The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. [1] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.
These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.
The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. [4]
One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̥, *n̥, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in).
PIE | PC | Example | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PIE | Proto-Celtic | Old Irish | Welsh | |||||
*p | *ɸ | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home (< *ɸatrijo-) | |
*t | *t | *tréyes | *trīs | three | trí | tri | ||
*k, ḱ | *k | *kh₂n̥-e- *ḱm̥tom |
*kan-o- *kantom |
sing hundred |
canaid cét /kʲeːd/ |
canu cant | ||
*kʷ | *kʷ | *kʷetwores | *kʷetwares | four | ceth(a)ir | pedwar | ||
*b | *b | *h₂ébōl | *abalom | apple | uball | afal | ||
*d | *d | *derḱ- | *derk- | see | derc | eye | drych | sight |
*g, ǵ | *g | *gleh₁i- *ǵen-u- |
*gli-na- *genu- |
to glue jaw |
glen(a)id giun, gin |
(he) sticks fast mouth |
glynu gên |
adhere jaw |
*gʷ | *b | *gʷenh₂ | *bena | woman | ben | O.W. ben | ||
*bʰ | *b | *bʰére- | *ber-o- | carry | berid | (he) carries | adfer cymeryd [12] |
to restore to take |
*dʰ | *d | *dʰeh₁i- | *di-na- | suck | denait | they suck | dynu, denu | |
*gʰ, ǵʰ | *g | *gʰh₁bʰ-(e)y- *ǵʰelH-ro- |
*gab-i- *galaro- |
take sickness |
ga(i)bid galar |
(he) takes sickness |
gafael galar |
hold grief |
*gʷʰ | *gʷ | *gʷʰn̥- | *gʷan-o- | kill, wound | gonaid | (he) wounds, slays | gwanu | stab |
*s | *s | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | ||
*m | *m | *méh₂tēr | *mātīr | mother | máthir | modryb | cf. aunt | |
*n | *n | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niad | nai | ||
*l | *l | *leyǵʰ- | *lig-e/o- | lick | ligid | (he) licks | llyo, llyfu | |
*r | *r | *h₃rēǵ-s | *rīgs | king | rí (gen. ríg) | rhi | ||
*j | *j | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos | young | óac | ieuanc | ||
*w | *w | *h₂wl̥h₁tí- | *wlatis | rulership | flaith | gwlad | country |
PIE | PC | Example | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PIE | PC | Old Irish | Welsh | ||||||
*a, *h₂e | *a | *h₂ep-h₃ōn- | *abū acc. *abonen |
river | aub | afon | |||
*ā, *eh₂ | *ā | *bʰréh₂tēr | *brātīr | brother | bráthir | brawd | |||
*e, h₁e | *e | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | |||
*H | between consonants [13] |
*a | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home | |
*ē, eh₁ | *ī | *weh₁-ro- | *wīros | true | fír | gwir | |||
*o, Ho, h₃e | *o | *Hroth₂o- | *rotos | wheel | roth | rhod | |||
*ō, eh₃ | in final syllable | *ū | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niæ | nai | ||
elsewhere | *ā | *deh₃no- | *dāno- | gift | dán | dawn | |||
*i | *i | *gʷih₃-tu- | *bitus | world | bith | byd | |||
*ī, iH | *ī | *rīmeh₂ | *rīmā | number | rím | rhif | |||
*ai, h₂ei, eh₂i | *ai | *kaikos *seh₂itlo- |
*kaikos *saitlo- |
blind age |
cáech — |
one-eyed — |
coeg hoedl |
empty, one-eyed age | |
*(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i | *ei | *deywos | *deiwos | god | día | duw | |||
*oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i | *oi | *oynos | *oinos | one | óen oín; áen aín |
