Reindeer herding is when reindeer are herded by people in a limited area. Currently, reindeer are the only semi-domesticated animal which naturally belongs to the north. Reindeer herding is conducted in 9 countries; Norway, Finland, Sweden, Russia, Greenland, Alaska, Mongolia, China and Canada. A small herd is also maintained in Scotland.
Reindeer herding is conducted by individuals within some kind of cooperation, in forms such as families, districts, Sámi villages and sovkhozy (collective farms). A person who conducts reindeer herding is called a reindeer herder and approximately 100,000 people [1] are engaged in reindeer herding today around the circumpolar North.
Domestication of the reindeer does not lend itself to a simple explanation. There is no doubt that when a glacier retreated, a person followed the deer to the
North, using traps during the reindeer hunt.
[2] Modern archaeological data (rock art) suggest that domestication took place for the first time in the
Sayan Mountains between
Russia and
Mongolia, possibly 2-3 thousand years ago. According to another theory, the
Tungus (the ancestors of the present
Evenks and
Evens) independently domesticated the deer to the east of
Lake Baikal, and that reindeer herding originated in several places simultaneously. New findings increasingly put the date of domestication in the past. Reindeer herders have their own stories about how deer were domesticated, and about the relationship between wild and domestic deer. Whatever the debate, the very fact of domination of a deer led to a deer revolution that spread to the North, East, and West.
Dog sled (sleighs) with reindeers appeared here later by analogy with
dog sleds. The reindeer sleds made accessible areas of the
tundra and mountains, which even now can only be accessed by helicopter. The deer became the preferred vehicle on the expanses of
Eurasia.
The
Sámi people lived and worked in so-called
siiddat (reindeer herding groups) and reindeer where used for transport, milk and meat production. The
Siida is an ancient
Sámi community system within a designated area but it can also be defined as a working partnership where the members had individual rights to resources but helped each other with the management of the herds, or when hunting and fishing. The
Siida could consist of several families and their herds.
[4]
In the XIX and XX centuries, the traditional regions of
Saami
reindeer husbandry were divided by state borders between four states:
Norway,
Sweden,
Finland, and
Russia, which led to the destabilization of traditional reindeer husbandry practices. The state borders (in 1852 between
Norway and
Russia and in 1889 between
Sweden and
Finland, then owned by
Russia) have divided the reindeer
Siids.
In Scandinavia, about 6.5 thousands Saami are engaged in reindeer herding. In Norway and Sweden reindeer herding is characterized by large herds and a high degree of mechanization in all regions. The main product of reindeer herding is meat. However, skins, bones, and horns are important raw materials for making clothes and handicrafts. The involvement of young people in Norway and Sweden is hindered by legislative acts, and the lack of pastures and economic opportunities hamper the growth of the industry. The total number of reindeer in the Sami territory, with the exception of Russia, is privately owned, despite the fact that in many aspects the reindeer grazing is carried out collectively within the framework of the Siid.
In
Norway, there are six pasture territories, divided into 77 pasture areas. Only
ethnic
Saami have the right to reindeer husbandry in these areas. The reindeer is also
bred in southern
Norway in special concession areas. There, reindeer herding can also be practiced by
Norwegians. The reindeer graze on pastures with an area of approximately 146 thousand km2 in the provinces of
Finnmark,
Troms,
Nordland and
Trendelag, which is 40% of the mainland part of
Norway. Reindeer herding is managed by the
Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Administration, which is directly subordinate to the
Ministry of Agriculture of Norway. 2936 reindeer herders graze about 240 thousands deer, most of which are based in the province of
Finnmark.
According to the New Norwegian Reindeer Herding Act from 2007
[6], which regulates reindeer herding in
Norway, only those who have the right to a reindeer earmark can conduct reindeer husbandry in the
Sámi reindeer herding area. The right to a reindeer earmark requires that the person is a
Sámi and themselves, their parents or their grandparents have or had reindeer herding as their primary occupation.
