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Despite being poorer overall, widowed and divorced women are on average 2.4kg heavier than women whose children’s fathers are present ^[1]. Widowed and divorced mothers as well as their daughters are reported to have substantially improved nutritional status which could be explained by them having greater access to the mother’s relatives ( matrilateral kin). Furthermore, proximity to a mother’s relatives can dramatically improve female children’s height for age, an indicator of good nutrition ^[2]. Women who return to their village of birth following marital dissolution are seen to benefit from extra matrilateral kin support. ^[3], which replaces the help of the missing husband. ^{[4] [5]}

In light of certain research, father absence can be disadvantageous ; certain evidence suggests stepfather presence does not reduce these disadvantages but in fact has a worsening effect to such issues. Ellis and Garber (2000) ^[6] and Ellis (2004) ^[7] suggest that stepfather presence is a better predictor of age of menarche than father absence, as it indicates lower quality paternal investment. In accordance with their findings, results show that girls raised in families with stepfathers exhibit a significantly earlier age of menarche than girls raised without stepfathers.

Relative to other groups, children with a constantly absent biological father but a stepfather present reported more frequent incidences of sexual intercourse, as well as an earlier onset of sexual behaviour. The mean age of children with their biological father absent or partially absent is approximately 15. A higher percentage of children with a constantly absent biological father reported having sexual intercourse than those in the partially absent group. Those with a stepfather present and those with a biological father always absent have the earliest first time experiences of sexual intercourse at on average 15.11 years old, whereas children without a stepfather or their biological father partially absent at the age of 15.38 experience their first encounter of sexual intercourse. Interestingly, the effect of having a partially absent biological father with stepfather absence and the effect both stepfather or biological father absence are the same. This study indicated that the presence of a stepfather is not compensating to the disadvantages of a biological father being absent. In some situations, it can cause an even bigger negative effect on children. ^[8]

Choice of effective treatment can be greatly varied and thus can be affected by many factors such as age, one’s ability to understand and deal with emotionally heavy material, family members involvement and the family and child’s priorities and needs ^[9] . In treating some of the negative effects that young girls may have, transference to a male therapist could help facilitate the opportunity to fill any emotional void created through father absence ^[10]. On the other hand, simply through the existence of a connection with a consistent and empathetic adult can provide some paternal function, regardless of gender ^[11].

The evolutionary approach asserts that father absence poses greater survival threat to sons than daughters. The biological approach attributes an individual’s likelihood of becoming him becoming an absent father to his genetic makeup. The psychodynamic approach places much importance to a present father on the child’s psychosexual development, despite generally inconclusive findings.

Father absence causes precocious puberty which increases the risk for teenage pregnancy, drinking, weight problems, sexual promiscuity, delinquency and cancer. Individual differences in pubertal timing may be modulated by both the environmental stress and genes of absent fathers.

Both mothers and children are seen to benefit in improvement through nutritional status and weight gain , seemingly demonstrating matrilateral support as an effective countermeasure against father absence. Stepfather presence however can have various detrimental effects on a child’s development with regards to puberty and menstruation. However seeking effective treatment for certain issues are dependent on various variables such as gender, age and personal needs.