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User:Austronesier/sandbox1 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox2 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox3 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox4
Place | current version | Keane (2004) | Schiffmann (1999) | Kuno (1958) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Velar | x~g | ɣ | h | x |
Palatal | s | s | s | s |
Retroflex | ɖ~ɽ | ɖ | ɖ | ɖ |
Alveolar | r | ɾ | r | r |
Dental | d̪~ð | ð | ð | ð |
Labial | b~β | ʋ | b~w~(v) | β |
Uyghur has the following inventory of vowel phonemes: [1]
unrounded | rounded | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | back | |
Close | /i/ [ɪ] | /ü/ [ʏ] | /u/ [ʊ] | |
Mid | /e/ [e] | /ö/ [ø] | /o/ [o] | |
Open | /ä/ [ɛ] | /a/ [ʌ] |
The phonetic values given here are the default realizations, [2] with a wide range of allophones (including tense and whispered variants) for each phoneme. [3]
unrounded | rounded | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | back | |
Close | |i| | |ï| | |ü| | |u| |
Mid | (|e|) | (|ɤ|) | |ö| | |o| |
Open | |ä| | |a| |
The close unrounded morphophonemes |i| and |ï| are both represented by the phoneme /i/, and only are distinguished by the way they trigger vowel harmony: [4] roots with |i| take suffixes with /ä/ and /ü/, while roots with |ï| take suffixes with /a/ and /u/. [5]
Carol Henriksen; Johan van der Auwera (1994). Ekkehard König; Johan van der Auwera (eds.). The Germanic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 1–18.
Fortson (2004:300)
The notion of Graeco-Armenian as a subgroup of Indo-European is not widely accepted.
Some argue that Greek and Armenian may be linked together in a wider group that also includes the Indo-Iranian languages. [1]
Kim (2018) considers the evidence for a Graeco-Armenian connection as insufficient, and explains the common features as a result of contact; the same also holds for morphological features shared by Armenian with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian. [2]
The morphological features claimed as shared innovations may likewise represent independent developments and/or have parallels in other Indo-European branches, whereas other features of verbal morphology rather appear to connect Armenian with Indo-Iranian or Balto-Slavic.
Vowel system of Old East Nordic. [1]
long | short | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | central | back | ||||
unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | |||||
high | i: | y: | u: | i | y | u | ||
mid | e: | ø: | o: | e | ø | o | ||
low | ɛ: | ɔ: | a |
Jespersen's Modersmålets Fonetik (1906) describes conservative Standard Danish as it was spoken at the beginning of the 20th century.
Vowels: [14]
For the mid vowels ⟨e(ˑ)⟩, ⟨æ(ˑ)⟩, and ⟨o(ˑ)⟩, Jespersen notes a slight difference between the short and long variants. For the open-mid back vowel, he records a notable distance, and uses different symbols for the two sounds: ⟨åˑ⟩, ⟨å⟩.
long | short | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
front | central | back | front | central | back | ||||
unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | ||||||
high | i: | y: | u: | i | y | u | |||
mid-high | e: | ø: | o: | e | ø | o | |||
mid-low | ɛ: | œ: | ɔ: | ɛ | œ | ə | |||
near-low | a: | (æ) | (ɶ) | ʌ | |||||
low | (ä:) | ä | (ɑ) |
The vowels [æ], [ɶ], [ɑ] and [ä:] only occur as variants of /ɛ/, /œ/, /a/ and /a:/, when preceded or followed by /r/.
One of the main differences with current Standard Danish is the occurrence of the velar fricative ⟨q⟩ (/ɣ/) which was realized as [ɣ]~[ʝ] between vowels, [15] and as [x]~[ç] before consonants, [16] e.g. bage [ba:ɣə], bagde [baxd̥ə].
Syllable-closing /r/ can either be realized as a voiceless [ʁ̥], or as "vocalized" [ɐ̯] (written ⟨ɹ⟩).
[17]
In the turn of the 20th century, /ɣ/ disappeared from the common standard language, and shifted to /w/, /j/ or zero in most positions, or to /g/ before the suffixes /-də/ and /-d/: [18]
All non-high front vowels are subject to lowering following /r/ ([ʁ]). [19]
default | after /r/ | |
---|---|---|
/e/ | [e̝] | [ɛ̝] |
/ɛ/ | [e] | [a] |
/a/ | [a̝] | [ɑ̈] |
/ø/ | [ø] | [œ̝] |
/œ/ | [œ̝] | [œ̞] |
The downward push led to a few phonemic mergers:
G's parents | Grønnum | Younger gen. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
|reː| | default | [ʁe:] (/re:/) | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) |
before |d| | ||||
|rɛː| | default | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) | ||
before |d| | [ʁɛ̝: ~ ʁæ:] (/rɛ: ~ ra:/) | [ʁɑ̈:] (/rɑ:/) |
In the second half of the 20th century, lowering further started to extend to /u(:)/ being pronounced as [o(:)] and thus merging with /o(:)/. [19] This merger is however still unstable. [22]
free | possesive | |
---|---|---|
1.sg. | inodi/idi | -ku |
2.sg.fam. | (i)hintu | -mu |
2.sg.hon. | intaidi | -nto |
3.sg. | anoa | -no |
1.du.incl. | intaidi | -nto |
1.pl.incl. | intaidiimu | -ntoomu |
1.pl.excl. | insaidi | -mani |
2.pl.fam. | (i)hintuumu | -Vmu |
2.pl.hon. | intaidiimu | -ntoomu |
3.pl. | andoa | -ndo |
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User:Austronesier/sandbox1 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox2 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox3 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox4
Place | current version | Keane (2004) | Schiffmann (1999) | Kuno (1958) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Velar | x~g | ɣ | h | x |
Palatal | s | s | s | s |
Retroflex | ɖ~ɽ | ɖ | ɖ | ɖ |
Alveolar | r | ɾ | r | r |
Dental | d̪~ð | ð | ð | ð |
Labial | b~β | ʋ | b~w~(v) | β |
Uyghur has the following inventory of vowel phonemes: [1]
unrounded | rounded | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | back | |
Close | /i/ [ɪ] | /ü/ [ʏ] | /u/ [ʊ] | |
Mid | /e/ [e] | /ö/ [ø] | /o/ [o] | |
Open | /ä/ [ɛ] | /a/ [ʌ] |
The phonetic values given here are the default realizations, [2] with a wide range of allophones (including tense and whispered variants) for each phoneme. [3]
unrounded | rounded | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | back | |
Close | |i| | |ï| | |ü| | |u| |
Mid | (|e|) | (|ɤ|) | |ö| | |o| |
Open | |ä| | |a| |
The close unrounded morphophonemes |i| and |ï| are both represented by the phoneme /i/, and only are distinguished by the way they trigger vowel harmony: [4] roots with |i| take suffixes with /ä/ and /ü/, while roots with |ï| take suffixes with /a/ and /u/. [5]
Carol Henriksen; Johan van der Auwera (1994). Ekkehard König; Johan van der Auwera (eds.). The Germanic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 1–18.