The number of reindeer in
Norway, which are calculated after slaughtering reindeer has been drawn from the herd and before the
calving starts in may, fluctuates but is normally around 200 000. In Norway the reindeer numbers where 242 000 year 1990, 172 000 year 2000 and 241 000 year 2007. The most common reasons for these fluctuations include for example difficult climatic situations during several winters, increasing predation levels and poor pasture conditions.
[7]
The economic situation among reindeer herders in
Norway varies greatly, and today’s reindeer herders have to adapt to a wide variety of changes in the local, regional and national economy.
Reindeer herding is in terms of
taxation seen as a for-profit-business and for a reindeer
herder a common tax form is as a private
entrepreneur.
Today, the income of individual reindeer herders consists of the production of meat and raw materials such as skins, bones and horns. Additional sources of income include financial
subsidies and
compensation.
More than 50% of the costs in the industry in all the six areas of reindeer husbandry are related to the costs of running and maintaining mechanical equipment. Other high costs are related to other equipment and constructions.
[8]
Norway has since 1976 an agreement for reindeer husbandry which is called the “Reindeer Husbandry Agreement” (Norwegian: Reindriftsavtalen) and the main purpose of this is to preserve and develop reindeer husbandry based on its traditions. The agreement is a result of the Norwegian authorities’ views on reindeer herding and especially in relation to the support of the
Sámi culture and reindeer husbandry as a Sámi industry. The agreement reflects the political objectives and guidelines for reindeer husbandry.
The economic support for the years 2008/2009 amounted to 97 million NOK (10.1 M Euro). The financial support agreement includes activity supports, production bonuses, early slaughter supplements, calf slaughter payments, district support, special transition assistances and other payments.
[9]
In
Sweden, reindeer herding is practiced almost everywhere in the provinces of
Norrbotten,
Västerbotten, and
Jämtland, and in parts of the provinces of
Dalarna,
Västernorrland, and
Västernorrland. Reindeer pastures occupy about one-third of the territory of
Sweden.
Reindeer herding employs about 2500 people in
Sweden and the number of reindeer owners is a total of about 4 600 people. According to figures from 2005, 77 % of the country’s reindeer are owned by men.
[10]
The
Saami Village (in Swedish: the
Sameby), the structural unit of Sámi reindeer herding in
Sweden is divided into 51
Sámi reindeer herding villages which are both economic associations and geographical areas. Of those are 33 mountain and 10 forest
Sámi reindeer herding villages, and 8 concession
Sámi reindeer herding villages.
Contemporary reindeer husbandry is regulated by the Swedish reindeer husbandry act
[11]. According to this Act, the right to pursue reindeer herding only belongs to the
Sámi people. Only a person who is member of
Sámi reindeer herding village (
Sameby) has reindeer herding rights, in other words, may engage in reindeer husbandry in the
Sámi reindeer herding village to which she/he belongs. The only exception are concession villages, as they engage in reindeer husbandry with special permission from the County Administrative Board (in Swedish: Länsstyrelsen). The reindeer in the concession villages are owned by non
Sámi who also often own the land on which their reindeer graze. However, according to the reindeer husbandry Act the actual reindeer herding in a concession village must be conducted by a
Sámi. A reindeer owner in a concession village is not allowed to own more than 30 reindeer.
Concession villages exist only in the Torne Valley (the area on the Swedish on the river between
Sweden and
Finland).
Any reindeer has to be marked in the ears. A reindeer
earmark is a combination of one to many cuts in a reindeer’s ears which all together tells who the reindeer owner is. There are around 20 different approved cuts and in addition some 30 different combinations of cuts, and all those cuts and combinations have their own name. All reindeer in the
Sámi reindeer husbandry area shall be marked with the owner’s registered earmark by 31 October the same year as it is born. Before an earmark is implemented, it shall be approved by the earmark committee consisting of 3-5 members.
