Classical temple of Eshmun

At a point in time that cannot be determined, the Sidonians erected a porch in front of the north side of the Bodastart podium and enlarged the surface, which measured 60 m by 40.6 m, by an additional 115 m2. This elaborate construction measure only makes sense if a sacral building was erected on top of the extension. Beside the temple of the late 6th or early 5th century B.C., there was certainly an altar on the podium; from it or its successor of the Roman period, a staircase and a vault construction had survived until the twenties of the 20th century. Workings in the rock in front of the southwest corner of the podium suggest that a first propylon had already stood there in the early times of the sanctuary. Among the marble fragments that escaped both the stone diggers and the lime burners, two groups of components stand out that were created approximately at the same time, but typologically have nothing to do with each other. The first category consists of Attic-Ionic columns: Bases, both tori of which are decorated with wickerwork, column casings in relief, fragments of capitals and parts of a sima (Fig. 3) with an anthemion comparable to the column casings. In spite of only sparse photos and drawings, it was possible to reconstruct the Ionic capital (fig. 4) approximately in painstaking detail. On the basis of the measurements, two different systems of proportions can be identified within the Ionic column order. Based on the known upper and lower column diameters, the height of the longer columns was about 8 m, that of the shorter ones about 6.5 m; these can probably be assigned to the younger Propylon. The columns, which are about 8 m long, originate from a temple - probably an Amphiprostyle with four columns each at the front and the back (Fig. 5). Specific details of the capital and the vegetal decoration date the Sidonian temple to the decades between 380 and 360 B.C. and place it among the successors of the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis. In the western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire partial citations of the new temple of the Athena Polis at temples and grave buildings are a frequent, even if not finally interpreted phenomenon29. Three in their execution closely related bust-like cages can be added on the basis of Asia Minor parallels to male sphinxes30. Due to their monumental size they once stood as corner acrostics above the gable edge of the classical temple. The hairstyle of the Sidonian mixed creatures, which is even more strongly oriented towards Persian models, suggests that they were created shortly before their Carian counterparts, who were seated in the Zeus sanctuary of Labraunda on the andron donated by Maussolos of Halicarnassus around 360 BC. Due to the canon of proportions of Ionic buildings, the Ionic temple has measured in its base area unfeasibly 12m by 25m31. While one category of marble architectural elements is borrowed from the Greek architectural tradition, the second group points to Mesopotamia and Iran: the column base with a relief-decorated torus follows the Assyrian foliate wreath type (fig. 6), those ____ 76

The column base with a relief-decorated torus follows the Assyrian foliate wreath type (Fig. 6), that with a smooth torus the Syrian bulge type32. On one of these bases there were fluted columns, the lower end of which is formed by a broad horizontal bead, which is framed above and below by three narrow beads. A fragment of a column with a similar decoration was found in Sidon together with the Assyrian type base of the leaf wreath and the Achaemenid double protome capital and was transferred to the National Museum in Beirut via the Georges Ford Collection33. Only the cleaning of the fragments on the occasion of the reopening of the museum has shown that these components also consist of marble and thus were not already created in the 8th or 7th century B.C., but probably only in the 5th century B.C.. In the sanctuary of Esmun, too, the capital followed Persian models, but transposed them differently in that four bull pro toms protrude from a cuboid central block (plate 9A). The only almost completely preserved example was discovered by M. Dunand on a tower-like altar, where it had been placed as a venerable spolia. In addition to the capital with four protomes, single bull protomes were found, which had obviously been integrated as high relief into the walls of an interior room34: The supporting plate is not cut orthogonally, but has an irregular shape; furthermore, its sides show a fine anathyrosis, and its back side is not worked on sight, but only roughly pecked. The oriental architectural fragments can be combined into a cult building in the form of a distyle antenna temple: The two columns, which carried the architrave between the antennas, probably stood on bases of the Syrian bulge type. The columns of the cella rested on Assyrian leaf-crown bases and supported the four-protome capitals, which in turn supported the cedar ceiling. Also just below the ceiling, high reliefs of bull protomes were set into the cella walls - two per column axis. The oriental columns were approximately the same height as the Ionic temple columns, and the cella of the oriental temple was approximately the same as that of the Ionic temple. The dating of the oriental temple is difficult because most of the construction and decoration elements hardly change over the centuries. A clear separation between the torus and the profiled base characterizes the two types of oriental marble column bases. In all other types, the two parts are more strongly fused with each other; only in the concept of the Attic-Ionic base is the separation of the pedestal from the torus paralleled. The temporal development manifests itself even more clearly in the bull protomes. Their soft surface structure is only remotely reminiscent of the hard ornamentation of their Persian brothers35 , but is closer to that of the protomes on the propylon of Trysa36 and on the so-called inscription pillar of Xanthos37. The stylistic similarity leads to the assumption that the Sidonian capitals were built at approximately the same time as the ____ 79

both Lycian tombs were created in the early 4th century BC. The Sidonian capital with the protomes springing abruptly from the central block is clearly older than the early Hellenistic example from Aradus, in which acanthus leaves caschie the interfaces between the four bull protomes, which are unpleasant for Greek eyes38. In Trysa, Xanthos and partly also in Sidon, the bull protomes have been removed from their original, supporting function and have been attached to or in the building only as an optical representation of the Persian king. In the variously precise citations of the traditional Achaemenid ruler iconography - on the silver embossments of the city, on the satrap sarcophagus, on the Alexander sarcophagus, in the city building, from which the column with the double protome capital originates, and now in the Esmun sanctuary - the subordination of the Sidonian city prince to the distant Oberheim and at the same time a certain independence in dealing with its symbols39 are visually manifested. Early Lenistic capitals with four l?wengreifen protomes from the Esmun sanctuary are together with the already mentioned capital of Aradus, a double protome capital from Salamis on Cyprus, the strange bull protomes of the ? B?timent aux taureaux" on D?los and the l?wengreifen at the edge of the roof of the Maussoleum of Belevi are the last witnesses for the survival of Ach?menid symbols of rule after the fall of the Persian Great Empire. After the extinction of the generation of the Diadochi and following the stabilization of the power relations within the Hellenistic world of states, these oral symbols finally lost their optical significance40.

*3.3 Two temples or one temple of the early 4th century . Chr. on the Bodastart podium? *

In the attempt of a further interpretation of the Greek and the oriental building building substance of the early 4th century B.C. it is necessary to consider the following points:

- The surface of the podium was apparently so densely occupied with the old temple, an altar and possibly other cultic buildings, that for the construction of new facilities it was necessary to build an extension on the north side.

- The building elements of Ionic type and those of Oriental type were created approximately at the same time.

