Bharatas- The Bharatas are a major Aryan clan, especially in Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage
Vishvamitra. The entire Bharata clan is described as crossing over, with their chariots and wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash (
Beas River) and Shutudri (
Satlej). The Bharatas are mentioned as the protagonists in the
Battle of the Ten Kings in Mandala 7 (7.18 etc.), where they are on the winning side. They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various Aryan and non-Aryan clans so that they continue to dominate in post-Rigvedic texts, and later in the (Epic) tradition. "Bhārata" today is the official name of the
Republic of India (see also
Etymology of India).
Yadu: Of Indo-Aryan origin,Yadu is one of the five early
Rigvedic tribes (panchajana, panchakrishtya or panchamanusha) mentioned in the
Rigveda.[5][6][7] The Yadus had a tribal union with the
Turvasha tribe, and were frequently described together.[8][9] The Yadus were a Aryan tribe.[7] By the time of the arrival of the
Puru and
Bharata tribes, the Yadu-Turvashas were settled in
Punjab, with the Yadus possibly residing along the
Yamuna River.[10]In Mandalas 4 and 5 of the Rigveda, the god
Indra is stated to have saved the Yadu-Turvashas from drowning when they crossed rivers.[11][12] In Mandala 6, the Yadu-Turvashas are stated to have been "brought from far away" by
Indra.[13][14] The Yadu-Turvashas are treated relatively positively in Mandalas 5, 6, and 8,[15] and are stated to be the occasional allies and enemies of the Puru-Bharatas.[11] In the
Battle of the Ten Kings, the Yadus were defeated by Bharata chieftain
Sudas.[16]
Pancha Jana (Five tribes)
(पञ्च जना – Páñca Jánāḥ / Pancha-janah) The pancha Jana are five tribes inexplicitly listed together during the (
Āryāvarta of this time, c. 1700–1500 BCE, roughly corresponds with the
Punjab and closer regions) (see the map of Early
Vedic Period)
Turvaśa (Turvasha) (in the centre and south parts of early
Āryāvarta): The Turvashas (
Sanskrit: तुर्वश, Turvaśa) were one of the five major peoples[17] (panchajana, panchakrishtya or panchamanusha) mentioned in the
Rigveda. [18] The Turvashas had a tribal union with the
Yadu tribe, and were frequently described together.[19][20] The Turvashas were a partly Indo-Aryan-acculturated Indus tribe.[21] By the time of the arrival of the
Puru and
Bharata tribes, the Yadu-Turvashas were settled in
Punjab.[22] By the time of the
Shatapatha Brahmana (7th-6th centuries BCE),[23][24] the Turvashas are linked to the
Panchalas. [22] Alfred Ludvig first conjectured that Turvīti and Vayya could have been connected with the Turvasha tribe, a notion that is still considered only speculation according to
Witzel.[25][26] In Mandalas 4 and 5 of the Rigveda, the god
Indra is stated to have saved the Yadu-Turvashas from drowning when they crossed rivers.[11][12] In Mandala 6, the Yadu-Turvashas are stated to have been "brought from far away" by
Indra.[13][14] The Yadu-Turvashas are treated relatively positively in Mandalas 5, 6, and 8,[15] and are stated to be the occasional allies and enemies of the Puru-Bharatas.[11]
Yadu (in the southeast and south parts of early
Āryāvarta)
Janapadas
Early Janapadas (peoples / tribes) (c. 1700–1100 BCE)
After roughly 1700 BCE
Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes were swiftly expanding through ancient northern
India, therefore the number of peoples, tribes and clans was increasing (as well as the number of
Indo-Aryan language speakers) and
Āryāvarta was becoming a very large area (see the map on the right side).
Aṅga – Prachya Āryāvarta – Eastern Āryāvarta (Madhya-desha and Prachya Āryāvarta – Central and Eastern
Āryāvarta in Vamana).