[12]
[13]
The number of reindeer in
Sweden fluctuates and during the 1900’s it has varied between 150,000 and 300,000 reindeer. In
Sweden the reindeer numbers where 253,000 year 1995, 221,000 year 2000 and 220,000 year 2007. The number of reindeer is counted after
slaughtered reindeer are withdrawn from the herd, and before the
calving starts, which is usually in may. For each
Sámi village, the maximum number of reindeer is decided by the County Administrative Board and the reindeer are counted each year by the reindeer herders themselves. On the individual level there are no maximum numbers for reindeer.
[14]
In
Finland, reindeer husbandry is practiced through a system of reindeer herding districts (in Finish: paliskunta – bálgosat). There are 56 districts in the reindeer husbandry area, 41 of which are in the
Province of Lapland and the remaining 15 are in the
Province of Oulu. 13 of the districts are so called
Sámi districts. The districts have strictly defined boundaries and they vary in size and number of reindeer.
The total area of reindeer husbandry in
Finland is approximately 33% of the surface of the country or about 122,936 km2
[15].
Reindeer herding in
Finland is not the prerogative of only ethnic
Saami, and any European Union citizen can engage in this type of farm. However, there are some conditions. The owner of the reindeer must be approved as a member by a reindeer herding district (Finish: paliskunta – renbeteslag – bálggos) and must permanently reside in the municipality to which the district belongs.
[16]
In total, there are about 5.6 thousand reindeer herders, most of whom are
Finns by nationality. The number of reindeer owners in
Finland is about 6,700.
[17]
In the beginning of the 20th century, the number of reindeer in
Finland was slightly over 100,000, and by 1959-1960 it had reached 140,000. During the 1970’s and 1980’s the number increased rapidly and reached over 250,000 reindeer at a maximum. The number of reindeer in
Finland was about 207,000 reindeer in 2004/2005. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (in Finish: Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö) regulates the number of reindeer by confirming the largest permissible numbers of living reindeer for each district. If the number of reindeer in a district exceeds the permitted level, the district must reduce the number of its reindeer to below the largest permissible number.
[18]
The largest permissible number of reindeer owned by a reindeer husbandry entrepreneur is 300 animals in the southern region of the reindeer husbandry area and 500 animals in the northern parts of the area.
[19]
In
Finland, reindeer husbandry at the individual level in terms of taxation is not treated as a
for-profit-business. Instead the reindeer herding district serves as a joint company for the reindeer owners. The district reports all
incomes and
costs within the district.
The vast majority of reindeer owners in
Finland practise reindeer husbandry as a supplement to agriculture and forestry. With regard to ethnic groups in
Finland, reindeer herding is from the economic point of view the most important for
Sámi people. The annual total revenue from reindeer husbandry in
Finland is estimated to be 60 million Euro whit the main product being meat. In 1999-2000, 93,000 reindeer were slaughtered, producing 2.1 million kilos of meat.
In addition to meat production, reindeer are also an extremely valuable resource for both summer and winter
tourism, as they are one of the main attractions for foreign tourists. Numbers from 1994-2000 show that 60-80% of reindeer husbandries income is from meat and about 10% from
compensation and 10% from aid. Only a small part comes from investments and other incomes. Numbers from the same years show that about 40% of the costs are related to herding activities, about 20% of costs to cross country traffic and the rest to damages caused by reindeer, administrative costs, office supplies and equipment and other utilities.
[20]
Reindeer breeding of the
Kola
Sami in the North-West of
Russia underwent a transformation in the XIX century with the arrival of 65
Komi reindeer
herders with their 600 deers. Reindeer
herding on the basis of semi-grazing was transformed into large-scale farms with a focus on productivity.
Collectivization in the 30s of the last century continued the further transformation of reindeer
husbandry as the size of the
herds increased. After the collapse of the
Soviet Union, reindeer husbandry was neglected. Reindeer husbandry is managed by two state farms and reindeer herders are hired workers of these farms, as in the
Soviet period.