- The total height of the oriental column order corresponds approximately to that of the long Ionic columns, although in the case of the latter no similar obligatory systems of proportions can be shown as in the case of Greek column orders. These facts raise the question whether the Sidonians erected two marble temples with similar column heights and probably with approximately the same cella dimensions almost simultaneously on the apparently narrow surface of the Bodastart podium. An alternative would be to combine the two orders in a single building (Fig. 7): Behind the Ionic front a pronaos would have been hidden, between the antennas of which two columns with ____ 80

Syrian bulge bases would have stood (see the folding map behind the plate section in this booklet). booklet). The cella with the Assyrian foliate bases, the capitals with four protomes and the individual and the single bull protomes embedded in the walls would have added to the oriental aspect of the interior. the oriental aspect of the interior. In addition, it would have stood exactly above the time-honored cult monument whose stone mantle with the Phoenician royal inscriptions could still be viewed through a kind of corridor (Fig. 8). Not only in the prominent position on on a high substructure, but also in the deliberate positioning above the old cult center. center, the classical Esmun temple had its closest parallel in the temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Acropolis41.

The at first sight daring reconstruction proposal can be found in the Ph?nician culture of the middle 1st century B.C. and can be found in the Hellenistic and Roman culture. Hellenistic and Roman temple architecture of Phoenicia and Syria. continuation. Thus the reliefs of the so-called satrap sarcophagus from the royal necropolis of Ayya'ı. necropolis of Ayya'a follow the best Greek stylistic tradition, while the inside of the box is committed to the is committed to the traditional anthropoid form42. The same dichotomy characterizes also the counters found with the satrap sarcophagus. With the so-called wailing woman sar cophagus, which in its architectural design is similar to the Ionic order of the only slightly older Esmun-Tomb. older Esmun temple, the dichotomy is not manifested in the contrast between the exterior and the interior. between the "outside" and the "inside", but in the unusual combination of an architecturally chitectonically decorated box and the strangely high balustrade friezes of the cover, which which completely conceal the tiles of the roof structure43. The combination of local The combination of local and foreign elements within one and the same monument also characterizes the votive sculpture of the later 5th and the 4th century B.C.: While the so-called temple boys and temple girls typologically and stylistically follow Greek models faithfully, the votive inscriptions written on the corresponding bases in Phoenician script and language remain committed to the traditional supplication and blessing formulas44. If the reconstruction proposal of the classical Esmun temple presented here should prove to be correct, this building would be the oldest predecessor of the late Thellenistic and Roman temples of Syria and Phoenicia, whose peristasis as an "outer skin" imitates Western models, but whose "inner life" with cella and adyton preserves the Oriental tradition. The Bei temple in Palmyra and the temples of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Bacchus in Baalbek would then be late successors of the pioneering Sidonian Esmun temple45. ____ 82

^[1]

Tribune of Eshmun

Greek altar in antis; its position on a 1.04m high pedestal, however, prevented any kind of sacrificial However, any kind of sacrificial action at the altar table was prevented. The workings that damaged the figurines of the two of the two antennas at the back of the altar suggest, however, that the mo nument had only been in a secondary position at the place where M. DUNAND discovered it in 1972. The monumental marble throne found in the immediate vicinity could have been placed on the altar table at the back and on the platform adjoining it on the same level27. Where the "tribune" was originally placed, however, remains completely uncertain; it is possible that after its completion around 360/350 B.C. it actually served as an altar. The upper frieze shows a gathering of gods around the citharist Apollo. Together mother Leto sitting in his back and the twin sister Artemis he forms a group of three a group of three with lowered center, to which - on the right - corresponds a second one with Athena, Zeus and Hera. corresponds. Behind Hera follows the pair of goddesses Amphitrite with Poseidon, who is only preserved in outline. Behind Artemis are probably Ariadne and Dionysos. The narrow show a seated god-mother with her daughter - on the left probably Demeter and Per sephone, on the right probably Dione and Aphrodite. The end of the frieze is formed by two charioteers The original meaning of the chariot - Helios and Selene as the cosmic frame of the assembly of the gods was no longer understood by the commissioner or the artist who executed the work. Obviously Asclepius, the Greek equivalent of Esmun inscribed since early Hellenism, does not attend the divine concert - although the fourteen deities of the "tribunes" do not correspond at all to the number of divine twins forming in the Classical period and thus nothing would have stood in the way of a too sudden expansion of the group by the lord of the sanctuary and his daughter Hygieia. The theme of the lower frieze is the round dance of the nymphs to the sound of different instruments. In the left section, a satyr has mingled with the light-footed dancers, who - lost in themselves, alone or joined together in groups by interlocking hands - dance to the rhythm of the music. According to the Greek conception, the nymphs were at home in the natural ambience of rocks, water and rich vegetation that the sanctuary of Esmun offered. Whether or not the semi-circular area in front of the "tribune", bordered by a series of limestone blocks like an orchestra, was filled with cult orbs, remains a mystery. The sculpture's manifestation of Esmun's affinity with Dionysus suggests that the Phoenician god also possessed ecstatic powers for his therapeutic activities28. In addition, the two friezes of the "tribunes" illustrate the high degree of knowledge of the Greek pantheon and classical mythology, which the Sidonians obviously possessed already one generation before Alexander the Great. In contrast to the four royal sarcophagi, whose relief cycles were intended for the narrow circle of the court, the imagery of the "tribunes" was aimed at the broad class of pious Sidonians. ^[2]

The arch

The Roman arch of Tyre (also known as the Arch of Hadrian) is a monumental triumphal arch in the coastal city of Tyre, Lebanon. It is believed to be dedicated to the Roman Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138) who visited the city in 130 or in 131.

History

Description

The arch is built of sandstone and stands 21 meters (69 ft) tall. Pa

Jesuits in Lebanon

History

Historical background

The Jesuit Society was founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) ^[3]

The Jesuits and the offical induction of the Maronites to Catholicism

The Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church is part of Syriac Christianity; its history however, was not well known in the West prior to the Crusades. ^[4] The Maronite Church entered in communion with the pope and the worldwide Catholic Church in 1182, ^[5] yet some historians and scholars have suggested that the Maronites were once monothelites, believing that there was a divine but no human will in Christ. However, Maronites maintain that they were always orthodox Christians in line with the doctrine of Roman See. The Maronite Church had little contact with Rome before the Crusaders arrived, and it was not until the 16th century, through the work of the Jesuit John Eliano (1530–1589), a convert from Judaism fluent in Hebrew and Arabic, that the union between the Maronite Church and Rome normalized. ^[4] Pope Gregory XIII ( r. 1572–1585) dispatched Eliano to identify, and weed out unorthodox beliefs in the Maronite church, and to ensure that the Maroonites conformed to decisions made at the Council of Trent. Nuncio Eliano, relayed that the Maronite ritual texts still contained "heretical" teachings, that is after holding a council in 1580 attended by Maronite Patriarch Mikhail al-Rizzi (r.1567–1581), and the leaders of the church. Eliano's report fueled the suspicion about the "Catholicism" of the Maronites. ^[6] In 1854, Gregory XIII founded the Maronite College in Rome, a Pontifical catechetical school administrated by Jesuits, which became a training center for future Maronite ecclesiasts and leaders. ^[4]

