Jamshedpur, also known as Tatanagar is a major industrial city in Jharkhand, India. Situated on the confluence of Swarnarekha and Kharkai rivers, the city is located on the south-eastern part of the state and is near to the borders of Odisha and West Bengal. It's city limit population is 659,000 and 1.1 million people people live in the metropolitan area, making it 36th populated metropolitan area in the country. Spread across an area of 224 square kilometres (86 sq mi), it is largest and most populous city in the state and 3rd largest in eastern India after Kolkata and Patna.

The city is located in historical region of Singhbhum and nearby Dhalbhum, which were part of Manbhum region. Manbhum region came under prominence during the Mughal rule in eastern India. Outskirts of the city situated is Ichagarh, which was power of seat for the Patkum State who ruled since 16th century. After British conquest of the region, Singbhum district was established as part of Bihar and Orissa Province. At the end of 19th century Jamshedji Tata laid foundation of a steel plant and industrial city, which came out today as Jamshedpur. During the first and second world wars, Jamshedpur was an important industrial center for the Middle East and Arab regions. The post-independence period was marked by deadly communal riots and organized crimes. In the mid-1980s, the statehood movement gained momentum in the city. In 2000, Jamshedpur became part of new Jharkhand.

Today Jamshedpur stands as a leading commercial and industrial center for eastern India. It is an important site for steel, automobile, mining and electronics industries. Multinational giants such as Tata Steel and Tata Motors have base in the city. Jamshedpur is also home to numerous tourist spots such as parks, palaces, hills and religious places. City Mayors Foundation ranked it as one of the fastest growing global cities of the world.

Following independence of India, Jamshedpur became part of Bihar as capital of its Singhbhum district.

Jamshedpur is first planned industrial city of India, which is designed by European and American architecture professionals. The city and its metropolitan area occupies an area of 224 square kilometres (86 sq mi). ^[1] Central Jamshedpur is the oldest part, home to commercial localities of Sakchi, Bistupur, Golmuri, Northern Town and Baridih. Much of central region is dominated by Tata Steel and Jubilee Park. Important landmarks and government offices such as Keenan Stadium, J.R.D. Tata Sports Complex, District Magistrate and Post Office are located.

Jamshedpur is a leading commercial and industrial center for eastern and northern India. It's strategic location has been the factor for the development of iron and steel industry. Jamshedpur's close proximity to the Port of Kolkata and mineral rich zones of Noamundi and Dhanbad have contributed to its strategic location. Presence of major railway station and regional airport have further contributed to the city's development. Jamshedpur is often referred as "the economic capital" or 'the industrial capital" of Jharkhand. As of 2020, the city's population was 1.5 million and has GDP per capita of US$ 6,000. ^[2] The largest sector in ⁨Jamshedpur⁩ consists of ⁨Trade and transportation⁩ industries, accounting for ⁨25.03⁩% of ⁨employees⁩ in the city. ^[2] A prime example is ⁨Merchant Wholesalers, Durable Goods ⁩, providing ⁨11.69⁩% of the city’s employment. ^[2] Similarly, it shows a large presence in ⁨Manufacturing⁩ (⁨23.29⁩%), in industries such as ⁨Food Manufacturing⁩ (⁨4.15⁩%). ^[2] Jamshedpur has a strong industrial base focused on steel, automobile, mineral, chemical and electronic industries.

Known as " Steel City" or " Pittsburgh of India", Jamshedpur is leading center for steel production in India. The city is home to Asia's first steel plant opened in 1912 by industrial visionary Jamshedji Nussarwanji Tata and is operated by Tata Steel, formerly known as TISCO. It situated at the center of the city and covers a major part of central Jamshedpur. The plant have a capacity to process 12 million tones of steel per annum. It acts as a pivotal center for the industries of the city of Jamshedpur with a large number of them having direct or indirect linkages with it. Nippon Steel, Tayo Rolls, Tata BlueScope Steel, Sumitomo Group, Ryerson and Tata Tinplate also operates in the city, which have linkages to Tata Steel. Few steel factories are also located at outskirts of the city, around Seriakela and Kharsawan.