In total, about 200 people are employed in Sami reindeer herding, still mostly
Komi by nationality. The remaining smaller part of reindeer herders are of the
Sami nationality,
Russians and
Ukrainians. Nowadays about 40-50 thousands of reindeers graze, this is less than half of the livestock that was grazed several decades ago. The share of private property in reindeer husbandry in the last decade has grown significantly.
Evenki are the most widespread of the
Tungus speaking people and can be found through the Lower
Yenisey valley through
Evenk Autonomous Okrug,
Irkutskaya and
Amurskaya Obl. to
Khabarovskiy Kray,
Buryatiya, North-West and South
Sakha (
Yakutia); also in
China and a small group in
Mongolia.
Their number is probably 50 thousand people
[21]
[22], most of whom live on the territory of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Being traditional nomads, they practice traditional types of economy, including reindeer herding and hunting.
Summer pastures are located on watersheds, while winter pastures are located in river basins. Hunting for wild deer has traditionally served as a by-catch for reindeer herders and was conducted seasonally by small groups of hunters in river crossings. Nomadism is of key importance to the Evenk culture. As a result of Soviet collectivization, the nomads forcibly became sedentary, which resulted in the disintegration of social structures and cultural identity. Deer are used for riding and transporting loads and are grazed without dogs. Modern vehicles only partially replaced deer. Evenk reindeer herding serves as a model for small-scale reindeer herding where deer are used as vehicles for milk production.
Traditionally, the number of deer varied from several heads to two or three dozen heads per family. Relations with the deer were close, deer saddled and milked, and the process of domestication continued through the use of millennial techniques, such as the use of salt, smoke to control insects and protection from
predators.
Evenk reindeer herding is closely connected with the
Sayan reindeer herding (
Todzhans,
Tofalars,
Czataans). On the raindeer
Evenks traveled along the whole Eastern
Siberia, spread out on 7 million square kilometers. As a result, there are about 20 clearly defined
Evenk subgroups, and reindeer herding has become an important indicator of the
Evenk identity.
The industrial development of certain parts of
Siberia had catastrophic consequences for some groups of
Evenks, and recently this process is gaining momentum due to accelerated extraction of
minerals, construction of pipelines and development of the
timber industry complex. The fate of the
Evenk reindeer herders in the Upper
Bureisk district of the
Amur Oblast serves as a reminder that reindeer husbandry in these regions may come to an end.
Reindeer husbandry in China is limited to the territory of one small area in the north-east of the country between 50° and 53° N. Currently 234
Evenks are employed in reindeer husbandry, distributed among 20 families, and about 1,000 deer grazing. These
Evenks reindeer herders are what remained of the once large group of
Evenks hunters who freely crossed the Russian-Chinese border. When military operations broke out on the Soviet-Chinese border in the 1960s, this group found itself in the territory of China. Intending to put an end to free migration across the state border, the
Chinese authorities moved this people deep into the country: first to
Alonsohn, then to
Monkey, and finally to the settlement of
Alougoya. The deer were collectivized in 1967. The state bought out all deer from the reindeer herders and began to pay the shepherds wages despite the fact that the deer continued to be under the care of their former owners and shepherds. Grazing of these deer is comparable to that of other peoples in the south of Siberia: The small number of reindeer that was owned by the families was milked and used as a means of transport. Deer were highly valued and were not slaughtered for meat.
Improving the health status and diversity of the
herd, as well as the economic situation of reindeer herders, are the top priorities for this region. The production of
antlers for marketing on the
Asian
pharmacological market is the main source of income, and attempts are being made to develop small-scale tourism in the tribal communities located near the largest city in the region,
Genk.
Besides Sámi and Evenks reindeer herders there are also Nenets, Chukchi, Eveny, Eveny, Koryak, Khanty, Mansi, Dolgany, Dukha, Enets, Yukagir, Tozha Tuvans, Tofalar, Selkup, Nganasan, Scotland and Greenland herders, Chuvany, Inupiaq Eskimo, Inuvialuit / Sámi, Uil’ta, Kets, Negidal and Soyot.