In 1596, Pope Clement VIII (r.1592–1605) delegated Jerome Dandini (1554-1634), another Jesuit Father and philosophy professior in Perugia, to Qannoubine, the-then residence of the Maronite Patriarchs. The purpose of this mission was to present an updated faithful report on the beliefs of the Maronites, and to confirm their allegiance to the Apostolic See of Rome, and their adherence to the Catholicism of the Roman Church. Furthermore, the Pope sought to justifiy the large expenditures spent on the operation of the Maronite College in Rome. ^[6]

Dandini arrived to Tripoli on August 1596; he was accompanied by father Fabio Bruno, who had previously participated in Eliano's mission in 1580, but had to continue his journey alone to the Monastery of Qannoubine when Bruno fell ill. ^{[7] [8]} He arrived on 1 September 1596, and met on the following day with Patriarch Sarkis al-Ruzzi (r. 1581–1597). Dandini layed out the purpose of his mission, presenting the Pope's letter. The Patriarch expressed disappointment because he was expecting a formal papal bull confirming the beliefs of the Maronites and their reunion with the See of Rome. He also mentioned that a year prior, he had sent a delegate to the Pope requesting confirmation of his "ancient office as the Patriarch of Antioch" but had received no response. Dandini pacified he Patriarch, and asked that a Synod be held to ascertain the true beliefs of the Maronites, asking for bishops to be summoned to this council. The patriarch strongly opposed holding the council, which he saw was contrary to Maronite traditions, yet he conceded. After familiarizing with the beliefs of the Maronites and identifying any remaining "errors" in their texts, ^[a] Dandini informed the patriarch, bishops, and other members of the clergy and deacons, ^{[7] [8]} and called for a Synod which met on 20 September 1596, and agreed to the Papal nuncio's list of reforms. ^[10]

On 5 October 1596, while Dandini was on a pastoral visit in Mont Lebanon, Patriarch Sarkis died. His nephew Yusuf al-Ruzzi was elected as his successor. Dandini covened another Synod on 3 November 1596 because of the change of Patriarchs. ^{[11] [12]}

The Maronite Missal

The Maronite missal ( Qurbono) was first printed between 1592 and 1594 in Rome, although with fewer anaphoras.

^[13]

The purpose of the visit was to preprae for a Council of the Maronite Church. In 1623, in Smyrna, the French Consul Sanson brought French Jesuit Fathers. In 1625, sent by Pope Urban VIII, two Jesuits from Lyon, Gaspard Manilier and Jean Stella, reached Aleppo and opened a school in 1628 with 34 children. In 1714, this school will welcome 200 pupils. In 1643 in Damascus, Father Jerome Queyrot opened a school and then the Mission was persecuted. Another school was opened in 1645 in Saïda. In 1646, a Mission was created in Tripoli.  In 1656, Father Lambert founded the Mission of Antoura, on a piece of land offered by Sheikh Abounaoufal, honorary consul of France, and opened a school in 1657 which they had to hand over to the Lazarists in 1773, because of the suppression of the Company in France in 1762 and by Pope Clement XIV in 1775. The Company was re-established by the Bull Sollicitudo Omnium Ecclesiarum of August 7, 1814. ^[3]

Intermediate society- suppression (1773–1814)

After the 1814 restoration - new society

The Society of Jesus' activity in the Near East effectively began in 1627, after a first, failed attempt in 1625. ^[13]

At the time of its suppression in 1773, the Society had 21 members in te Near East. ^[13]

^[14]

WWI

The events of WWI were chronicled by Father Paul Matterns, Superior of the Mission of Syria during at the time. Unlike other society members, Matterns was not subjected to expulsion by the Ottomans who was an Alsacian, a region of the German Empire. The diarist recounts that the University of Saint Joseph was shut down by the Ottoman authorities on 8 November 1914, and that the fathers and seminarists were subjected to searches, intimidation, and arrests, and expuslion. Mattens writes "The religious each took a suitcase in which they put linen and some clothes and dispersed. Several of them, on the express invitation of President Daniel Bliss, withdrew to the American Faculty, others to a small convent given by Maronite monks, one to the Apostolic Delegation, and others to private houses. When the university was confiscated, the Ottomans closed only the main entrance gate and left it unguarded, leaving it to be pillaged. What has become of our church furniture, our museums...?" The locals were intimidated, empoverished, and left to starve, especially after the 2016 locust blight and the British sea blockade; the streets were described as replete with the dead or dying. ^[16]

WWI archive rediscovery

Im 2009 brothers Christian Tawtel and Pierre Wittouck S.J. where tasked by the Provincial father of the Society of Jesus, Father Assouad, to search the Order's archive for sketches of stained glass windows to aid in restoration works. The two fell upon a trove of nearly 5000 documents giving insight to the early years of the Order, particularly the events of WWI in Beirut and Lebanon. It took three years for the researchers to go through the archive which consited of diaries, letters, photographs, telegrams, identity cards, parrports, registers and letters. The archive also included medals and stamps among other items. ^[b] 360 items from the archive, dating back to the First World War were displayed in 2014 in the crypt of the Saint Joseph Church of the Jesuit Order in Beirut to commemorate the centenary of its outbreak. ^[16]

• Darmency, Delphine (28 May 2014). "Les Jésuites et la guerre de 1914–1918 au Liban. Pour ne jamais oublier" [The Jesuits and the 1914–1918 war in Lebanon. So to never forget]. Magazine Le Mensuel (in French) (2951). Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
• Verdeil, Chantal (2013). "Les jésuites de la " nouvelle " mission de Syrie et la société du Mont-Liban au XIXe siècle" [The Jesuits of the "new" mission in Syria and the society of Mount Lebanon in the 19th century]. Proche-Orient Chrétien (63): 1–20. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023 – via HAL Open Science.</ref>
• Lochon, Chrisitian (21 May 2021). "Recension de l'ouvrage "La mission Jésuite de Ghazir (1843-1965) de Khalil Karam et Charbel Matta" par Christian Lochon -" [Review of the book "La mission Jésuite de Ghazir (1843-1965) de Khalil Karam et Charbel Matta"]. Œuvre d'Orient (in French). Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
• Dandini, Girolamo (1685). Missione apostolica al patriarca, e maroniti del Monte Libano - Voyage Du Mont Liban, Traduit de L’Italien, Du R.P.Jerome Dandini Nonce en ce Pais-la. Où il est traité tant de la créance & des coûtumes des Maronites, que de plusieurs particularitez touchant les Turcs, & de quelques lieux considerables de l’Orient; Avec Des remarques sur la Theologie des Chrêtiens du Levant, & sur celle des Mahometans. Par R. S. P. Suivant la Copie Imprimé A Paris, Chez Louis Billaine, au Second Pilier de la Grand’ Salle du Palais, à la Palme & au grand Cesar. M. D. C. LXXXV [Voyage to Mont Liban, translated from the Italien, by R.P.Jerome Dandini Nuncio of that Land. Where it is treated as well of the creed & customs of the Maronites, as of several particularities concerning the Turks, & of some notable places of the East; With remarks on the Theology of the Christians of the Levant, & on that of the Mahometans. By R. S. P. Based on the Copy printed in Paris, at Louis Billaine, on the Second Pilier de la Grand' Salle du Palais, à la Palme & au grand Cesar. M. D. C. LXXXV.] (in French). Translated by Simon, Richard (2nd ed.). The Hague. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022.</ref>
• Moosa, Matti (2005). "24. The Mission of Jerome Dandini to the Maronites". The Maronites in History (2nd ed.). Gorgias Press. ISBN  9781463208134.
• Frazee, Charles A. (2006-06-22). Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923. Cambridge University Press. ISBN  978-0-521-02700-7.
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, ed. (13 December 2019). "Maronite church". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023. {{ cite encyclopedia}}: |editor-last= has generic name ( help)

