| Amaranthus tuberculatus | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| Division: | |
| Class: | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | A. tuberculatus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Amaranthus tuberculatus | |
Amaranthus tuberculatus, commonly known as tall waterhemp or roughfruit amaranth, is a species of flowering plant. It is a summer annual broadleaf with a germination period that lasts several months [1]. Tall waterhemp has been reported as a weed in 40 of 50 U.S. States [2]
Morphology
A distingushing characteristic of tall waterhemp that sets it apart from similar members of the genus Amaranthus is the lack of hair on its stems and leaves. This characteristic gives the plant a bright, glossy appearance.
The leaves of tall waterhemp tend to be long and narrow.
The stem is typically erect and slender and can be up to three feet long. The color of the stem is green or red [3].
Tall waterhemp is a dioecious plant. The seedhead branches in the female are numerous, short, and smooth. The male seedhead branches are fewer, longer, and more slender than those of the female.
Has terminal spike inflorescence and very short bracts with simple to highly branched flowers.
Produces reddish to black seed, less than 1/32 inch in diameter [4].
Economic Importance
Tall waterhemp is considered a major weed of agricultural fields and other disturbed habitats [5]. The Southern Weed Science Society includes tall waterhemp on their list of weed species [6]. However, it is not listed on the federal noxious weed list or any state lists [7].
Georgraphic Distribution
Tall waterhemp is native to the United States and is believed to have originally had a range north of Missouri and Tenneseee to the Great Lakes [8]. It is now found in 40 states.
Habitat
Tall waterhemp predominatly grows in wet habitats, such as ponds, marshes, lakes, creeks, and other riparian zones. It also thrives along roadways and railroads as well as agricultural fields. [9]. It can grow in a variety of climates, as evidenced by its widespread range.
Growth and Development
Tall waterhemp is a summer annual that produces a large amount of very small seed. It is considered an
r-strategist. Emergence can span several months and often occurs later in the season than other annual weeds, allowing the weed to evade typical weed control strategies such as herbicide application and tillage
[10]. One study observed 80% emergence not occuring until ten weeks after the initial emergence
[11]. Extreme temperatures have little affect on seed viability. Germination occurs typically after soil temperature alternation, as this is required to break seed dormancy
[12]. Waterhemp has been found to germinate in a wide range of soil and temperature conditions
[13]. It has been found to germinate 17 years after seed set
[14].
While tall waterhemp cannot self-pollinate, due to having separate male and female plants, it does not require any vectors for pollination
[15]. This allows for wind pollination over large distances, generating a large amount of
genetic diversity. Another factor contributing to genetic diversity is the large amount of seed produced. Tall waterhemp in competition with
soybean has been reported to produce from between 300,000 to 5,000,000 seed per plant
[16]. Tall waterhemp also has a rapid growth rate, 50%-70% greater than other annual weeds
[17].
Interspecific Hybridization
Interspecific hybrids of tall waterhemp and Amaranthus hybridus have been observed in experimental fields [18] but have not been observed in agronomic fields [19].
Herbicide-Resistance
Tall waterhemp have been reported resistant to acetolactate synthase inhibiting (ALS) herbicides and the triazines, with some individual weeds being resistant to both herbicides groups. Resistance to Acifluorfen and other diphenyl ether herbcides has been reported [20] [21].
Control
Because of the long germination window for tall waterhemp, a single herbicide application is unlikely to be an effective control strategy. Michigan State University Extension recommends a preemergence application followed by one or postemergence applications [22]. See [23]for a list of herbicides that provide control in tall waterhemp.
According to Bob Hartzler of Iowa State University the most effective control of tall waterhemp is achieved by cultural practices that promote growth of the desired vegetation [24].
References
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ USDA, NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS Database ( http://plants.usda.gov, 1 November 2007). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://alfalfa.okstate.edu/weeds/pigweed/twaterhemp.htm
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ Southern Weed Science Society. 1998. Weeds of the United States and Canada. CD-ROM. Southern Weed Science Society. Champaign, Illinois
- ^ http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxComposite
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ Weekly emergence of waterhemp and giant ragweed in Ames, IA. 2000. Sandell, Buhler and Hartzler, Iowa State University
- ^ Leon RG, Knapp AD, Owen MDK (2004) Effect of temperature on the germination of common waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), giant foxtail (Setaria faberi), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Science: Vol. 52, No. 1 pp. 67–73
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ Burnside, O.C., R.G. Wilson, S.Weisberg and K.G. Hubbard. Seed longevity of 41 weed species buried 17 years in eastern and western Nebraska. Weed Sci. 44:74-86.
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ Hartzler, R.G., B.A. Battles and D. Refsell. 2004. Effect of common waterhemp emergence date on growth and fecundity in Glycine max. Weed Sci. 52.
- ^ Horak, M.J. and T.M. Loughin. 2000. Growth analysis of four Amaranthus species. Weed Sci. 48:347-355.
- ^ Trucco, F., M.R. Jeschke, A.L. Rayburn, and P.J. Tranel. 2005. Amararthus hybrids can be pollinated frequently by A. tuberculatus under field conditions. Heredity 94:64–70.