Reindeer herding is when reindeer are herded by people in a limited area. Currently, reindeer are the only semi-domesticated animal which naturally belongs to the north. Reindeer herding is conducted in 9 countries; Norway, Finland, Sweden, Russia, Greenland, Alaska, Mongolia, China and Canada. A small herd is also maintained in Scotland.
Reindeer herding is conducted by individuals within some kind of cooperation, in forms such as families, districts, Sámi villages and sovkhozy (collective farms). A person who conducts reindeer herding is called a reindeer herder and approximately 100,000 people [1] are engaged in reindeer herding today around the circumpolar North.
Domestication of the reindeer does not lend itself to a simple explanation. There is no doubt that when a glacier retreated, a person followed the deer to the
North, using traps during the reindeer hunt.
[2] Modern archaeological data (rock art) suggest that domestication took place for the first time in the
Sayan Mountains between
Russia and
Mongolia, possibly 2-3 thousand years ago. According to another theory, the
Tungus (the ancestors of the present
Evenks and
Evens) independently domesticated the deer to the east of
Lake Baikal, and that reindeer herding originated in several places simultaneously. New findings increasingly put the date of domestication in the past. Reindeer herders have their own stories about how deer were domesticated, and about the relationship between wild and domestic deer. Whatever the debate, the very fact of domination of a deer led to a deer revolution that spread to the North, East, and West.
Dog sled (sleighs) with reindeers appeared here later by analogy with
dog sleds. The reindeer sleds made accessible areas of the
tundra and mountains, which even now can only be accessed by helicopter. The deer became the preferred vehicle on the expanses of
Eurasia.
The
Sámi people lived and worked in so-called
siiddat (reindeer herding groups) and reindeer where used for transport, milk and meat production. The
Siida is an ancient
Sámi community system within a designated area but it can also be defined as a working partnership where the members had individual rights to resources but helped each other with the management of the herds, or when hunting and fishing. The
Siida could consist of several families and their herds.
[4]
In the XIX and XX centuries, the traditional regions of
Saami
reindeer husbandry were divided by state borders between four states:
Norway,
Sweden,
Finland, and
Russia, which led to the destabilization of traditional reindeer husbandry practices. The state borders (in 1852 between
Norway and
Russia and in 1889 between
Sweden and
Finland, then owned by
Russia) have divided the reindeer
Siids.
In Scandinavia, about 6.5 thousands Saami are engaged in reindeer herding. In Norway and Sweden reindeer herding is characterized by large herds and a high degree of mechanization in all regions. The main product of reindeer herding is meat. However, skins, bones, and horns are important raw materials for making clothes and handicrafts. The involvement of young people in Norway and Sweden is hindered by legislative acts, and the lack of pastures and economic opportunities hamper the growth of the industry. The total number of reindeer in the Sami territory, with the exception of Russia, is privately owned, despite the fact that in many aspects the reindeer grazing is carried out collectively within the framework of the Siid.
In
Norway, there are six pasture territories, divided into 77 pasture areas. Only
ethnic
Saami have the right to reindeer husbandry in these areas. The reindeer is also
bred in southern
Norway in special concession areas. There, reindeer herding can also be practiced by
Norwegians. The reindeer graze on pastures with an area of approximately 146 thousand km2 in the provinces of
Finnmark,
Troms,
Nordland and
Trendelag, which is 40% of the mainland part of
Norway. Reindeer herding is managed by the
Norwegian Reindeer Husbandry Administration, which is directly subordinate to the
Ministry of Agriculture of Norway. 2936 reindeer herders graze about 240 thousands deer, most of which are based in the province of
Finnmark.
According to the New Norwegian Reindeer Herding Act from 2007
[6], which regulates reindeer herding in
Norway, only those who have the right to a reindeer earmark can conduct reindeer husbandry in the
Sámi reindeer herding area. The right to a reindeer earmark requires that the person is a
Sámi and themselves, their parents or their grandparents have or had reindeer herding as their primary occupation.
