Vowels
- Near-close front unrounded vowel (sound between cardinal [i] and [e]): [i̞], [e̝], [ɪ̟]
- Near-close front rounded vowel (sound between cardinal [y] and [ø]): [y̞], [ø̝], [ʏ̟]
- Near-close back unrounded vowel (sound between cardinal [ɯ] and [ɤ]): [ɯ̞], [ɤ̝], [ɯ̠̽]
- Near-close back rounded vowel (sound between cardinal [u] and [o]): [u̞], [o̝], [ʊ̠]
Dental, alveolar and postalveolar consonants
| Voiceless dental | Voiced dental | Voiceless alveolar | Voiced alveolar | Voiceless postalveolar | Voiced postalveolar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ||||||
| Plosive | ||||||
| Sibilant affricate | t̪s̪ | d̪z̪ | ts | dz | t̠ʃ | d̠ʒ |
| Spirant affricate | t̪θ | d̪ð | tθ̠ /tɹ̝̊ | dð̠/dɹ̝ | t̠ɹ̝̠̊ | d̠ɹ̝̠ |
| Sibilant fricative | s̪ | z̪ | s | z | ʃ | ʒ |
| Spirant fricative | θ | ð | θ̠ /ɹ̝̊ | ð̠/ɹ̝ | ɹ̝̠̊ | ɹ̝̠ |
| Approximant | ð̞̊/ɹ̪̊ | ð̞/ɹ̪ | ɹ̊ | ɹ | ɹ̠̊ | ɹ̠ |
| Flap | ɾ̪̊ | ɾ̪ | ɾ̥ | ɾ | ɾ̠̊ | ɾ̠ |
| Trill | r̪̊ | r̪ | r̥ | r | r̠̊ | r̠ |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ɬ̪ | ɮ̪ | ɬ | ɮ | ɬ̠ | ɮ̠ |
| Lateral approximant | l̪̊ | l̪ | l̥ | l | l̠̊ | l̠ |
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Alveolo-palatal, palatal and palato-velar consonants
| Voiceless alveolo-palatal | Voiced alveolo-palatal | Voiceless palatal | Voiced palatal | Voiceless palato-velar | Voiced palato-velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ɲ̟̊/n̠̊ʲ | ɲ̟/n̠ʲ | ɲ̊ | ɲ | ŋ̟̊/ɲ̠̊ | ŋ̟/ɲ̠ |
| Plosive | c̟/t̠ʲ | ɟ̟/d̠ʲ | c | ɟ | k̟/c̠ | g̟/ɟ̠ |
| Sibilant affricate | t̪s̪ | d̪z̪ | ts | dz | t̠ʃ | d̠ʒ |
| Spirant affricate | cç̟/t̠ɹ̝̠̊ʲ | ɟʝ̟/d̠ɹ̝̠ʲ | cç | ɟʝ | kx̟/cç̠ | gɣ̟/ɟʝ̠ |
| Sibilant fricative | s̪ | z̪ | s | z | ʃ | ʒ |
| Spirant fricative | ç̟/ɹ̝̠̊ʲ | ʝ̟/ɹ̝̠ʲ | ç | ʝ | x̟/ç̠ | ɣ̟/ʝ̠ |
| Approximant | j̟̊/ɹ̠̊ʲ | j̟/ɹ̠ʲ | j̊ | j | ɰ̟̊/j̠̊ | ɰ̟/j̠ |
| Flap | ɾ̠̊ʲ | ɾ̠ʲ | – | – | – | – |
| Trill | r̠̊ʲ | r̠ʲ | – | – | – | – |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ʎ̝̟̊/ɬ̠ʲ | ʎ̝̟/ɮ̠ʲ | ʎ̝̊ | ʎ̝ | ʟ̟̝̊/ʎ̝̠̊ | ʟ̟̝/ʎ̝̠ |
| Lateral approximant | ʎ̟̊/l̠̊ʲ | ʎ̟/l̠ʲ | ʎ̥ | ʎ | ʟ̟̊/ʎ̠̊ | ʟ̟/ʎ̠ |
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Velar, velo-uvular and uvular consonants
| Voiceless velar | Voiced velar | Voiceless velo-uvular | Voiced velo-uvular | Voiceless uvular | Voiced uvular | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ŋ̊ | ŋ | ɴ̥̟/ŋ̠̊ | ɴ̟/ŋ̠ | ɴ̥ | ɴ |
| Plosive | k | g | q̟/k̠ | ɢ̟/g̠ | q | ɢ |
| Affricate | kx | gɣ | qχ̟ /kx̠ | ɢʁ̟/gɣ̠ | qχ | ɢʁ |
| Fricative | x | ɣ | χ̟ /x̠ | ʁ̟/ɣ̠ | χ | ʁ |