...Byblos'''

Byblos is probably typical of that kind of coastal city to which Ashke- lon, Gaza, and even Tel Fara belonged, in which a basically Canaanite administration is veneered with a number of “luxury” functions inspired by Egyptian originals. It is a moot point as to whether such pretensions were suggested only by the presence of expatriot Egyptians to fill the roles.

— Redford, https://archive.org/details/egyptcanaanisrae1992redf/page/371/mode/1up?q="byblos+is+probably+typical+of+"

also only city mentioned in the vorageof sinhue [p.86]

...Gebalite shipbuilding'''

page fourty of above

... Baal as Hay'-atul'''

p.45

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Palace of Amir Younes Maan

https://www.living-lebanon.com/visit-lebanon/shouf-mountains/deir-el-qamar/sights-activities/563-deir-el-qamar-palaces

residents reflect their strategy of using space on different layers (from

the urban quarter to the Mediterranean) and acting on the various

spaces according to the currents and borders of geography and time.

Regional change and personal social experience came together in the

parlours of Fakhr al-Din and 'Ali Agha al-Hammud, places which can

still be visited today.

Dar sit tunshuq

https://archnet.org/sites/3733

Dar al-Sitt Tunshuq (Palace of Lady Tunshuq) is a palace in the city of Jerusalem.

History

Records from Jerusalemite qadi and Palestinian historian Mujir al-Din relate that the residence of Lady Tunshuq al-Muzaffariyya was built in 1388.

who lived in Jerusalem from around 1391.

. Her identity is uncertain, but there are many speculations regarding her origin. There is no direct evidence of her connection to any man by the title or the name al-Muzaffar. Her residence (built 1388) is unique in Jerusalem;

based on Haram documents, the hill upon which it was built was renamed after Lady Tunshuq, providing evidence of her affluence.

In 1552 the palace was incorporated into a large complex built by Ottoman sultan Sulayman the Magificent's wife, Khassaki Sultan.

After the death of Khassaki Sultan in 1558, the building housed a charitable foundation until it became the

the residence of the Ottoman governor of Jerusalem in the nineteenth century. Today it is used as an orphanage with dependent workshops.

Architecture

The large palace is unique in Jerusalem, it has 25 rooms accessible through 4 staircases.

the ground floor

The palace's ground floor facade has has three large portals providing access to various spaces. The facade's eastern portal gives access to a small square vestibule. The vestibule is covered by a cross-vault and is topped by an octagonal dome featuring muqarnas decoration. The vestibule opens to the palace's eastern courtyard from one side and to the main hall from the opposite side.

The The 11 by 36 meter main hall occupies the largest part of the palace's ground floor; it is accessible through the large central portal adorning the facade. This space is oriented on a north-south axis and is topped by 10 cross vaults supported by 4 square masonry pillars. Two corridors lead to two barrel-vaulted rooms to the south of the hall. To the west of the main hall is a second square vestibule and storerooms. The western vestibule is covered by an ornate shallow dome; a stair leads from the western vestibule to the palace's upper floor.

The main feature of the second floor is its open courtyard surrounded by a series of cross-vaulted chambers. In the center of the south wall of the courtyard is a passageway leading to the main reception hall consisting of a sunken central court flanked by an east iwan and a west iwan. The central sunken court and the west iwan are topped by folded cross-vaults that culminate in octagonal oculi decorated with multiple tiers of muqarnas. The reception hall with axial iwans is a typical feature in Mamluk architecture, and other examples survive in Cairo. A second passageway, on axis with that leading into the reception hall, leads into additional spaces to the southern end of the palace and the reception hall.

Three entrance portals and a large (over 1 meter in diameter) circular window dominate the elevation. A fourth portal further east on the elevation belongs to the Khassaki Sultan addition from the Ottoman period. The east and west entrances were blocked at an undetermined date in the modern period, and a second-storey addition was built over the western part of the elevation. The east portal is the most elaborately decorated, and is closest to the Haram and directly opposite the tomb of the founder.

The east portal recess, two meters deep, is topped with a slightly pointed semi-dome that rests on four tiers of muqarnas. The portal is built of red and white ablaq masonry in combination with limestone inlaid with black stone used in a string course of ablaq joggling that runs above the door. An oculus in the back of the recess is framed by an elaborate limestone panel, which was once inlaid with red and green glass and black stone (almost all of the inlays are now missing). The central portal leading to the main hall is topped by an unusual multi-foiled (cusped) arch. The portal is the smallest with a shallow recess of one meter, but has the widest door and lacks the stone benches usually found in portals designed for easy access into the main hall. As found in the east portal, red and white ablaq masonry is used. Black stone and limestone (painted red) are used for the joggled voussoirs of the small oculus and the string course above the door. The west portal has a string course of joggled ablaq above the door, similar to that in the east portal. The one-and-a-half-meter recess of red and white ablaq masonry is topped with a slightly pointed horseshoe arch. Stone benches flank the door, which is reached by four steps from the street level. A rectangular window centered above the door has an articulated border, which is further articulated by a secondary frame of a Koranic inscription.

The tomb was built opposite the palace. Various alterations were made to the building, most notably when it was converted for domestic use and a door was inserted into the façade during the modern period, sometime before 1920. Stonework repairs and replacements were made during this domestic conversion in 1935, when more substantial repairs took place, including the removal of the original interior plasterwork, strap work decoration, and the spandrels.

The plan of the tomb is divided into an eastern half occupied by the tomb chamber and a western half occupied by a small courtyard and various small chambers. This division is also reflected onto the elevation. The tomb chamber is square in plan (measuring less than five meters square) and approximately twelve meters high. The vestibule which led to the tomb chamber from its east side also led to an iwan to its north side. The iwan opens onto a small courtyard with a stair leading to the upper floor against its north wall. The remaining chambers served as residence or service spaces for the religious foundation housed in the tomb building.

The tomb chamber is topped by a dome which sits on a twelve sided drum with twelve pointed-arched windows, most of which have been blocked. The walls of the tomb are decorated with shallow wall arches, two tiers of muqarnas, and folded pendentives making the transition into the drum of the dome. A mihrab is centered between the two windows on the south side of the tomb chamber. The mihrab has lost most of its original decoration.