Fortson (2004:300)
The notion of Graeco-Armenian as a subgroup of Indo-European is not widely accepted.
Some argue that Greek and Armenian may be linked together in a wider group that also includes the Indo-Iranian languages. [1]
Kim (2018) considers the evidence for a Graeco-Armenian connection as insufficient, and explains the common features as a result of contact; the same also holds for morphological features shared by Armenian with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian. [2]
The morphological features claimed as shared innovations may likewise represent independent developments and/or have parallels in other Indo-European branches, whereas other features of verbal morphology rather appear to connect Armenian with Indo-Iranian or Balto-Slavic.
Vowel system of Old East Nordic. [1]
long | short | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
front | back | front | central | back | ||||
unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | |||||
high | i: | y: | u: | i | y | u | ||
mid | e: | ø: | o: | e | ø | o | ||
low | ɛ: | ɔ: | a |
Jespersen's Modersmålets Fonetik (1906) describes conservative Standard Danish as it was spoken at the beginning of the 20th century.
Vowels: [14]
For the mid vowels ⟨e(ˑ)⟩, ⟨æ(ˑ)⟩, and ⟨o(ˑ)⟩, Jespersen notes a slight difference between the short and long variants. For the open-mid back vowel, he records a notable distance, and uses different symbols for the two sounds: ⟨åˑ⟩, ⟨å⟩.
long | short | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
front | central | back | front | central | back | ||||
unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | ||||||
high | i: | y: | u: | i | y | u | |||
mid-high | e: | ø: | o: | e | ø | o | |||
mid-low | ɛ: | œ: | ɔ: | ɛ | œ | ə | |||
near-low | a: | (æ) | (ɶ) | ʌ | |||||
low | (ä:) | ä | (ɑ) |
The vowels [æ], [ɶ], [ɑ] and [ä:] only occur as variants of /ɛ/, /œ/, /a/ and /a:/, when preceded or followed by /r/.
One of the main differences with current Standard Danish is the occurrence of the velar fricative ⟨q⟩ (/ɣ/) which was realized as [ɣ]~[ʝ] between vowels, [15] and as [x]~[ç] before consonants, [16] e.g. bage [ba:ɣə], bagde [baxd̥ə].
Syllable-closing /r/ can either be realized as a voiceless [ʁ̥], or as "vocalized" [ɐ̯] (written ⟨ɹ⟩).
[17]
In the turn of the 20th century, /ɣ/ disappeared from the common standard language, and shifted to /w/, /j/ or zero in most positions, or to /g/ before the suffixes /-də/ and /-d/: [18]
All non-high front vowels are subject to lowering following /r/ ([ʁ]). [19]
default | after /r/ | |
---|---|---|
/e/ | [e̝] | [ɛ̝] |
/ɛ/ | [e] | [a] |
/a/ | [a̝] | [ɑ̈] |
/ø/ | [ø] | [œ̝] |
/œ/ | [œ̝] | [œ̞] |
The downward push led to a few phonemic mergers:
G's parents | Grønnum | Younger gen. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
|reː| | default | [ʁe:] (/re:/) | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) |
before |d| | ||||
|rɛː| | default | [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) | ||
before |d| | [ʁɛ̝: ~ ʁæ:] (/rɛ: ~ ra:/) | [ʁɑ̈:] (/rɑ:/) |
In the second half of the 20th century, lowering further started to extend to /u(:)/ being pronounced as [o(:)] and thus merging with /o(:)/. [19] This merger is however still unstable. [22]
free | possesive | |
---|---|---|
1.sg. | inodi/idi | -ku |
2.sg.fam. | (i)hintu | -mu |
2.sg.hon. | intaidi | -nto |
3.sg. | anoa | -no |
1.du.incl. | intaidi | -nto |
1.pl.incl. | intaidiimu | -ntoomu |
1.pl.excl. | insaidi | -mani |
2.pl.fam. | (i)hintuumu | -Vmu |
2.pl.hon. | intaidiimu | -ntoomu |
3.pl. | andoa | -ndo |