Anu – is a
Vedic Sanskrit term for one of the 5 major tribes in the
Rigveda,
RV 1.108.8,
RV 8.10.5 (both times listed together with the
Druhyu) and, much later also in the
Mahabharata.[27] In the late Vedic period, one of the Anu kings, King Anga, is mentioned as a "
chakravartin" (
AB 8.22). Ānava, the
vrddhi derivation of Anu, is the name of a ruler in the Rigvedic account of the
Battle of the Ten Kings (7.18.13) and at 8.4.1 with the Turvaśa (tribe). The meaning ánu "living, human" (Naighantu) cannot be substantiated for the Rigveda [28] and may have been derived from the tribal name. (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Bhalana – The Bhalanas were one of the tribes that fought against
Sudas in the
Dasarajna battle. Some scholars have argued that the Bhalanas lived in South Central and Western
Pakistan, and that the
Bolan Pass, around which live the
Brahui people, are the
Bhalana people and abode.[27][31] (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Druhyu – The Druhyu were a people of Vedic India. They are mentioned in the Rigveda,[33] usually together with the Anu tribe.[34] Some early scholars have placed them in the northwestern region.[31]: I 395 The later texts, the Epic and the Puranas, locate them in the "north", that is, in Gandhara, Aratta and Setu. (Vishnu Purana IV.17) The Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers, and their next king, Gandhara, settled in a north-western region which became known as
Gandhāra. The sons of the later Druhyu king Pracetas too settle in the "northern" (udīcya) region (Bhagavata 9.23.15–16; Visnu 4.17.5; Vayu 99.11–12; Brahmanda 3.74.11–12 and Matsya 48.9.). The word Druid (Gallic Celtic druides), is partially derived from Proto-Indo-European vid "to see, to know' [35][36] It has also been alleged that the Rg Veda and the Puranas describe this tribe as migrating North.[37] However, there is nothing of this in the Rigveda and the Puranas merely mention that the Druhyu are "adjacent (āśrita) to the North". (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Gandharis[38] (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Pūru (Puru) (Madhya-desha Āryāvarta – Central
Āryāvarta)
Bharatas – The Bharatas are an
Aryan tribe mentioned in the
Rigveda, especially in
Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage
Vishvamitra and in and
Mandala 7.[47]Bharatá is also used as a name of
Agni (literally, "to be maintained", viz. the fire having to be kept alive by the care of men), and as a name of
Rudra in
RV 2.36.8. In one of the "
river hymns"
RV 3.33, the entire Bharata tribe is described as crossing over, with their chariots and wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash (Beas) and Shutudri (Satlej). Hymns by Vasistha in
Mandala 7 (7.18 etc.) mention the Bharatas as the protagonists in the
Battle of the Ten Kings, where they are on the winning side. They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various
Aryan and
non-Aryan tribes so that they continue to dominate in post-Rigvedic texts, and later in the (
Epic) tradition, the
Mahābhārata, the eponymous ancestor becomes
Emperor Bharata, conqueror of 'all of India', and his tribe and kingdom is called Bhārata. "Bhārata" today is the official name of the
Republic of India (see also
Etymology of India). (Madhya-desha Āryāvarta – Central
Āryāvarta)
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.reference-Sudama Misra (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana. p. 78.
महाजनपद – Mahajanapada
Shodasa Mahajanapadas (Sixteen Mahajanapadas)
The
Mahajanapadas were sixteen great kingdoms and republics that emerged after the more powerful political entities (initially based on the territories of peoples and tribes) had conquered many others.
According to the Anguttara Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Chulla-Niddesa (
Buddhist Canon)
Sattagydans – people that dwelt in
Sattagydia (Old Persian Thataguš; th = θ, from θata – "hundred" and guš – "cows", country of the People of "Hundred Cows"), may have been an
Indo-Aryan people of
Sindh with Iranian influence or the opposite, an
Iranian people of
Sindh with
Indo-Aryan influence.