The tomb is built of red, black, and white ablaq masonry. The ornamentation of the façade reflects the spaces behind it. The domed tomb on the east side of the building is emphasized by use of ornamental stonework. Two grilled windows light the domed space. The west side of the building, where a small pious foundation was accommodated, has a relatively simple façade. The entrance portal is immediately west of the central axis of the façade and leads into the small vestibule. The pointed arch of the portal is built of red, white and black ablaq and is framed by moulding. Three small windows in the upper part of the façade light the upper floor rooms, and one lights the tomb space. A decorated cornice with a muqarnas motif defines the top of the facade.

The palace building and the tomb were built together with clear architectural spaces (the main hall in the palace and the tomb chamber in the tomb), but subsequent undocumented alterations and constructions make it difficult to date the various components of the building. Although both the palace and the tomb are clearly Mamluk, the yards to the east and south of the main hall of the palace are now enclosed by later Ottoman constructions. Neither building has foundation inscriptions.

Mujir al-Din adds that LadyTunshuq burial site dating from 1398 once stood in a street facing the palace.

Sources:

Burgoyne, Michael. Mamluk Jerusalem, 485-512. London: The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem Press, 1987.

Najm, Yusuf. Kunuz al-Quds, 249-252, 268-269. Milano: SAGDOS, 1983.

[1]

< ref name="Burgoyne 1987m, p.55????">Burgoyne 1987, p. ??????? </ref>

References

Bibliography

• Burgoyne, Michel Hamilton (1987). Mamluk Jerusalem. British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem by World of Islam Festival Trust. ISBN  978-0-905035-33-8.

Ibn El Leil Information

Djinn

Djinn ^{[1] [2]} bacchanalia, djin word play, campbell ^[3]

Orientation Aedes Templum Ara (search roman temples orientation sun)

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00004-013-0163-7 (/10.1007/s00004-013-0163-7)
• https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/orientation-and-etruscan-ritual/E68E1A7992190129C4168A3629E39C9A (/10.1017/S0003598X00047049)
• https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=xkOhwFzz1AkC&pg=PA123&dq=roman+temple+orientation+sun&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP3piz6NTkAhUNUxUIHTbWAgkQ6AEIQzAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20temple%20orientation%20sun&f=false
• https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=xkOhwFzz1AkC&pg=PA123&dq=roman+temple+orientation+sun&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP3piz6NTkAhUNUxUIHTbWAgkQ6AEIQzAE#v=onepage&q=roman%20temple%20orientation%20sun&f=false
• https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=wyNmAAAAMAAJ&q=roman+temple+orientation+sun&dq=roman+temple+orientation+sun&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP3piz6NTkAhUNUxUIHTbWAgkQ6AEIYjAJ
• https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=40AjSfdJXaAC&pg=PA150&dq=roman+temple+orientation&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi15Oah6NTkAhXD2-AKHQDTB6cQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=roman%20temple%20orientation&f=false
• https://books.google.com.lb/books?id=XXchNqgyNdkC&q=he+is+survived+the+roman+temples+of+lebanon+taylor&dq=he+is+survived+the+roman+temples+of+lebanon+taylor&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj6iaS449TkAhWGsBQKHaddAQQQ6AEIKTAA
• https://www.google.com/search?q=aedes+templum&rlz=1C1RLNS_enLB777LB777&oq=aedes+templum&aqs=chrome..69i57j0.4807j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

[http://xtools.wmflabs.org/ec/en.wikipedia.org/Elie_plus]

Worship

A word must be said about the orientation of the temples. Almost all the Roman temples in Lebanon are oriented so that the sunlight can enter them. A great many are “oriented” in the true sense of the word: they face due east. A shaft of light from the rising sun can pass through the door to bathe the cult statue in colour. The door, it should be noted, is never blocked by the columns of the porch; sometimes, indeed, the columns are unevenly spaced so that the doorway may be unobstructed. Although most temples in Lebanon face the east, there are some temples which face south or west. Temples facing south are found only in conjunction with larger, more important temples oriented to the east. There is, for instance, a small temple at Niha (Pl. 10) set at right angles to the Temple of Hadaranus; and another at Hosn Niha which lies almost athwart the larger temple (Pl. 15). Temples facing west are rare (Deir el-Kalaa is the most notable), and where they occur it is the setting sun which lights up the cult statue in the sanctuary.

It must be made clear that the Romans did not use their temples as we do our churches: the worshippers did not gather inside a Roman temple. The division of our churches into nave and chancel so closely parallels the division of Roman and Greek temples into cella and adytum that we are apt to think of the temple, like the church, as congregational. This is an error. The temple was built to house the cult image, not to house the worshippers. Priests, augurs, and privileged persons crossed the threshold of the temple; the worshippers did not.

This fact explains the position of the main altar, and explains also the need for an enclosed area when the temple did not front a forum. The altar, dedicated to the deity to whom the temple was consecrated, stood in the courtyard in front of the steps leading up to the porch (Pl. 21 and 36). The officiating priests and the sacrificial assistants stood at the altar; the worshippers filled the space between the altar and the enclosure wall. All faced the doorway of the temple, looking towards the cult image within. In the absence of a paved area (for example, a forum) adjacent to the temple, the enclosed courtyard was needed to accommodate and shelter the worshippers. The position of the altar ensured that these worshippers faced, if not the image of the deity, at least the entrance to the deity’s sanctuary.

I think that in most Roman temples in Lebanon, the climax of the sacrifice on the great feasts must have coincided with the moment when the sun lit up the cult statue. The priest officiating at the altar could look up to the porch and see, through the open doorway, the dim interior of the temple. The rays of the sun would slant through the doorway, and the priest - though perhaps not the assembled worshippers - would see the image of the deity bathed in light. This, I believe, was the moment at which the stroke dispatched the sacrificial victim. The creature for sacrifice would, if small, have been driven to the altar loose; if large, it would have been led to the altar on a long rope: a short halter suggested an unwilling sacrifice.

It is clear, then, that the orientation of the temple is an essential element in the sacrificial ritual. Yet, as was stated above, not all temples face due east. Is it conceivable that the builders of these temples made gross errors in orientation? Surely not. On the contrary, the fact that the axis of a temple may be some degrees off due east suggests exact plotting to me. I believe that it is evidence of a desire to direct the line of the temple to the point on the horizon where the sun rose on the feast day of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. This, I think, explains the considerable variation in the side bearings of the temples: there are corresponding variations in the position of the sun at sunrise during the course of the year. A temple oriented to sunrise on June 21st will not have the same bearing as one oriented to sunrise on, say, September 1st.