| Approximant | ɰ̊ | ɰ | ʁ̞̟̊/ɰ̠̊ | ʁ̞̟/ɰ̠ | ʁ̞̊ | ʁ̞ |
| Flap | – | – | ɢ̟̆̊/ʀ̟̆̊ | ɢ̟̆/ʀ̟̆ | ɢ̥̆/ʀ̥̆ | ɢ̆/ʀ̆ |
| Trill | – | – | ʀ̟̊ | ʀ̟ | ʀ̥ | ʀ |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ʟ̠̝̊ | ʟ̠̝ | ||||
| Lateral approximant | ʟ̥ | ʟ | ʟ̠̊ | ʟ̠ | ||
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Implosives
Voiced
- Voiced bilabial implosive: [ɓ]
- Voiced labiodental implosive: [ɓ̪]
- Voiced linguolabial implosive: [ɗ̼]/[ɓ̺]
- Voiced dental implosive: [ɗ̪]
- Voiced alveolar implosive: [ɗ]
- Voiced postalveolar implosive: [ɗ̠]
- Voiced retroflex implosive: [ᶑ]
- Voiced alveolo-palatal implosive: [ʄ̟]/[ɗ̠ʲ]
- Voiced palatal implosive: [ʄ]
- Voiced palato-velar implosive: [ɠ̟]/[ʄ̠]
- Voiced velar implosive: [ɠ]
- Voiced velo-uvular implosive: [ʛ̟]/[ɠ̠]
- Voiced uvular implosive: [ʛ]
Voiceless
More implosives
Voiceless approximants
Central approximants
- voiceless bilabial approximant [β̞̊]
- voiceless labiodental approximant [ʋ̥]
- voiceless dental approximant [ð̞̊]
- voiceless alveolar approximant [ɹ̊]
- voiceless retroflex approximant [ɻ̊] (a consonantal [ḁ])
- voiceless palatal approximant [j̊] (a consonantal [i̊])
- voiceless velar approximant [ɰ̊] (a consonantal [ɯ̊])
- voiceless uvular approximant [ʁ̞̊]
- voiceless pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞̊] (a consonantal [ɑ̥])
Lateral approximants
- voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [l̥]
- voiceless retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ̊]
- voiceless palatal lateral approximant [ʎ̥]
- voiceless velar lateral approximant [ʟ̥]
- voiceless uvular lateral approximant [ʟ̠̊]
Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols
- voiceless labialized velar approximant [w̥] (a consonantal [u̥])
- voiceless labialized palatal approximant [ɥ̊] (a consonantal [ẙ])
Nasalised approximants
- nasalised bilabial approximant [β̞̃]
- nasalised labiodental approximant [ʋ̃]
- nasalised dental approximant [ð̞̃]
- nasalised alveolar approximant [ɹ̃]
- nasalised retroflex approximant [ɻ̃] (a consonantal [ã])
- naslaised palatal approximant [j̃] (a consonantal [ĩ])
- nasalised velar approximant [ɰ̃] (a consonantal [ɯ̃])
- nasalised uvular approximant [ʁ̞̃]
- nasalised pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞̃] (a consonantal [ɑ̃])
Coarticulated nasalised approximants with dedicated IPA symbols
- nasalised labialized velar approximant [w̃] (a consonantal [ũ])
- nasalised labialized palatal approximant [ɥ̃] (a consonantal [ỹ])
Affrication
Some vowels
Between [e] and [ɛ]: [e̞] or [ɛ̝]