The city is a major hub for automotive industry. Tata Motors started its first plant in Jamshedpur. With the name of TELCO – Tata Engineering and Locomotives Company, initially it used to manufacture locomotives. In 1952, the company entered in a partnership with Daimler Benz to manufacture commercial vehicle and then began manufacturing commercial vehicles independently. Tata Hitachi opened its facility in Jamshedpur in 1961, which was later shifted to Kharagpur. Tata Daewoo also operates a production line within the Tata Motors factory. India's first hydrogen-based engine plant is operated by Tata Cummins, which is located in Jamshedpur. ^[3] Before Soren's

Dhanbad has one of the oldest and largest markets in the region and is also a centre of large scale industries. It is known for its coal mines and industrial establishments; the city is surrounded by about 112 coal mines with a total production of 27.5 million tonnes and an annual income of ₹7 billion ($83 million) through coal business. The city serves as headquarters to Bharat Coking Coal and mining facilities of Central Coalfields. Steel Authority of India Limited, Indian Iron & Steel Co and Tata Steel operates coal mines around Dhanbad, for their production facilities located in Bokaro, Asansol and Jamshedpur A number of coal washeries and coking units are found.

The industrial neighborhood of Sindri is home to Fertilizer Corporation of India. Established in 1961, it was India's first fertilizer plant. Due to financial loses, the company shut down its operation in 2002. Efforts were made to revive the plant, and in 2015, the Indian government announced plans to revive Sindri and other closed fertilizer units across the country. Following the formation of HURL, the urea plant was commissioned in 2022 and commercial production began in 2023. Currently the plant process 1.27 million MT. ^[4] Tata Steel operates a tube-manufacturing plant in the city, in collaboration with a local corporation. ^[5] Two ethanol plants are under-construction in Dhanbad. ^[6]

Hebron ( /ˈhiːbrən, ˈhɛbrən/; Arabic: الخليل al-Khalīl, pronunciation ^ⓘ or خَلِيل الرَّحْمَن Khalīl al-Raḥmān; Hebrew: חֶבְרוֹן Ḥevrōn, pronunciation ^ⓘ) is a city in the Palestinian territory of the West Bank. It is located 30km (19mi) south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies 930 metres (3,050 ft) above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East Jerusalem), and the third-largest in the Palestinian territories (after East Jerusalem and Gaza), it had a population of 201,063 Palestinians in 2017, and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its Old City. Since 1997, the city has been under the civil control of the Palestinian Authority, though the Israeli military maintains a presence in an area compromising of 20% of the city known as H2. Hebron includes the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions all designate as the burial site of three key patriarchal– matriarchal couples. The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism as well as in Islam.

Hebron is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant. According to the Bible, Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah. Biblical tradition holds that the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, were buried in the cave. Hebron is also recognized in the Bible as the place where David was anointed king of Israel. Following the Babylonian captivity, the Edomites settled in Hebron. During the first century BCE, Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs, which later became a church, and then a mosque. With the exception of a brief Crusader control, successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire's dissolution following World War I, when the city became part of British Mandate. A massacre in 1929 and the Arab uprising of 1936–39 led to the emigration of the Jewish community from Hebron. The 1948 war saw the entire West Bank, including Hebron, occupied and annexed by Jordan, and since the 1967 Six-Day War, the city has been under Israeli military occupation. Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was reestablished at the city. Since the 1997 Hebron Protocol, most of Hebron has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority.

The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank. The Hebron Protocol of 1997 divided the city into two sectors: H1, controlled by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2, roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian National Authority and Israel via the Israeli military administration of the West Bank (COGAT). The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron. Today, Hebron is the capital of the Hebron Governorate, the largest governorate of the State of Palestine, with an estimated population of around 782,227 as of 2021. It is a busy hub of West Bank trade, generating roughly a third of the area's gross domestic product, largely due to the sale of limestone from quarries in its area. It has a local reputation for its grapes, figs, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. The old city of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. The city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.

Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until the World War I when the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–16). British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918. Iraq was carved out of the Ottoman Empire by the French and British as agreed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Sykes-Picot agreement was a secret agreement between UK and France with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective sphere of influence and control in West Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during the World War I. The Agreement was concluded on 16 May 1916. On 11 November 1920 it became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name " State of Iraq".