From this conclusion it should follow that the feast of at least one major deity fell on the day when the cult statue in temples with due east orientation received the first rays of the sun. But even with this theory to work upon, few of the temples in Lebanon can be confidently assigned to a particular deity. There is the evidence of the ancient writers for the dedications of some temples, e.g. Venus at Afka; and there is epigraphical evidence for the dedications of others, e.g. Jupiter Heliopolitan at Baalbek and Deir el-Kalaa, Atargatis at Kalat Fakra; but conclusive evidence to identify the principal deity of most of the temples is still lacking. The goddess Nemesis is linked to Makam er-Rab (or Beit Jallouk, as it is known locally) by an inscription and an altar found at the site, yet this evidence is insufficient to identify Makam er-Rab as a temple of Nemesis. Even the much-studied temples of Baalbek defy positive identification: the great temple may with some confidence be assigned to Jupiter Heliopolitan, but the identity of the principal deity worshipped in the small temple and in the round temple remains in doubt.

What is certain, however, is that the god Jupiter Heliopolitan (or his Semitic counterpart, Hadad) was worshipped at many of the Roman temples in Lebanon, and hence his representations at Baalbek and Deir el-Kalaa are of particular interest (Pl. 38). As charioteer of the sun, the god is depicted with a whip in his right hand, and since he is also a storm and rain god he holds a thunderbolt and ears of corn in his left hand. In an exceptionally sunny, well-watered and fertile area such as Lebanon, the insignia of whip, thunderbolt and ears of corn seem particularly apt. No less apt are the bulls which flank Jupiter Heliopolitan, symbolising the god’s fertilizing power. Worshippers at his sanctuaries may well have seen a parallel between the rumbling thunder, which so frequently accompanies the fertilizing rain, and the virile bellowing of live bulls. The god’s cuirass, or body armour, is paneled with the busts of the deities: Sol (Helios), Luna, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn. These are the gods, it should be noted, who presided over the days of the week, and the symbolism of the panels of the panels of the cuirass points to the ancient preoccupation with astral lore.

http://www.discoverlebanon.com/en/panoramic_views/roman-temples-lebanon.php

https://books.google.com.lb/books?redir_esc=y&id=ii8NAQAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=enclosed

for -square - burj - fakhreddin - martyr - canons - independence/ kiberte

• http://0.0010.me/post/19674860300/r-r-dangers-plan-for-the-embellishment-and
• http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/700/760/769/old_beirut/Place_des_Canons.txt
• http://www.alhiwar.info/ar/default.asp?contentid =4295&MenuID=39
• http://www.almustaqbal.com/nawafez.aspx/issues/asispdf/06-01-08/nawafez.aspx?StoryID=276604
• http://www.yabeyrouth.com/pages/index631.htm
• http://www.almustaqbal.com/storiesprintpreview.aspx?storyid=552257
• http://www.alwasat.com.kw/news/templates/wassat-pink.aspx?articleid=29740&zoneid=5
• http://suriye-turkmen.ahlamountada.com/t959-topic
• http://www.alankabout.com/lebanon_news/14823.html

Moukaddem

http://www.aljadid.com/sites/default/files/issues/Al%20Jadid%20Digital%20Issue%2050.pdf Between 1869 and 1892, two governors of Mount Lebanon resided on a floor each in the villa of the municipal memeber Youssef al-Juday in Zoqaq al-Blat.

After the war of 1860 and the influx of emigrants from Mount Lebanon, Zoqaq al-Blat became the birthplace of Beirut's educational revolution.

The quarter occupies the Qantari hill south of the Grand Serail, the quarter boasted some of the most lavishly designed mansions of Beirut.

In the second half of the 19th century, Beirut's extramural quarter of Zuqaq al-Blat became home to intellectuals, converts, mavericks, wealthy merchants, municipal officals, exiles, and reformers. The walled city became overcrowded and

Between 1869 and 1892, two governors of Mount Lebanon resided on a floor each in the villa of the municipal memeber Youssef al-Juday in Zoqaq al-Blat.

Palaces

Juday Palace

The Juday Palace was touted as one of the most beautiful houses in Beirut. The house was built aroun 1860 by Youssef Juday, a wealthy Beiruti merchant and a member of the municipality. Nasif al-Yaziji, a leading figure of the Nahda movement, heralded the beauty of his neighbor's palace in his 1862 verses which read:

Juday had the verses etched in golden ink on a marble frieze decoration and hung it on the walls of the mansion's central hall. The mansion was demolished to build the Saint Joseph of the Apparition school.

Bechara al-Khoury Palace

The palace sits at the southern edge of the quarter on Osman Ben-'Affan street. The two storey palace was built in the Tuscan style for Bechara al-Khoury, a Lebanese merchant who had spent much of his time abroad. It is flanked by a garden giving way to a double stairway overlapping an artificial limestone grotto. The facade is lined with fine marble columns, and the ceiling was covered with painted stucco. The palace has fallen into disrepair following the Lebanese civil war.

Al-Hibri House

The house stands four storeys high, it belonged to the Hibris, a Beiruti marble trading family. The house was bought from its original owners by the Association of Islamic Charitable Projects, it was restored and became the headquarters of the Global University.

Ziade Palace

The Ziade palace is one of the most notable still-standing 19th century palaces in Zoqaq al-Blat.

في زقاق البلاط يتقابل قصرا زيادة وحنينة، من بين أهم المعالم الأثرية الأساسية في زقاق البلاط وأكبرها. منزل آل زيادة أحد أجمل منازل العاصمة بحسب بوندستاين، ويتميز بقناطره الثلاثية، وباحته الفسيحة في الوسط، وواجهاته الجنوبية والغربية الممتدة أقواساً وجدراناً مزينة بعيون الأبقار. وهذا البناء شيده عام 1860 المهندس الإيطالي التينا لحساب تاجر لبناني هو يوسف نصر. ويتميز هذا البناء بطبقتين معتمرتين بالقرميد الأحمر، ويرتفع على جانبيه برجان صغيران مربعان يحتوي كل منهما على "عليّة" صيفية. لكن هذا المبنى متروك اليوم للأقدار على رغم أنه قد يشكل متحفاً مميزاً!

شيِّد منزل آل حنينة عام 1880 لحساب روسي، ثم تحول الى مقر لقنصلية الولايات المتحدة. وقد خصص له رالف بوندستاين صفحتين في كتاب له صدر عن "منشورات الشرق" في المعهد الألماني، منوها بـ"سلمه الخارجي الذي يفضي الى الطبقة الأولى، وحوضه الرخامي، وكرانيشه ومقرناته، وسقوفه المكسوة بالمرايا"، واشترت هذا المنزل عائلة مزهر في مطلع القرن وأجرته للطبيب الفرنسي جوستين كالميت بين 1903 و1914، ثم تحول الى مقر لقنصلية الولايات المتحدة حتى عام 1934. بعد ذلك شغل الطبقة الأولى منه الدكتور جوزف حنينة، وماري مزهر وزوجها، وأُجّرت الطبقة الثانية لجورج حداد وزوجته الكاتبة والفنانة ماري شيحا، ابنة السياسي والمفكر اللبناني المعروف ميشال شيحا. ومن بين الذين استأجروا الطبقة السفلية الطبيب داهش الذي نفي الى خارج لبنان.