Between [ø] and [œ]: [ø̞] or [œ̝]
Between [ɤ] and [ʌ]: [ɤ̞] or [ʌ̝]
Between [o] and [ɔ]: [o̞] or [ɔ̝]
Semivowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fricative | ʝ ʝʷ | ʝ̈ ɣ̈ʷ | ɣ ɣʷ |
| Semivowel | j ɥ | j̈ ẅ | ɰ w |
| Close | i y | ɨ ʉ | ɯ u |
| Near-close | ɪ ʏ | ɪ̈ ʊ̈ | ɯ̽ ʊ |
Dark L
- Voiceless dental dark L [ɫ̪̊]
- Voiced dental dark L [ɫ̪]
- Voiceless dark L [ɫ̥]
- Voiced dark L [ɫ]
- Voiceless postalveolar dark L [ɫ̠̊]
- Voiced postalveolar dark L [ɫ̠]
Affricates
Approximant affricates
| Sound (voiceless) | IPA | Languages | Sound (voiced) | IPA | Languages |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless bilabial approximant affricate | [pɸ] | Present allophonically in Kaingang and Taos. Not reported as a phoneme in any natural language. | Voiced bilabial approximant affricate | [bβ] | Allophonic in Banjun [1] and Shipibo [2] |
| Voiceless labiodental approximant affricate | [p̪ʋ̥] | Voiced labiodental approximant affricate | [b̪ʋ] | ||
| Voiceless dental approximant affricate | [t̪ð̞̊] | Voiced dental approximant affricate | [d̪ð̞] | ||
| Voiceless alveolar approximant affricate | [tɹ̊] | Voiced alveolar approximant affricate | [dɹ] | ||
| Voiceless retroflex approximant affricate | [tɻ̊] | Mapudungun [ verification needed], Malagasy | Voiced retroflex approximant affricate | [dɻ] | Malagasy |
| Voiceless palatal approximant affricate | [cj̊] | Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech), Albanian (transcribed as [c]), allophonically in Kaingang | Voiced palatal approximant affricate | [ɟj] | Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech), Albanian (transcribed as [ɟ]), some Spanish dialects. Not reported to contrast with a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] |
| Voiceless velar approximant affricate | [kɰ̊] | Voiced velar approximant affricate | [ɡɰ] | ||
| Voiceless uvular approximant affricate | [qʁ̞̊] | Voiced uvular approximant affricate | [ɢʁ̞] | ||
| Voiceless pharyngeal approximant affricate | [ʡħ] | Haida. Not reported to contrast with an epiglottal stop [ʡ] | Voiced pharyngeal approximant affricate | [ʡʕ] | Not attested in any natural language |
| Voiceless glottal affricate | [ʔh] | Yuxi dialect, allophonic in Received Pronunciation [3] | Voiced glottal affricate | [ʔɦ] | Not attested in any natural language |
- ^ "Phoible 2.0 -". Archived from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2020-12-27.
- ^ Valenzuela, Márquez Pinedo & Maddieson (2001).
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 148.