Alina (RV 7.18.7) (RV =
Rigveda) – They were one of the tribes defeated by
Sudas of the Bharatas at the
Dasarajna (
Ten Kings Battle).[31]: I 39 It is suggested that they lived to the north-east of the
Kambojas (possible ancestors of the
Nuristani that live in
Nurestan) because in the 7th century CE, the land was mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim
Xuanzang.[31]: I 39 It is possible that they are connected with the
Alans or Alani people who are a nomadic Iranian tribe. Alans is a dialectal cognate of Aryāna, itself derived from the root arya-, meaning 'Aryan', the common self-designation of Indo-Iranian peoples. It probably came in use in the early history of the Alans for the purpose of uniting a heterogeneous group of tribes through the invocation of a common, ancestral 'Aryan' origin. The historian S. Talageri identifies them with the
Greeks (Hellenes).[50] However, the dating of the Rigveda and the hypothetical historic time for the
Dasarajna (
Battle of Ten Kings) occurred millennia before Hellenes were recorded in India.
Parsu (Parśu) – The Parsus have been connected with the Persians based on the evidence of an Assyrian inscription from 844 BC referring to the Persians as Parshu, and the Behistun Inscription of Darius I of Persia referring to Parsa as the home of the Persians. Pârsâ, is the Old Persian name for the Persis region Pars province as well as the root for the term Persian.
Shakya – a clan of
Iron Age India (1st millennium BCE), habitating an area in
Greater Magadha, on the foothills of the
Himalaya mountains. This is also the clan in which
Siddhartha Gautama (also known as
Buddha or
Shakyamuni – Sage of the Shakyas) (
c. 6th to 4th centuries BCE) was born into, whose teachings became the foundation of
Buddhism. According to Chandra Das, the name "Shakya" is derived from the Sanskrit word "śakya," which means "the one who is capable". Some scholars argue that the Shakya were of
Scythian (
Saka) origin (part of the
Iranian peoples) and assimilated into
Indo-Aryan peoples.[51][52]
Hypothetical Indo-Aryans
Mitanni Indo Aryans (
c. 1500–1300 BCE) – hypothetical ancient people of the northern
Middle East in the
Mitanni kingdom (part of today's far western Iran, northwestern Iraq, northern Syria and southeastern Turkey), that spoke the hypothetical
Mitanni Indo-Aryan (a language that was
superstrate of
Hurrian, a non-Indo-European language) and merged with the
Hurrians, many of them as a social elite, in the course of the
Indo-Aryan migration (towards West in this case).
^Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
^
abMallory, J.P.; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
ISBN978-1-884964-98-5.
^Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
^Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN978-0-691-05887-0
^Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 54.
ISBN9780199370184.
^
abWitzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan: (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 5: 3, 33.
CiteSeerX10.1.1.411.6137.
^Erdosy, George; Witzel, Michael (1995). Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Rgvedic history: poets, chieftains and politics. De Gruyter. p. 204.
^Witzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan: (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 5: 3, 33.
CiteSeerX10.1.1.411.6137.
^
abTalageri, S. G. (2005). The Rigveda as a source of Indo-European history. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 332.
^Witzel, M. (1999). Aryan and Non-Aryan names in Vedic India. Data for the linguistic situation, c. 1900–500 BC. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University (
Harvard Oriental Series: Opera Minora III).
^
abFrawley, D. (2001). The Rig Veda and the History of India: Rig Veda Bharata Itihasa. Aditya Prakashan.
^The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi 2000
^Jayarava Attwood, Possible Iranian Origins for the Śākyas and Aspects of Buddhism. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 2012 (3): 47–69
^Christopher I. Beckwith, "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia", 2016, pp 1–21
Further reading
Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press
ISBN978-0-691-14818-2
Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001. (Aditya Prakashan),
ISBN81-7742-039-9
Mallory, J.P.; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
ISBN978-1-884964-98-5
Misra, Sudama (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Vārāṇasī: Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana.
Pargiter, F.E. [1922] 1979. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. New Delhi: Cosmo.
Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis 2000,
ISBN81-7742-010-0 [6]; --Aryan Invasion Theory and Indian Nationalism. 1993.