كان داهش يدعي "النبوة"، وأطلق مذهب الداهشية، وكانت الاجتماعات الروحية تعقد في منزله. وخلال الحرب تعرض هذا المبنى للتخريب، وزاده إهمال السنين تخريباً، وهو لا يزال قائماً حتى اليوم ويبدو كمدينة أشباح. أما القصر الجمهوري القديم وهو قريب منه فأصبح ملكاً لآل الحريري وقد أعيد ترميمه قبل مدة.

المعهد الألماني للدراسات الشرقية أحد أقدم المنازل في زقاف البلاط وعمره 150 عاماً. المنزل مؤلف من طبقتين، لكن مود فرج الله المالكة السابقة وسعته، ما أظهر الاختلاف بين الطبقتين والشرفات والفرق بين القسم الحجري من المنزل والقسم الإسمنتي. ومود هي زوجة المالك، وكانت تستقبل في المنزل النخب والسياسيين وعُرفت بعلاقاتها القوية معهم، ويقال إنها كانت صديقة الرئيس الراحل كميل شمعون. وفي عام 1963 اشترى ألماني هذا القصر وحوّله الى المعهد الألماني للدراسات.

• قصر فرعون

في زقاق البلاط أيضاً قصر فرعون أحد أجمل القصور البيروتية. شيده فيليب فرعون عام 1901، قرب السراي على الربوة الغربية من بيروت القديمة. فجاء البناء "النيوقوطي" انعكاساً للفترة الذهبية من فن البناء في بداية القرن.

هندسة المبنى الداخلية الأصلية وأثاثه دمرا خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى. لكنّ هنري فرعون، بعد زيارات متعددة إلى سورية، أعاد تأثيثه متأثراً بهندسة قصر العظم، وراح يبحث عن الخشبيات القديمة المنقوشة. وبحسب ما جاء في كتاب "العمارة اللبنانية" الصادر عن متحف سرسق، بدأ فرعون هوايته منذ عام 1929 لتأثيث صالون عربي أصيل.

وفي عام 1936 جمع في منزله أجمل مجموعة زخرفية تعود إلى الفترة الممتدة بين القرنين الثالث عشر والتاسع عشر". هذه المجموعة تزين بفخامة 14 بهواً في الطابق الأرضي وست غرف في الطابق الأول. وفي تاريخ 22 يونيو "حزيران" عام 1991، انتقلت ملكية قصر فرعون الى روبير معوض، أحد المشاهير في حقل صياغة المجوهرات، الذي معه تحققت أمنية فرعون التي طالما رددها: "أتمنى منزلي متحفاً شاهداً على التعايش بين الأديان". فتحول القصر إلى متحف يعرض قطعاً تزيينية تاريخية، وفخاريات من العهود القديمة، وألواحاً خشبية أعيد تجميعها، الى قطع فنية فريدة تتراوح بين الكتب القديمة والمجوهرات النادرة الحديثة.

• منزل فيروز

وضعت بلدية بيروت يدها على منزل الفنانة فيروز في زقاق بيروت لإعادة ترميمه. ويتميز بسقفه القرميدي القديم ودرجه الحجري. وكانت فيروز وأهلها يسكنون الطبقة الأرضية منه. أما مدرسة الحريري الثانية، فعبارة عن قصر من الطراز اللبناني القديم، وكل مبنى من المباني الثلاثة التي يتكون منها مؤلف من طبقتين مزينتين بالقناطر.

وعندما حصل البطريرك مكسيموس مظلوم على استقلال المجتمع الكاثوليكي من السلطة العثمانية اتجهت نخبة الطائفة الكاثوليكية الى منطقة زقاق البلاط وسكنت فيها. وبنى أبناؤها كنيسة قرب مكان إقامة البطريركية وأصبحت اليوم مدرسة البطركية. لكن الكنيسة الحالية ليست ذاتها القديمة، إذ هدمت بعدما كثر التوافد عليها وما عادت تتسع لزائريها. أما الآثار فهي المذبح الرئيس الذي حافظ عليه الكاثوليكيون والأيقونات.

في دراسة أجريت عام 1995، رصدت 1059 مبنى للحماية، 94 منها في "زقاق البلاط". وعلى عكس البلدان الراقية، التي لا تحمي المباني فحسب، بل تلجأ إلى حماية الشارع كله، انحسرت الأرقام في دراسة أخرى أجريت عام 1997 إلى 520 مبنى، ومجدداً في عام 1998 انخفض الرقم إلى النصف وتحديداً إلى 219 مبنى منها 40 في "زقاق البلاط". ومنذ ذلك التاريخ هُدمت أربعة مبانٍ.

وتبقى اليوم آثار زقاق البلاط وغيرها الكثير من المناطق الأثرية والتاريخية بانتظار لفتة جدية واهتمام حقيقي من القيمين على التاريخ والتراث اللبناني. الى ذلك تتسابق الشركات العقارية على شراء الأراضي في منطقة زقاق البلاط وقد أصبحت أسعار الشقق فيها "جنونية".

http://iraqiaramichouse.yoo7.com/t7810-topic

Villen in Beirut:

Wohnkultur und sozialer Wandel 1860-1930

Ralph Bodenstein

zokak el blat http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=Irx86skHYioC&printsec=frontcover&dq=sahat+al+burj&hl=en&sa=X&ei=X9AXUa63IuWB4AT97YD4Ag&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%20burj&f=false

http://www.architectureauliban.com/content_sommaire.htm http://www.architectureauliban.com/content_sommaire.htm

http://www.architectureauliban.com/popup_architect_en.php?arch=1451

etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607699/index.pdf http://www.jeancharaf.org/31-beyrouth-les%20grandes%20familles.pdf http://www.jeancharaf.org/79-80-les%20familles%20presidentielles-famille%20trad.pdf http://www.sirialibano.com/lebanon/beirut-sursock-palace-unveiled.html http://al-shorfa.com/en_GB/articles/meii/features/main/2010/07/09/feature-02 http://www.flickr.com/photos/fouadgm/5021385867/ H.B.Bustros and Sursock-Cochrane Mausoleum, Mar Mitr Cemetery http://www.architectureauliban.com/content_sommaire.htm

http://www.architectureauliban.com/popup_architect_en.php?arch=2033

Mausoleum of the Sursock-Cochrane and Bustros families.

Alfred Moussa Sursock moved in the titled circles of Europe and married Maria Serra di Cassano, from an old Italian princely family. Their daughter, Yvonne eventually became Lady Cochrane. Albert and other Moussa branches of the Sursock family was also married into the Colonna family.

The Bustros family, originally Cypriot, had moved to Lebanon in the 17th century. Although forced to flee during the troubled times of al-Jazzar, the family returned upon the persistent initiative of Abdallah Pasha in the 1820s. During the Egyptian occupation of Lebanon, Georges Bustros possessed the authority to levy taxes while another Bustros was chosen by Ibrahim Pasha amongst the six Christians on the advisory chttp://www.architectureauliban.com/content_sommaire.htmommittee set up by the Egyptians. The Bustros family is another example of rapid social rise: their relations with the Egyptian monarchy, the Ottoman Sublime Porte and European dignitaries and consul-generals allowed the Bustroses access to immense wealth and economic opportunity.