un | |||
*u | before wa | o | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos > *jowankos |
young | óac | ieuanc | ||
elsewhere | *u | *srutos | *srutos | stream | sruth | ffrwd | |||
*ū, uH | *ū | *ruHneh₂ | *rūnā | mystery | rún | rhin | |||
*au, h₂eu, eh₂u | *au | *tausos | *tausos | silent | táue | silence (*tausijā) |
taw | ||
*(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u |
*ou | *tewteh₂ *gʷeh₃-u-s |
*toutā *bows |
people cow |
túath bó |
tud M.W. bu, biw | |||
*l̥ | before stops | *li | *pl̥th₂nós | *ɸlitanos | wide | lethan | llydan | ||
before other consonants |
*al | *kl̥h₁- | *kaljākos | rooster | cailech (Ogham gen. caliaci) |
ceiliog | |||
*r̥ | before stops | *ri | *bʰr̥ti- | *briti- | act of bearing; mind | breth, brith | bryd | ||
before other consonants |
*ar | *mr̥wos | *marwos | dead | marb | marw | |||
*m̥ | *am | *dm̥-nh₂- | *damna- | subdue | M.Ir. damnaid |
he ties, fastens, binds |
— | ||
*n̥ | *an | *h₃dn̥t- | *danton | tooth | dét /dʲeːd/ | dant | |||
*l̥H | before obstruents | *la | *h₂wlh₁tí- | *wlatis | lordship | flaith | gwlad | country | |
before sonorants | *lā | *pl̥Hmeh₂ | *ɸlāmā | hand | lám | llaw | |||
*r̥H | before obstruents | *ra | *mr̥Htom | *mratom | betrayal | mrath | brad | ||
before sonorants | *rā | *ǵr̥Hnom | *grānom | grain | grán | grawn | |||
*m̥H | (presumably with same distribution as above) |
*am/mā | *dm̥h₂-ye/o- | *damje/o- | to tame | daimid fodam- |
daimid - |
goddef | endure, suffer |
*n̥H | *an/nā | *ǵn̥h₃to- ? | *gnātos | known | gnáth | gnawd | customary |
The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. [1] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.
These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.
The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. [4]
One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̥, *n̥, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in).
PIE | PC | Example | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PIE | Proto-Celtic | Old Irish | Welsh | |||||
*p | *ɸ | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home (< *ɸatrijo-) | |
*t | *t | *tréyes | *trīs | three | trí | tri | ||
*k, ḱ | *k | *kh₂n̥-e- *ḱm̥tom |
*kan-o- *kantom |
sing hundred |
canaid cét /kʲeːd/ |
canu cant | ||
*kʷ | *kʷ | *kʷetwores | *kʷetwares | four | ceth(a)ir | pedwar | ||
*b | *b | *h₂ébōl | *abalom | apple | uball | afal | ||
*d | *d | *derḱ- | *derk- | see | derc | eye | drych | sight |
*g, ǵ | *g | *gleh₁i- *ǵen-u- |
*gli-na- *genu- |
to glue jaw |
glen(a)id giun, gin |
(he) sticks fast mouth |
glynu gên |
adhere jaw |
*gʷ | *b | *gʷenh₂ | *bena | woman | ben | O.W. ben | ||
*bʰ | *b | *bʰére- | *ber-o- | carry | berid | (he) carries | adfer cymeryd [12] |
to restore to take |
*dʰ | *d | *dʰeh₁i- | *di-na- | suck | denait | they suck | dynu, denu | |
*gʰ, ǵʰ | *g | *gʰh₁bʰ-(e)y- *ǵʰelH-ro- |
*gab-i- *galaro- |
take sickness |
ga(i)bid galar |
(he) takes sickness |
gafael galar |
hold grief |
*gʷʰ | *gʷ | *gʷʰn̥- | *gʷan-o- | kill, wound | gonaid | (he) wounds, slays | gwanu | stab |
*s | *s | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | ||