The number of reindeer in
Norway, which are calculated after slaughtering reindeer has been drawn from the herd and before the
calving starts in may, fluctuates but is normally around 200 000. In Norway the reindeer numbers where 242 000 year 1990, 172 000 year 2000 and 241 000 year 2007. The most common reasons for these fluctuations include for example difficult climatic situations during several winters, increasing predation levels and poor pasture conditions.
[7]
The economic situation among reindeer herders in
Norway varies greatly, and today’s reindeer herders have to adapt to a wide variety of changes in the local, regional and national economy.
Reindeer herding is in terms of
taxation seen as a for-profit-business and for a reindeer
herder a common tax form is as a private
entrepreneur.
Today, the income of individual reindeer herders consists of the production of meat and raw materials such as skins, bones and horns. Additional sources of income include financial
subsidies and
compensation.
More than 50% of the costs in the industry in all the six areas of reindeer husbandry are related to the costs of running and maintaining mechanical equipment. Other high costs are related to other equipment and constructions.
[8]
Norway has since 1976 an agreement for reindeer husbandry which is called the “Reindeer Husbandry Agreement” (Norwegian: Reindriftsavtalen) and the main purpose of this is to preserve and develop reindeer husbandry based on its traditions. The agreement is a result of the Norwegian authorities’ views on reindeer herding and especially in relation to the support of the
Sámi culture and reindeer husbandry as a Sámi industry. The agreement reflects the political objectives and guidelines for reindeer husbandry.
The economic support for the years 2008/2009 amounted to 97 million NOK (10.1 M Euro). The financial support agreement includes activity supports, production bonuses, early slaughter supplements, calf slaughter payments, district support, special transition assistances and other payments.
[9]
In
Sweden, reindeer herding is practiced almost everywhere in the provinces of
Norrbotten,
Västerbotten, and
Jämtland, and in parts of the provinces of
Dalarna,
Västernorrland, and
Västernorrland. Reindeer pastures occupy about one-third of the territory of
Sweden.
Reindeer herding employs about 2500 people in
Sweden and the number of reindeer owners is a total of about 4 600 people. According to figures from 2005, 77 % of the country’s reindeer are owned by men.
[10]
The
Saami Village (in Swedish: the
Sameby), the structural unit of Sámi reindeer herding in
Sweden is divided into 51
Sámi reindeer herding villages which are both economic associations and geographical areas. Of those are 33 mountain and 10 forest
Sámi reindeer herding villages, and 8 concession
Sámi reindeer herding villages.
Contemporary reindeer husbandry is regulated by the Swedish reindeer husbandry act
[11]. According to this Act, the right to pursue reindeer herding only belongs to the
Sámi people. Only a person who is member of
Sámi reindeer herding village (
Sameby) has reindeer herding rights, in other words, may engage in reindeer husbandry in the
Sámi reindeer herding village to which she/he belongs. The only exception are concession villages, as they engage in reindeer husbandry with special permission from the County Administrative Board (in Swedish: Länsstyrelsen). The reindeer in the concession villages are owned by non
Sámi who also often own the land on which their reindeer graze. However, according to the reindeer husbandry Act the actual reindeer herding in a concession village must be conducted by a
Sámi. A reindeer owner in a concession village is not allowed to own more than 30 reindeer.
Concession villages exist only in the Torne Valley (the area on the Swedish on the river between
Sweden and
Finland).
Any reindeer has to be marked in the ears. A reindeer
earmark is a combination of one to many cuts in a reindeer’s ears which all together tells who the reindeer owner is. There are around 20 different approved cuts and in addition some 30 different combinations of cuts, and all those cuts and combinations have their own name. All reindeer in the
Sámi reindeer husbandry area shall be marked with the owner’s registered earmark by 31 October the same year as it is born. Before an earmark is implemented, it shall be approved by the earmark committee consisting of 3-5 members.