Britain imposed a Hāshimite monarchy on Iraq and defined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the politics of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds and the Assyrians to the north. During the British occupation, the Shi'ites and Kurds fought for independence. Faced with spiraling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority. In the Mandate period and beyond, the British supported the traditional, Sunni leadership (such as the tribal shaykhs) over the growing, urban-based nationalist movement. The Land Settlement Act gave the tribal shaykhs the right to register the communal tribal lands in their own name. The Tribal Disputes Regulations gave them judiciary rights, whereas the Peasants' Rights and Duties Act of 1933 severely reduced the tenants', forbidding them to leave the land unless all their debts to the landlord had been settled. The British resorted to military force when their interests were threatened, as in the 1941 Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup. This coup led to a British invasion of Iraq using forces from the British Indian Army and the Arab Legion from Jordan.

During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112,000 were combat troops. During World War I the British and French divided Western Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Treaty of Lausanne, led to the advent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Palestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen. At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state. For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices. ^specify

Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his under age son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and an armistice was signed 31 May. A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II.

The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until the February 1963 coup, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Salam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, assumed the presidency. In 1968, Abdul Rahman Arif was overthrown by the Arab Socialist Baath Party. Ahmed Hasan Al-Bakir became the first Baath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein al Tikriti, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979. In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President after knocking down his close friend and the leader of his party (Ahmed Hasan Al-Bakr) and killing and arresting his leadership rivals. ^{citation needed}

Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbor Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Hussein's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathized with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government ^{citation needed} and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran–Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Hussein's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as the Halabja massacre, as punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. During that period at least 100,000 Kurds were killed. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and Western support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy of " dual containment" of Iraq and Iran. Between half a million and 1.5 million people from both sides died in the 1980–88 war. In 1977, the Iraqi government ordered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons.

Due to Iraq's inability to pay Kuwait more than US$14 billion that it had borrowed to finance the Iran–Iraq War and Kuwait's surge in petroleum production levels which kept revenues down, Iraq interpreted Kuwait's refusal to decrease its oil production as an act of aggression. In August 1990 Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This led to military intervention by United States-led coaltion forces in the First Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in Southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also launched attacks on Saudi Arabia and Israel, by scud missiles. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. The war resulted in the expulsion of many peoples from Kuwait. Shortly after it ended in 1991, Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against Saddam Hussein's regime, but these were repressed. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings the US, UK, France and Turkey, claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks. Iraq was ordered to destroy its chemical and biological weapons and the UN attempted to compel Saddam's government to disarm and agree to a ceasefire by imposing additional sanctions on the country in addition to the initial sanctions imposed following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi Government's failure to disarm and agree to a ceasefire resulted in sanctions which remained in place until 2003. The effects of the sanctions on the civilian population of Iraq have been disputed. Whereas it was widely believed that the sanctions caused a major rise in child mortality, recent research has shown that commonly cited data were fabricated and that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq". An oil for food program was established in 1996 to ease the effects of sanctions.

Today's Iraq was formed from the vilayets of the Ottoman Empire — Basra, Mosul and Baghdad.

Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until the World War I when the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–16). British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918. Iraq was carved out of the Ottoman Empire by the French and British as agreed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Sykes-Picot agreement was a secret agreement between UK and France with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective sphere of influence and control in West Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during the World War I. The Agreement was concluded on 16 May 1916. On 11 November 1920 it became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name " State of Iraq".

Britain imposed a Hāshimite monarchy on Iraq and defined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the politics of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds and the Assyrians to the north. During the British occupation, the Shi'ites and Kurds fought for independence. Faced with spiraling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority. In the Mandate period and beyond, the British supported the traditional, Sunni leadership (such as the tribal shaykhs) over the growing, urban-based nationalist movement. The Land Settlement Act gave the tribal shaykhs the right to register the communal tribal lands in their own name. The Tribal Disputes Regulations gave them judiciary rights, whereas the Peasants' Rights and Duties Act of 1933 severely reduced the tenants', forbidding them to leave the land unless all their debts to the landlord had been settled. The British resorted to military force when their interests were threatened, as in the 1941 Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup. This coup led to a British invasion of Iraq using forces from the British Indian Army and the Arab Legion from Jordan.

During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112,000 were combat troops. During World War I the British and French divided Western Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Treaty of Lausanne, led to the advent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Palestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen. At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state. For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices. ^specify

Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his under age son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and an armistice was signed 31 May. A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II.