*m | *m | *méh₂tēr | *mātīr | mother | máthir | modryb | cf. aunt | |
*n | *n | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niad | nai | ||
*l | *l | *leyǵʰ- | *lig-e/o- | lick | ligid | (he) licks | llyo, llyfu | |
*r | *r | *h₃rēǵ-s | *rīgs | king | rí (gen. ríg) | rhi | ||
*j | *j | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos | young | óac | ieuanc | ||
*w | *w | *h₂wl̥h₁tí- | *wlatis | rulership | flaith | gwlad | country |
PIE | PC | Example | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PIE | PC | Old Irish | Welsh | ||||||
*a, *h₂e | *a | *h₂ep-h₃ōn- | *abū acc. *abonen |
river | aub | afon | |||
*ā, *eh₂ | *ā | *bʰréh₂tēr | *brātīr | brother | bráthir | brawd | |||
*e, h₁e | *e | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | |||
*H | between consonants [13] |
*a | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home | |
*ē, eh₁ | *ī | *weh₁-ro- | *wīros | true | fír | gwir | |||
*o, Ho, h₃e | *o | *Hroth₂o- | *rotos | wheel | roth | rhod | |||
*ō, eh₃ | in final syllable | *ū | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niæ | nai | ||
elsewhere | *ā | *deh₃no- | *dāno- | gift | dán | dawn | |||
*i | *i | *gʷih₃-tu- | *bitus | world | bith | byd | |||
*ī, iH | *ī | *rīmeh₂ | *rīmā | number | rím | rhif | |||
*ai, h₂ei, eh₂i | *ai | *kaikos *seh₂itlo- |
*kaikos *saitlo- |
blind age |
cáech — |
one-eyed — |
coeg hoedl |
empty, one-eyed age | |
*(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i | *ei | *deywos | *deiwos | god | día | duw | |||
*oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i | *oi | *oynos | *oinos | one | óen oín; áen aín |
un | |||
*u | before wa | o | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos > *jowankos |
young | óac | ieuanc | ||
elsewhere | *u | *srutos | *srutos | stream | sruth | ffrwd | |||
*ū, uH | *ū | *ruHneh₂ | *rūnā | mystery | rún | rhin | |||
*au, h₂eu, eh₂u | *au | *tausos | *tausos | silent | táue | silence (*tausijā) |
taw | ||
*(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u |
*ou | *tewteh₂ *gʷeh₃-u-s |
*toutā *bows |
people cow |
túath bó |
tud M.W. bu, biw | |||
*l̥ | before stops | *li | *pl̥th₂nós | *ɸlitanos | wide | lethan | llydan | ||
before other consonants |
*al | *kl̥h₁- | *kaljākos | rooster | cailech (Ogham gen. caliaci) |
ceiliog | |||
*r̥ | before stops | *ri | *bʰr̥ti- | *briti- | act of bearing; mind | breth, brith | bryd | ||
before other consonants |
*ar | *mr̥wos | *marwos | dead | marb | marw | |||
*m̥ | *am | *dm̥-nh₂- | *damna- | subdue | M.Ir. damnaid |
he ties, fastens, binds |
— | ||
*n̥ | *an | *h₃dn̥t- | *danton | tooth | dét /dʲeːd/ | dant | |||
*l̥H | before obstruents | *la | *h₂wlh₁tí- | *wlatis | lordship | flaith | gwlad | country | |
before sonorants | *lā | *pl̥Hmeh₂ | *ɸlāmā | hand | lám | llaw | |||
*r̥H | before obstruents | *ra | *mr̥Htom | *mratom | betrayal | mrath | brad | ||
before sonorants | *rā | *ǵr̥Hnom | *grānom | grain | grán | grawn | |||
*m̥H | (presumably with same distribution as above) |
*am/mā | *dm̥h₂-ye/o- | *damje/o- | to tame | daimid fodam- |
daimid - |
goddef | endure, suffer |
*n̥H | *an/nā | *ǵn̥h₃to- ? | *gnātos | known | gnáth | gnawd | customary |