[12]
[13]
The number of reindeer in
Sweden fluctuates and during the 1900’s it has varied between 150,000 and 300,000 reindeer. In
Sweden the reindeer numbers where 253,000 year 1995, 221,000 year 2000 and 220,000 year 2007. The number of reindeer is counted after
slaughtered reindeer are withdrawn from the herd, and before the
calving starts, which is usually in may. For each
Sámi village, the maximum number of reindeer is decided by the County Administrative Board and the reindeer are counted each year by the reindeer herders themselves. On the individual level there are no maximum numbers for reindeer.
[14]
In
Finland, reindeer husbandry is practiced through a system of reindeer herding districts (in Finish: paliskunta – bálgosat). There are 56 districts in the reindeer husbandry area, 41 of which are in the
Province of Lapland and the remaining 15 are in the
Province of Oulu. 13 of the districts are so called
Sámi districts. The districts have strictly defined boundaries and they vary in size and number of reindeer.
The total area of reindeer husbandry in
Finland is approximately 33% of the surface of the country or about 122,936 km2
[15].
Reindeer herding in
Finland is not the prerogative of only ethnic
Saami, and any European Union citizen can engage in this type of farm. However, there are some conditions. The owner of the reindeer must be approved as a member by a reindeer herding district (Finish: paliskunta – renbeteslag – bálggos) and must permanently reside in the municipality to which the district belongs.
[16]
In total, there are about 5.6 thousand reindeer herders, most of whom are
Finns by nationality. The number of reindeer owners in
Finland is about 6,700.
[17]
In the beginning of the 20th century, the number of reindeer in
Finland was slightly over 100,000, and by 1959-1960 it had reached 140,000. During the 1970’s and 1980’s the number increased rapidly and reached over 250,000 reindeer at a maximum. The number of reindeer in
Finland was about 207,000 reindeer in 2004/2005. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (in Finish: Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö) regulates the number of reindeer by confirming the largest permissible numbers of living reindeer for each district. If the number of reindeer in a district exceeds the permitted level, the district must reduce the number of its reindeer to below the largest permissible number.
[18]
The largest permissible number of reindeer owned by a reindeer husbandry entrepreneur is 300 animals in the southern region of the reindeer husbandry area and 500 animals in the northern parts of the area.
[19]
In
Finland, reindeer husbandry at the individual level in terms of taxation is not treated as a
for-profit-business. Instead the reindeer herding district serves as a joint company for the reindeer owners. The district reports all
incomes and
costs within the district.
The vast majority of reindeer owners in
Finland practise reindeer husbandry as a supplement to agriculture and forestry. With regard to ethnic groups in
Finland, reindeer herding is from the economic point of view the most important for
Sámi people. The annual total revenue from reindeer husbandry in
Finland is estimated to be 60 million Euro whit the main product being meat. In 1999-2000, 93,000 reindeer were slaughtered, producing 2.1 million kilos of meat.
In addition to meat production, reindeer are also an extremely valuable resource for both summer and winter
tourism, as they are one of the main attractions for foreign tourists. Numbers from 1994-2000 show that 60-80% of reindeer husbandries income is from meat and about 10% from
compensation and 10% from aid. Only a small part comes from investments and other incomes. Numbers from the same years show that about 40% of the costs are related to herding activities, about 20% of costs to cross country traffic and the rest to damages caused by reindeer, administrative costs, office supplies and equipment and other utilities.
[20]
Reindeer breeding of the
Kola
Sami in the North-West of
Russia underwent a transformation in the XIX century with the arrival of 65
Komi reindeer
herders with their 600 deers. Reindeer
herding on the basis of semi-grazing was transformed into large-scale farms with a focus on productivity.
Collectivization in the 30s of the last century continued the further transformation of reindeer
husbandry as the size of the
herds increased. After the collapse of the
Soviet Union, reindeer husbandry was neglected. Reindeer husbandry is managed by two state farms and reindeer herders are hired workers of these farms, as in the
Soviet period.