Bharatas- The Bharatas are a major Aryan clan, especially in Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage
Vishvamitra. The entire Bharata clan is described as crossing over, with their chariots and wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash (
Beas River) and Shutudri (
Satlej). The Bharatas are mentioned as the protagonists in the
Battle of the Ten Kings in Mandala 7 (7.18 etc.), where they are on the winning side. They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various Aryan and non-Aryan clans so that they continue to dominate in post-Rigvedic texts, and later in the (Epic) tradition. "Bhārata" today is the official name of the
Republic of India (see also
Etymology of India).
Yadu: Of Indo-Aryan origin,Yadu is one of the five early
Rigvedic tribes (panchajana, panchakrishtya or panchamanusha) mentioned in the
Rigveda.[5][6][7] The Yadus had a tribal union with the
Turvasha tribe, and were frequently described together.[8][9] The Yadus were a Aryan tribe.[7] By the time of the arrival of the
Puru and
Bharata tribes, the Yadu-Turvashas were settled in
Punjab, with the Yadus possibly residing along the
Yamuna River.[10]In Mandalas 4 and 5 of the Rigveda, the god
Indra is stated to have saved the Yadu-Turvashas from drowning when they crossed rivers.[11][12] In Mandala 6, the Yadu-Turvashas are stated to have been "brought from far away" by
Indra.[13][14] The Yadu-Turvashas are treated relatively positively in Mandalas 5, 6, and 8,[15] and are stated to be the occasional allies and enemies of the Puru-Bharatas.[11] In the
Battle of the Ten Kings, the Yadus were defeated by Bharata chieftain
Sudas.[16]
Pancha Jana (Five tribes)
(पञ्च जना – Páñca Jánāḥ / Pancha-janah) The pancha Jana are five tribes inexplicitly listed together during the (
Āryāvarta of this time, c. 1700–1500 BCE, roughly corresponds with the
Punjab and closer regions) (see the map of Early
Vedic Period)
Turvaśa (Turvasha) (in the centre and south parts of early
Āryāvarta): The Turvashas (
Sanskrit: तुर्वश, Turvaśa) were one of the five major peoples[17] (panchajana, panchakrishtya or panchamanusha) mentioned in the
Rigveda. [18] The Turvashas had a tribal union with the
Yadu tribe, and were frequently described together.[19][20] The Turvashas were a partly Indo-Aryan-acculturated Indus tribe.[21] By the time of the arrival of the
Puru and
Bharata tribes, the Yadu-Turvashas were settled in
Punjab.[22] By the time of the
Shatapatha Brahmana (7th-6th centuries BCE),[23][24] the Turvashas are linked to the
Panchalas. [22] Alfred Ludvig first conjectured that Turvīti and Vayya could have been connected with the Turvasha tribe, a notion that is still considered only speculation according to
Witzel.[25][26] In Mandalas 4 and 5 of the Rigveda, the god
Indra is stated to have saved the Yadu-Turvashas from drowning when they crossed rivers.[11][12] In Mandala 6, the Yadu-Turvashas are stated to have been "brought from far away" by
Indra.[13][14] The Yadu-Turvashas are treated relatively positively in Mandalas 5, 6, and 8,[15] and are stated to be the occasional allies and enemies of the Puru-Bharatas.[11]
Yadu (in the southeast and south parts of early
Āryāvarta)
Janapadas
Early Janapadas (peoples / tribes) (c. 1700–1100 BCE)
After roughly 1700 BCE
Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes were swiftly expanding through ancient northern
India, therefore the number of peoples, tribes and clans was increasing (as well as the number of
Indo-Aryan language speakers) and
Āryāvarta was becoming a very large area (see the map on the right side).
Aṅga – Prachya Āryāvarta – Eastern Āryāvarta (Madhya-desha and Prachya Āryāvarta – Central and Eastern
Āryāvarta in Vamana).