- ^ Rayburn, A. Lane, McCloskey, R., Tatum, Tatiana C., Bollero, German A., Jeschke, Mark R., Tranel, Patrick J. Genome Size Analysis of Weedy Amaranthus Species. Crop Sci 2005 45: 2557-2562
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
| Amaranthus tuberculatus | |
|---|---|
|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| Division: | |
| Class: | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | A. tuberculatus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Amaranthus tuberculatus | |
Amaranthus tuberculatus, commonly known as tall waterhemp or roughfruit amaranth, is a species of flowering plant. It is a summer annual broadleaf with a germination period that lasts several months [1]. Tall waterhemp has been reported as a weed in 40 of 50 U.S. States [2]
Morphology
A distingushing characteristic of tall waterhemp that sets it apart from similar members of the genus Amaranthus is the lack of hair on its stems and leaves. This characteristic gives the plant a bright, glossy appearance.
The leaves of tall waterhemp tend to be long and narrow.
The stem is typically erect and slender and can be up to three feet long. The color of the stem is green or red [3].
Tall waterhemp is a dioecious plant. The seedhead branches in the female are numerous, short, and smooth. The male seedhead branches are fewer, longer, and more slender than those of the female.
Has terminal spike inflorescence and very short bracts with simple to highly branched flowers.
Produces reddish to black seed, less than 1/32 inch in diameter [4].
Economic Importance
Tall waterhemp is considered a major weed of agricultural fields and other disturbed habitats [5]. The Southern Weed Science Society includes tall waterhemp on their list of weed species [6]. However, it is not listed on the federal noxious weed list or any state lists [7].
Georgraphic Distribution
Tall waterhemp is native to the United States and is believed to have originally had a range north of Missouri and Tenneseee to the Great Lakes [8]. It is now found in 40 states.
Habitat
Tall waterhemp predominatly grows in wet habitats, such as ponds, marshes, lakes, creeks, and other riparian zones. It also thrives along roadways and railroads as well as agricultural fields. [9]. It can grow in a variety of climates, as evidenced by its widespread range.
Growth and Development
Tall waterhemp is a summer annual that produces a large amount of very small seed. It is considered an
r-strategist. Emergence can span several months and often occurs later in the season than other annual weeds, allowing the weed to evade typical weed control strategies such as herbicide application and tillage
[10]. One study observed 80% emergence not occuring until ten weeks after the initial emergence
[11]. Extreme temperatures have little affect on seed viability. Germination occurs typically after soil temperature alternation, as this is required to break seed dormancy
[12]. Waterhemp has been found to germinate in a wide range of soil and temperature conditions
[13]. It has been found to germinate 17 years after seed set
[14].
While tall waterhemp cannot self-pollinate, due to having separate male and female plants, it does not require any vectors for pollination
[15]. This allows for wind pollination over large distances, generating a large amount of
genetic diversity. Another factor contributing to genetic diversity is the large amount of seed produced. Tall waterhemp in competition with
soybean has been reported to produce from between 300,000 to 5,000,000 seed per plant
[16]. Tall waterhemp also has a rapid growth rate, 50%-70% greater than other annual weeds
[17].
Interspecific Hybridization
Interspecific hybrids of tall waterhemp and Amaranthus hybridus have been observed in experimental fields [18] but have not been observed in agronomic fields [19].
Herbicide-Resistance
Tall waterhemp have been reported resistant to acetolactate synthase inhibiting (ALS) herbicides and the triazines, with some individual weeds being resistant to both herbicides groups. Resistance to Acifluorfen and other diphenyl ether herbcides has been reported [20] [21].
Control
Because of the long germination window for tall waterhemp, a single herbicide application is unlikely to be an effective control strategy. Michigan State University Extension recommends a preemergence application followed by one or postemergence applications [22]. See [23]for a list of herbicides that provide control in tall waterhemp.
According to Bob Hartzler of Iowa State University the most effective control of tall waterhemp is achieved by cultural practices that promote growth of the desired vegetation [24].
References
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ USDA, NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS Database ( http://plants.usda.gov, 1 November 2007). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://alfalfa.okstate.edu/weeds/pigweed/twaterhemp.htm
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ Southern Weed Science Society. 1998. Weeds of the United States and Canada. CD-ROM. Southern Weed Science Society. Champaign, Illinois
- ^ http://plants.usda.gov/java/noxComposite
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415651
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ Weekly emergence of waterhemp and giant ragweed in Ames, IA. 2000. Sandell, Buhler and Hartzler, Iowa State University
- ^ Leon RG, Knapp AD, Owen MDK (2004) Effect of temperature on the germination of common waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), giant foxtail (Setaria faberi), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Science: Vol. 52, No. 1 pp. 67–73
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ Burnside, O.C., R.G. Wilson, S.Weisberg and K.G. Hubbard. Seed longevity of 41 weed species buried 17 years in eastern and western Nebraska. Weed Sci. 44:74-86.
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ Hartzler, R.G., B.A. Battles and D. Refsell. 2004. Effect of common waterhemp emergence date on growth and fecundity in Glycine max. Weed Sci. 52.
- ^ Horak, M.J. and T.M. Loughin. 2000. Growth analysis of four Amaranthus species. Weed Sci. 48:347-355.
- ^ Trucco, F., M.R. Jeschke, A.L. Rayburn, and P.J. Tranel. 2005. Amararthus hybrids can be pollinated frequently by A. tuberculatus under field conditions. Heredity 94:64–70.
- ^ Rayburn, A. Lane, McCloskey, R., Tatum, Tatiana C., Bollero, German A., Jeschke, Mark R., Tranel, Patrick J. Genome Size Analysis of Weedy Amaranthus Species. Crop Sci 2005 45: 2557-2562
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.pestid.msu.edu/profiles/TallWaterhemp.PDF
- ^ http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2003/symposium.shtml