The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until the February 1963 coup, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Salam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, assumed the presidency. In 1968, Abdul Rahman Arif was overthrown by the Arab Socialist Baath Party. Ahmed Hasan Al-Bakir became the first Baath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein al Tikriti, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979. In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President after knocking down his close friend and the leader of his party (Ahmed Hasan Al-Bakr) and killing and arresting his leadership rivals. ^{citation needed}

Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbor Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Saddam's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathized with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government ^{citation needed} and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran–Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Saddam's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as the Halabja massacre, as punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. During that period at least 100,000 Kurds were killed. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and Western support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy of " dual containment" of Iraq and Iran. Between half a million and 1.5 million people from both sides died in the 1980–88 war. In 1977, the Iraqi government ordered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons.

Due to Iraq's inability to pay Kuwait more than US$14 billion that it had borrowed to finance the Iran–Iraq War and Kuwait's surge in petroleum production levels which kept revenues down, Iraq interpreted Kuwait's refusal to decrease its oil production as an act of aggression. In August 1990 Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This led to military intervention by United States-led coaltion forces in the First Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched a 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in Southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also launched attacks on Saudi Arabia and Israel, by scud missiles. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. The war resulted in the expulsion of many peoples from Kuwait. Shortly after it ended in 1991, Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against Saddam Hussein's regime, but these were repressed. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings the US, UK, France and Turkey, claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks. Iraq was ordered to destroy its chemical and biological weapons and the UN attempted to compel Saddam's government to disarm and agree to a ceasefire by imposing additional sanctions on the country in addition to the initial sanctions imposed following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Iraqi Government's failure to disarm and agree to a ceasefire resulted in sanctions which remained in place until 2003. The effects of the sanctions on the civilian population of Iraq have been disputed. Whereas it was widely believed that the sanctions caused a major rise in child mortality, recent research has shown that commonly cited data were fabricated and that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq". An oil for food program was established in 1996 to ease the effects of sanctions.

Tensions between the United States and Iraq increased. George W. Bush led government began planning to overthrow Saddam's government in 2002. In 2003 the coalition force led by the United States invaded Iraq, under the pretext of Iraqi government's failure to abandon weapons of mass destruction's program and having links with terrorist groups. Within weeks of invasion, the coalition forces occupied much of Iraq and reached at center of Baghdad. Saddam's government lost control over the country and was now completely overthrown. Saddam and his family went in hide-out. His sons and grandson were killed in Mosul. In midst of regime change process, archaeological looting mostly from the National museum of Iraq were reported. American-backed Coalition Provisional Authority was established following

After the September 11 attacks, the U.S government under George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam's government in 2002. A joint resolution was passed by the United Nations, which authorized the U.S military to commence military operation against Iraq. In 2003 a multinational task force, under a coalition led by the United States invaded Iraq, under the pretext of Iraq's failure of abandoning its weapons of mass destruction. Within weeks of invasion, the coalition forces occupied much of Iraq and reached at the center of Baghdad. The Iraqi government lost its control over the country and shifted to guerrilla tactics to fight the coalition forces but failed. The Coalition Provisional Authority was established and as Iraqi Interim Government. Saddam and his family went in hide-out. His sons – Uday Hussein and Qussay Hussein, along with their son Mustafa were killed in Mosul. The coalition forces captured Saddam near his hometown Tikrit and was interrogated at Baghdad Airport. Later he was handed over the interim government, where his trial begin. Almost all major Ba'athist leaders went in hands of interim government.

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Muqtada al-Sadr formed Shia militia Mahdi Army, which began to fight the coalition forces in summer of 2003. Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse came in light soon, where many prisoners were abused and tortured.

After the September 11 attacks, then U.S government under George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam's government. A joint resolution was passed by the United Nations in 2002, which authorized the U.S military to commence military operations in Iraq. In 2003, a coalition led by the United States invaded Iraq under the pretext of the government failure to abandon the WMD program and sponsoring terrorist groups. The coalition forces occupied much of Iraq and soon reached to the center of Baghdad. The Ba'athist government lost its control over the country as Baghdad fell in hands to the coalition forces. The Iraqi Army shifted to guerilla tactics to fight the coalition forces. Saddam and his family went into hiding. Soon his sons – Uday and Qusay Hussein, and his son were killed in Mosul.