Anu – is a
Vedic Sanskrit term for one of the 5 major tribes in the
Rigveda,
RV 1.108.8,
RV 8.10.5 (both times listed together with the
Druhyu) and, much later also in the
Mahabharata.[27] In the late Vedic period, one of the Anu kings, King Anga, is mentioned as a "
chakravartin" (
AB 8.22). Ānava, the
vrddhi derivation of Anu, is the name of a ruler in the Rigvedic account of the
Battle of the Ten Kings (7.18.13) and at 8.4.1 with the Turvaśa (tribe). The meaning ánu "living, human" (Naighantu) cannot be substantiated for the Rigveda [28] and may have been derived from the tribal name. (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Bhalana – The Bhalanas were one of the tribes that fought against
Sudas in the
Dasarajna battle. Some scholars have argued that the Bhalanas lived in South Central and Western
Pakistan, and that the
Bolan Pass, around which live the
Brahui people, are the
Bhalana people and abode.[27][31] (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Druhyu – The Druhyu were a people of Vedic India. They are mentioned in the Rigveda,[33] usually together with the Anu tribe.[34] Some early scholars have placed them in the northwestern region.[31]: I 395 The later texts, the Epic and the Puranas, locate them in the "north", that is, in Gandhara, Aratta and Setu. (Vishnu Purana IV.17) The Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers, and their next king, Gandhara, settled in a north-western region which became known as
Gandhāra. The sons of the later Druhyu king Pracetas too settle in the "northern" (udīcya) region (Bhagavata 9.23.15–16; Visnu 4.17.5; Vayu 99.11–12; Brahmanda 3.74.11–12 and Matsya 48.9.). The word Druid (Gallic Celtic druides), is partially derived from Proto-Indo-European vid "to see, to know' [35][36] It has also been alleged that the Rg Veda and the Puranas describe this tribe as migrating North.[37] However, there is nothing of this in the Rigveda and the Puranas merely mention that the Druhyu are "adjacent (āśrita) to the North". (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Gandharis[38] (Pratichya Āryāvarta – Western
Āryāvarta)
Pūru (Puru) (Madhya-desha Āryāvarta – Central
Āryāvarta)
Bharatas – The Bharatas are an
Aryan tribe mentioned in the
Rigveda, especially in
Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage
Vishvamitra and in and
Mandala 7.[47]Bharatá is also used as a name of
Agni (literally, "to be maintained", viz. the fire having to be kept alive by the care of men), and as a name of
Rudra in
RV 2.36.8. In one of the "
river hymns"
RV 3.33, the entire Bharata tribe is described as crossing over, with their chariots and wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash (Beas) and Shutudri (Satlej). Hymns by Vasistha in
Mandala 7 (7.18 etc.) mention the Bharatas as the protagonists in the
Battle of the Ten Kings, where they are on the winning side. They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various
Aryan and
non-Aryan tribes so that they continue to dominate in post-Rigvedic texts, and later in the (
Epic) tradition, the
Mahābhārata, the eponymous ancestor becomes
Emperor Bharata, conqueror of 'all of India', and his tribe and kingdom is called Bhārata. "Bhārata" today is the official name of the
Republic of India (see also
Etymology of India). (Madhya-desha Āryāvarta – Central
Āryāvarta)
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.reference-Sudama Misra (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana. p. 78.
महाजनपद – Mahajanapada
Shodasa Mahajanapadas (Sixteen Mahajanapadas)
The
Mahajanapadas were sixteen great kingdoms and republics that emerged after the more powerful political entities (initially based on the territories of peoples and tribes) had conquered many others.
According to the Anguttara Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Chulla-Niddesa (
Buddhist Canon)
Sattagydans – people that dwelt in
Sattagydia (Old Persian Thataguš; th = θ, from θata – "hundred" and guš – "cows", country of the People of "Hundred Cows"), may have been an
Indo-Aryan people of
Sindh with Iranian influence or the opposite, an
Iranian people of
Sindh with
Indo-Aryan influence.
