India. [6] The Xenddi tax was not payable by those who converted from Hinduism to Christianity. [4]
Over 90% of the Goans in the Velhas Conquistas were Catholic in the early 1700s. [7] In its initial formulation, the tax was introduced with the pretext that Hindus did not own any land in Goa and only the Catholics did. Land revenues were paid by the Goan Catholics in Goa, and the regional Church argued that Xenddi tax would make Hindus pay their fair share. The tax and the tax rate on Hindus evolved to be an abusive form of religious discrimination. [8] [9] The tax was oppressive and arbitrary, its collection by the mahajans based on severe extortions and abuses, according to Teotonio de Souza. [10]
According to Rene Berendse, the Xenddi tax was considered to be an example of religious intolerance by the neighboring Maratha Empire, and its local military leader Govind Das Pant requested the abolition of the discriminatory tax against the Hindus as a condition for a mutual armistice agreement. [8][ full citation needed] The Goan government refused, stating that the Xenddi tax was a matter of the Church, in which the Portuguese state cannot interfere. [8] The Xenddi tax was finally abolished in 1840, with José Joaquim Lopes de Lima – the Governor General of Goa – declaring it to be "cruel, hateful tribute and ridiculous capitation tax". [9]
References
- ^ Rene J. Barendse (2009). Arabian Seas, 1700 - 1763. BRILL Academic. pp. 697–698. ISBN 978-90-04-17658-4.
- ^ a b Teotonio R. De Souza (1994). Discoveries, Missionary Expansion, and Asian Cultures. Concept. pp. 93–95. ISBN 978-81-7022-497-6.
-
^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1994).
Goa to Me. Concept. p. 110.
ISBN
978-81-7022-504-1.
According to the Proceedings of the State Council, the tax on xenndi was only to be levied on the Hindus whose distinctive trait it was, but Muslims were also subjected to its payment.
- ^ a b Délio de Mendonça (2002). Conversions and Citizenry: Goa Under Portugal, 1510-1610. Concept Publishing. pp. xvi, 116–117. ISBN 978-81-7022-960-5.
- ^ Pierre du Jarric Jarric (2004). Akbar and the Jesuits: An Account of the Jesuit Missions to the Court of Akbar. Routledge. pp. 135 note 3. ISBN 1-134-28507-8.
- ^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
- ^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing Company. p. 56. ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
- ^ a b c Rene J. Barendse (2009). Arabian Seas, 1700 - 1763. BRILL Academic. pp. 435–436 with footnotes. ISBN 978-90-04-17658-4.
- ^ a b Teotonio R. De Souza (1994). Goa to Me. Concept. pp. 112–113. ISBN 978-81-7022-504-1.
-
^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1994).
Goa to Me. Concept. p. 110.
ISBN
978-81-7022-504-1.
The collection of this tax was left to the mahajans, who took upon themselves the responsibility of drawing up the lists of the payers and of determining the quantum to be paid by each one. This method of collection appears to have given rise to severe extortions and abuses. The maximum payable had reached in some cases to 50 or even 100 xerafins. These vexations led many to seek ways of evading the payment.
Xenddi, sometimes spelled as Xendi, [1] was a discriminatory religious tax imposed on non-Christians ( Hindus and Muslims) by the colonial era Portuguese Christian government in Goa, Daman and Diu in 1704 and expanded to all of Portuguese colonies in the Indian subcontinent by 1705. [2] [3] It was similar to the discriminatory Jizya religious tax imposed on Hindus by Muslim rulers in the region. [2]
The term Xenddi also spelled Xendim or Xendy meant " hair tuft", a term for the top-knot hair style of Hindus, was likely derived from the Konkani word for the same. [4] [5] The Xenddi tax on the Hindu artisans and merchants was higher than on the Hindu peasants in Portuguese colonies in India. [6] The Xenddi tax was not payable by those who converted from Hinduism to Christianity. [4]
Over 90% of the Goans in the Velhas Conquistas were Catholic in the early 1700s. [7] In its initial formulation, the tax was introduced with the pretext that Hindus did not own any land in Goa and only the Catholics did. Land revenues were paid by the Goan Catholics in Goa, and the regional Church argued that Xenddi tax would make Hindus pay their fair share. The tax and the tax rate on Hindus evolved to be an abusive form of religious discrimination. [8] [9] The tax was oppressive and arbitrary, its collection by the mahajans based on severe extortions and abuses, according to Teotonio de Souza. [10]
According to Rene Berendse, the Xenddi tax was considered to be an example of religious intolerance by the neighboring Maratha Empire, and its local military leader Govind Das Pant requested the abolition of the discriminatory tax against the Hindus as a condition for a mutual armistice agreement. [8][ full citation needed] The Goan government refused, stating that the Xenddi tax was a matter of the Church, in which the Portuguese state cannot interfere. [8] The Xenddi tax was finally abolished in 1840, with José Joaquim Lopes de Lima – the Governor General of Goa – declaring it to be "cruel, hateful tribute and ridiculous capitation tax". [9]
References
- ^ Rene J. Barendse (2009). Arabian Seas, 1700 - 1763. BRILL Academic. pp. 697–698. ISBN 978-90-04-17658-4.
- ^ a b Teotonio R. De Souza (1994). Discoveries, Missionary Expansion, and Asian Cultures. Concept. pp. 93–95. ISBN 978-81-7022-497-6.
-
^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1994).
Goa to Me. Concept. p. 110.
ISBN
978-81-7022-504-1.
According to the Proceedings of the State Council, the tax on xenndi was only to be levied on the Hindus whose distinctive trait it was, but Muslims were also subjected to its payment.
- ^ a b Délio de Mendonça (2002). Conversions and Citizenry: Goa Under Portugal, 1510-1610. Concept Publishing. pp. xvi, 116–117. ISBN 978-81-7022-960-5.
- ^ Pierre du Jarric Jarric (2004). Akbar and the Jesuits: An Account of the Jesuit Missions to the Court of Akbar. Routledge. pp. 135 note 3. ISBN 1-134-28507-8.
- ^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
- ^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing Company. p. 56. ISBN 978-81-7022-259-0.
- ^ a b c Rene J. Barendse (2009). Arabian Seas, 1700 - 1763. BRILL Academic. pp. 435–436 with footnotes. ISBN 978-90-04-17658-4.
- ^ a b Teotonio R. De Souza (1994). Goa to Me. Concept. pp. 112–113. ISBN 978-81-7022-504-1.
-
^ Teotonio R. De Souza (1994).
Goa to Me. Concept. p. 110.
ISBN
978-81-7022-504-1.
The collection of this tax was left to the mahajans, who took upon themselves the responsibility of drawing up the lists of the payers and of determining the quantum to be paid by each one. This method of collection appears to have given rise to severe extortions and abuses. The maximum payable had reached in some cases to 50 or even 100 xerafins. These vexations led many to seek ways of evading the payment.