In total, about 200 people are employed in Sami reindeer herding, still mostly
Komi by nationality. The remaining smaller part of reindeer herders are of the
Sami nationality,
Russians and
Ukrainians. Nowadays about 40-50 thousands of reindeers graze, this is less than half of the livestock that was grazed several decades ago. The share of private property in reindeer husbandry in the last decade has grown significantly.
Evenki are the most widespread of the
Tungus speaking people and can be found through the Lower
Yenisey valley through
Evenk Autonomous Okrug,
Irkutskaya and
Amurskaya Obl. to
Khabarovskiy Kray,
Buryatiya, North-West and South
Sakha (
Yakutia); also in
China and a small group in
Mongolia.
Their number is probably 50 thousand people
[21]
[22], most of whom live on the territory of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Being traditional nomads, they practice traditional types of economy, including reindeer herding and hunting.
Summer pastures are located on watersheds, while winter pastures are located in river basins. Hunting for wild deer has traditionally served as a by-catch for reindeer herders and was conducted seasonally by small groups of hunters in river crossings. Nomadism is of key importance to the Evenk culture. As a result of Soviet collectivization, the nomads forcibly became sedentary, which resulted in the disintegration of social structures and cultural identity. Deer are used for riding and transporting loads and are grazed without dogs. Modern vehicles only partially replaced deer. Evenk reindeer herding serves as a model for small-scale reindeer herding where deer are used as vehicles for milk production.
Traditionally, the number of deer varied from several heads to two or three dozen heads per family. Relations with the deer were close, deer saddled and milked, and the process of domestication continued through the use of millennial techniques, such as the use of salt, smoke to control insects and protection from
predators.
Evenk reindeer herding is closely connected with the
Sayan reindeer herding (
Todzhans,
Tofalars,
Czataans). On the raindeer
Evenks traveled along the whole Eastern
Siberia, spread out on 7 million square kilometers. As a result, there are about 20 clearly defined
Evenk subgroups, and reindeer herding has become an important indicator of the
Evenk identity.
The industrial development of certain parts of
Siberia had catastrophic consequences for some groups of
Evenks, and recently this process is gaining momentum due to accelerated extraction of
minerals, construction of pipelines and development of the
timber industry complex. The fate of the
Evenk reindeer herders in the Upper
Bureisk district of the
Amur Oblast serves as a reminder that reindeer husbandry in these regions may come to an end.
Reindeer husbandry in China is limited to the territory of one small area in the north-east of the country between 50° and 53° N. Currently 234
Evenks are employed in reindeer husbandry, distributed among 20 families, and about 1,000 deer grazing. These
Evenks reindeer herders are what remained of the once large group of
Evenks hunters who freely crossed the Russian-Chinese border. When military operations broke out on the Soviet-Chinese border in the 1960s, this group found itself in the territory of China. Intending to put an end to free migration across the state border, the
Chinese authorities moved this people deep into the country: first to
Alonsohn, then to
Monkey, and finally to the settlement of
Alougoya. The deer were collectivized in 1967. The state bought out all deer from the reindeer herders and began to pay the shepherds wages despite the fact that the deer continued to be under the care of their former owners and shepherds. Grazing of these deer is comparable to that of other peoples in the south of Siberia: The small number of reindeer that was owned by the families was milked and used as a means of transport. Deer were highly valued and were not slaughtered for meat.
Improving the health status and diversity of the
herd, as well as the economic situation of reindeer herders, are the top priorities for this region. The production of
antlers for marketing on the
Asian
pharmacological market is the main source of income, and attempts are being made to develop small-scale tourism in the tribal communities located near the largest city in the region,
Genk.
Besides Sámi and Evenks reindeer herders there are also Nenets, Chukchi, Eveny, Eveny, Koryak, Khanty, Mansi, Dolgany, Dukha, Enets, Yukagir, Tozha Tuvans, Tofalar, Selkup, Nganasan, Scotland and Greenland herders, Chuvany, Inupiaq Eskimo, Inuvialuit / Sámi, Uil’ta, Kets, Negidal and Soyot.