The family resided in a mansion near to that of the Sursocks in Achrafiyeh and invested primarily in real estate. They became even richer by investing in land, trade and finance: they acquired real estate in Beirut; landholdings in Syria and Egypt; traded in agricultural products; and bought stocks in the Beirut-Damascus road company and the Beirut port company as well as other stocks in the Egyptian stock exchange and the Bourse d'alexandrie.

"Moussa Bustros and Nephews" a company established by one of Antoun Bustros' four sons became the agent for the London-based "Spartali and Company" which traded in grain between Syria and Europe as well as agents of the British Liverpool Steamers.

The Bustros and Sursock-Cochrane families had intermarried in latter generations.

The Sursok family whose origins can be traced back to Mersine, near Adana in modern-day Turkey, was originally a tax farming family in the service of the Ottomans. The Sursoks acquired miri/state land as a reward for their services to the Ottoman Empire and hence relocated to the Lebanese village of Barbara, near Byblos/Jbeil in the seveteenth century. In the nineteenth century, the family became engaged in Beirut's emerging trade and service sectors. The family's wealth and mercantile activities were noted by the Egyptian forces in control of Beirut and Mount Lebanon between 1830 and 1840. The Sursoks soon became protégés and dragomen to several European and American consul-generals.

The seven brothers and their sons are reported to have travelled on Greek and Russian passports as well as gained protégé status with other European consulates in Beirut.

In the 1850s and 1860s, the Sursok brothers engaged in banking in Egypt and invested large sums in the Suez Canal Company, the Beirut-Damascus road company and the port company in Beirut. The Sursoks were closely related with the Egyptian monarchy and gained preferential deals on the large infrastructural and extravagant public works undertaken by Khedive Sa`id (1854-1863) and Khedive Isma`il (1863-1879).

In short, the Sursoks were a prominent mercantile family which had become "the most spectacular social climb in the 19th century Levant". The Sursoks were readily admitted into Ottoman, Egyptian and European high societies and were part of an international bourgeoisie tat circulated amid Alexandria, Beirut, Cairo, Istanbul, Paris and Rome. They were to become one of the "Seven Families" which constituted "the cream of Beirut's merchant nobility."

Recent documents have revealed that the Sursoks were absentee landlords in the vast Marj Ibn `Amer (Jezreel Valley) in Northern Palestine. In 1929, under the British Mandate, the Sursoks sold the valley to the rich European Jewish investor, Baron Rothschild. The European dynasty of of German Jewish origin that established European banking and finance houses from the late eighteenth century had established a fund to buy land in Palestine and encourage the immigration of Jews to Palestine. Their condition: the forced evacuation of Marj Ibn Amer's Palestinian population. The Sursoks readily obliged forcing the peasantry in the valley to evacuate it.

Many of the Sursoks have since lived in Europe although some continue to live in Beirut.

Refs

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/features/world/asia/lebanon/phoenicians-text/3

1. http://www.lebanonembassyus.org/country_lebanon/history.html#Beirut
2. http://www.downtownbeirut.com/about-beirut-lebanon
3. http://www.fullbooks.com/History-of-Phoenicia7.html
4. http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/article-230135/Beirut
5. http://phoenicia.org/law.html
6. http://archive.archaeology.org/1107/features/beirut_lebanon_urban_archaeology.html
7. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/beirut/history
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis
9. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/syria_0039-7946_1925_num_6_4_3129
10. http://www.bo.usj.edu.lb/docs/cheikho/droitbey.pdf
11. http://www.cosmovisions.com/monuBeyrouth.htm
12. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=sqALAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=gibbon+decline+and+fall&hl=en&sa=X&ei=olxLUcWVCMjdPb-KgKgN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=justinian%20code&f=false
13. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=9y7nTpFcN3AC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=Berytos&f=false
14. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=Nwg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR17&dq=Histoire+de+l'%C3%89cole+de+Droit+de+Beyrouth&hl=en&sa=X&ei=c2JLUdW6G4HYtAbm_IGoBA&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=beirut%20school%20of%20law&f=false
15. 551 Beirut earthquake -cyrillus -jutinian -Codex Hermogenianus - Law School of Beirut =procopius - zacharias rhetor - dioscuros of aphrodito - sozomen - dorotheus - aphian -(ref geo --- Thalelaeus or thaleleaus - sabinus) severus and john rufus : Yet while other figures, such as John Rufus, another former student at Berytus and author of the collection of anti-Chalcedonian anecdotes, the Plerophoriae John rufus or Jphn of Beth Ruphina and Theodore of Ascalon :The man behind these penitential words of unworthiness is known to us by the name John of Beth Ruphinā, or John Rufus, priest at ...

Severus of Antioch ( p6 and 7) http://nlp.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=eudoxius-bio-1

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rbph_0035-0818_1928_num_7_2_6518_t1_0724_0000_2

Notable people

sartre gaius scaevola marcian tryphonios

• Cyrillus, 5th century Greek jurist and professor at the Law school of Beirut and one of the founders of the ecumenical school of jurists.

• Procopius of Caesarea

• Zacharias Rhetor

• Sozomen

• Dorotheus (jurist)

• Aphian

Petit serail

1. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=Irx86skHYioC&pg=PA243&dq=Beirut+petit+serail&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-WZQUfmEO4id0QWw3oDYCw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Beirut%20petit%20serail&f=false

1. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=5N7BRNk2lV8C&pg=PA109&dq=Beirut+petit+serail&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MGdQUbqnLaGs0QWtlYDQDA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Beirut%20petit%20serail&f=false

1. http://books.google.com.lb/books?id=-sZlszWvvIgC&pg=PA289&dq=Beirut+little+serail&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rGhQUZSqPIrF0QWz9YD4BQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Beirut%20little%20serail&f=false dela halle removed it

http://www.aljadid.com/sites/default/files/issues/Al%20Jadid%20Digital%20Issue%2050.pdf Between 1869 and 1892, two governors of Mount Lebanon resided on a floor each in the villa of the municipal memeber Youssef al-Juday in Zoqaq al-Blat.

After the war of 1860 and the influx of emigrants from Mount Lebanon, Zoqaq al-Blat became the birthplace of Beirut's educational revolution.

The quarter occupies the Qantari hill south of the Grand Serail, the quarter boasted some of the most lavishly designed mansions of Beirut.

In the second half of the 19th century, Beirut's extramural quarter of Zuqaq al-Blat became home to intellectuals, converts, mavericks, wealthy merchants, municipal officals, exiles, and reformers. The walled city became overcrowded and

Between 1869 and 1892, two governors of Mount Lebanon resided on a floor each in the villa of the municipal memeber Youssef al-Juday in Zoqaq al-Blat.

Refs

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