Saddam was captured at his village by the coalition forces and was transferred to the Interim government for his trial. Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse came in light in the mid-2003. Right after invasion, an insurgency

The Mahdi Army was formed by Muqtada al-Sadr in 2003, which began to fight coalition forces.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq was overthrown in a coup led by General Qasim, who established Iraq as a republic. Numerous people were brutally killed in the coup including King Faisal, Abd al-Ilah and Nuri al-Said. Known as the "Royal family massacre", members of the king's family were also killed in the process. Qasim's government was strongly anti-imperial, anti-monarchy and Iraqi nationalist, instead of Arab nationalism. He refused to join Gamal Abdul Nasser's political union – the United Arab Republic. Qasim's refusal angered Arab nationalists of Iraq, who led uprisings in Mosul and it was crushed by the government. The Ba'ath Party, an Arab nationalist party had representation in Qasim's cabinet and planned to overthrow his government. In 1963, a coup led by Ba'ath Party successfully executed and overthrow Qasim. But failed to gain control and was defeated by Abdul Salam Arif in another coup. Iraq participated with the Arab coalition against Israel in the six day war.

A coup d'état led by Ba'ath Party established one party state, led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as president. Saddam Hussein became vice-president, who had de facto control over the government and would dominate Iraq's political history for next decades. The government's socio-economic reforms turned Iraq into one of the most prosperous countries of the world. The First Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970. An agreement was signed between the Iraqi government and Mustafa Barzani following the end of the war, which granted autonomy to Kurds. Disputes over revenue sharing and government's Arabization program in Kirkuk resulted another rebellion by the Kurds, which was supported by Imperial Iran. Iran and Iraq were in a territorial dispute over Shatt al-Arab river. The 1975 agreement between Saddam and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi solved the dispute and Iran withdrew its support for Kurdish rebels, resulting their defeat by the government forces in the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War.

Saddam became president in 1979, following al-Bakr's resignation. In early 1979, the Islamic revolution overthrow Shah of Iran and turned Iran into an Islamic republic, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Iran attempted to export its Islamist political ideologies in Iraq, which have Shi'ite majority. Saddam feared that the Shia majority would overthrow his government. The Iranian Revolution also created fear among Sunni-led countries in the Middle East including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Saddam declared war on Iran, beginning with invasion in 1980. Iraqi army captured Khuzestan province, which is oil-rich region and have Arab population. Within two years Iran recaptured its occupied territory and for the next six years, Iran was on offensive. The war ended in a ceasefire in 1988, accepted by both sides. Around 500,000 people were killed in the war, with Iran suffering more loses. During the final stages of war, the government led a campaign in Kurdish region with intentions to eliminate Kurdish rebel forces. But the campaign ended resulting death of 50,000 to 100,000 Kurdish civilians.

Iraq faced economic challenges after the war. Following the end of 1980–1988 war, tensions increased between Kuwait and Iraq over oil prices and debt. After cross-border raids, Iraqi Army invaded and annexed Kuwait and initiated the Gulf War. The international community put sanctions on Iraq, which cause economic decline. The multinational alliance led by the United States threw Iraqi Forces out of Kuwait. Since then tensions between Iraq and the United States increased. Following the 1990–1991 war, Iraqi Shi'ites and Kurds led an uprising against Saddam's regime in northern Iraq. The uprisings was also fueled by the United States, whose policy towards Iraq was of regime change.

After the September 11 attacks, George W. Bush began planning overthrow of Saddam's government. A joint resolution was passed by the U.S congress in 2002, which authorized U.S Armed Force to launch military operations against Iraq. In 2003, the United States-led multinational coalition invaded Iraq, under pretext of Saddam's weapons of mass destruction program and his ties with terrorist groups. The coalition forces occupied much of Iraq and Saddam lost control over the country. The Coalition Provisional Authority was formed, followed by the Interim Government and De-Ba'athification policies were imposed. By the mid-2003, Saddam was captured and handed over to the interim government. An insurgency against the coalition forces began after overthrow of Saddam.

The ISIS began

Dhanbad is a leading commercial and industrial center in eastern India.

The world's first beach formed is known as "Singhbhum Cranton", which is near Jamshedpur. It was formed around 33,000 years ago.