Alina (RV 7.18.7) (RV =
Rigveda) – They were one of the tribes defeated by
Sudas of the Bharatas at the
Dasarajna (
Ten Kings Battle).[31]: I 39 It is suggested that they lived to the north-east of the
Kambojas (possible ancestors of the
Nuristani that live in
Nurestan) because in the 7th century CE, the land was mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim
Xuanzang.[31]: I 39 It is possible that they are connected with the
Alans or Alani people who are a nomadic Iranian tribe. Alans is a dialectal cognate of Aryāna, itself derived from the root arya-, meaning 'Aryan', the common self-designation of Indo-Iranian peoples. It probably came in use in the early history of the Alans for the purpose of uniting a heterogeneous group of tribes through the invocation of a common, ancestral 'Aryan' origin. The historian S. Talageri identifies them with the
Greeks (Hellenes).[50] However, the dating of the Rigveda and the hypothetical historic time for the
Dasarajna (
Battle of Ten Kings) occurred millennia before Hellenes were recorded in India.
Parsu (Parśu) – The Parsus have been connected with the Persians based on the evidence of an Assyrian inscription from 844 BC referring to the Persians as Parshu, and the Behistun Inscription of Darius I of Persia referring to Parsa as the home of the Persians. Pârsâ, is the Old Persian name for the Persis region Pars province as well as the root for the term Persian.
Shakya – a clan of
Iron Age India (1st millennium BCE), habitating an area in
Greater Magadha, on the foothills of the
Himalaya mountains. This is also the clan in which
Siddhartha Gautama (also known as
Buddha or
Shakyamuni – Sage of the Shakyas) (
c. 6th to 4th centuries BCE) was born into, whose teachings became the foundation of
Buddhism. According to Chandra Das, the name "Shakya" is derived from the Sanskrit word "śakya," which means "the one who is capable". Some scholars argue that the Shakya were of
Scythian (
Saka) origin (part of the
Iranian peoples) and assimilated into
Indo-Aryan peoples.[51][52]
Hypothetical Indo-Aryans
Mitanni Indo Aryans (
c. 1500–1300 BCE) – hypothetical ancient people of the northern
Middle East in the
Mitanni kingdom (part of today's far western Iran, northwestern Iraq, northern Syria and southeastern Turkey), that spoke the hypothetical
Mitanni Indo-Aryan (a language that was
superstrate of
Hurrian, a non-Indo-European language) and merged with the
Hurrians, many of them as a social elite, in the course of the
Indo-Aryan migration (towards West in this case).
^Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
^
abMallory, J.P.; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
ISBN978-1-884964-98-5.
^Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
^Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN978-0-691-05887-0
^Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 54.
ISBN9780199370184.
^
abWitzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan: (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 5: 3, 33.
CiteSeerX10.1.1.411.6137.
^Erdosy, George; Witzel, Michael (1995). Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Rgvedic history: poets, chieftains and politics. De Gruyter. p. 204.
^Witzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan: (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 5: 3, 33.
CiteSeerX10.1.1.411.6137.
^
abTalageri, S. G. (2005). The Rigveda as a source of Indo-European history. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 332.
^Witzel, M. (1999). Aryan and Non-Aryan names in Vedic India. Data for the linguistic situation, c. 1900–500 BC. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University (
Harvard Oriental Series: Opera Minora III).
^
abFrawley, D. (2001). The Rig Veda and the History of India: Rig Veda Bharata Itihasa. Aditya Prakashan.
^The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi 2000
^Jayarava Attwood, Possible Iranian Origins for the Śākyas and Aspects of Buddhism. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 2012 (3): 47–69
^Christopher I. Beckwith, "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia", 2016, pp 1–21
Further reading
Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press
ISBN978-0-691-14818-2
Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001. (Aditya Prakashan),
ISBN81-7742-039-9
Mallory, J.P.; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
ISBN978-1-884964-98-5
Misra, Sudama (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Vārāṇasī: Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana.
Pargiter, F.E. [1922] 1979. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. New Delhi: Cosmo.
Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis 2000,
ISBN81-7742-010-0 [6]; --Aryan Invasion Theory and Indian Nationalism. 1993.