Vowels
- Near-close front unrounded vowel (sound between cardinal [i] and [e]): [i̞], [e̝], [ɪ̟]
- Near-close front rounded vowel (sound between cardinal [y] and [ø]): [y̞], [ø̝], [ʏ̟]
- Near-close back unrounded vowel (sound between cardinal [ɯ] and [ɤ]): [ɯ̞], [ɤ̝], [ɯ̠̽]
- Near-close back rounded vowel (sound between cardinal [u] and [o]): [u̞], [o̝], [ʊ̠]
Dental, alveolar and postalveolar consonants
| Voiceless dental | Voiced dental | Voiceless alveolar | Voiced alveolar | Voiceless postalveolar | Voiced postalveolar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ||||||
| Plosive | ||||||
| Sibilant affricate | t̪s̪ | d̪z̪ | ts | dz | t̠ʃ | d̠ʒ |
| Spirant affricate | t̪θ | d̪ð | tθ̠ /tɹ̝̊ | dð̠/dɹ̝ | t̠ɹ̝̠̊ | d̠ɹ̝̠ |
| Sibilant fricative | s̪ | z̪ | s | z | ʃ | ʒ |
| Spirant fricative | θ | ð | θ̠ /ɹ̝̊ | ð̠/ɹ̝ | ɹ̝̠̊ | ɹ̝̠ |
| Approximant | ð̞̊/ɹ̪̊ | ð̞/ɹ̪ | ɹ̊ | ɹ | ɹ̠̊ | ɹ̠ |
| Flap | ɾ̪̊ | ɾ̪ | ɾ̥ | ɾ | ɾ̠̊ | ɾ̠ |
| Trill | r̪̊ | r̪ | r̥ | r | r̠̊ | r̠ |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ɬ̪ | ɮ̪ | ɬ | ɮ | ɬ̠ | ɮ̠ |
| Lateral approximant | l̪̊ | l̪ | l̥ | l | l̠̊ | l̠ |
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Alveolo-palatal, palatal and palato-velar consonants
| Voiceless alveolo-palatal | Voiced alveolo-palatal | Voiceless palatal | Voiced palatal | Voiceless palato-velar | Voiced palato-velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ɲ̟̊/n̠̊ʲ | ɲ̟/n̠ʲ | ɲ̊ | ɲ | ŋ̟̊/ɲ̠̊ | ŋ̟/ɲ̠ |
| Plosive | c̟/t̠ʲ | ɟ̟/d̠ʲ | c | ɟ | k̟/c̠ | g̟/ɟ̠ |
| Sibilant affricate | t̪s̪ | d̪z̪ | ts | dz | t̠ʃ | d̠ʒ |
| Spirant affricate | cç̟/t̠ɹ̝̠̊ʲ | ɟʝ̟/d̠ɹ̝̠ʲ | cç | ɟʝ | kx̟/cç̠ | gɣ̟/ɟʝ̠ |
| Sibilant fricative | s̪ | z̪ | s | z | ʃ | ʒ |
| Spirant fricative | ç̟/ɹ̝̠̊ʲ | ʝ̟/ɹ̝̠ʲ | ç | ʝ | x̟/ç̠ | ɣ̟/ʝ̠ |
| Approximant | j̟̊/ɹ̠̊ʲ | j̟/ɹ̠ʲ | j̊ | j | ɰ̟̊/j̠̊ | ɰ̟/j̠ |
| Flap | ɾ̠̊ʲ | ɾ̠ʲ | – | – | – | – |
| Trill | r̠̊ʲ | r̠ʲ | – | – | – | – |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ʎ̝̟̊/ɬ̠ʲ | ʎ̝̟/ɮ̠ʲ | ʎ̝̊ | ʎ̝ | ʟ̟̝̊/ʎ̝̠̊ | ʟ̟̝/ʎ̝̠ |
| Lateral approximant | ʎ̟̊/l̠̊ʲ | ʎ̟/l̠ʲ | ʎ̥ | ʎ | ʟ̟̊/ʎ̠̊ | ʟ̟/ʎ̠ |
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Velar, velo-uvular and uvular consonants
| Voiceless velar | Voiced velar | Voiceless velo-uvular | Voiced velo-uvular | Voiceless uvular | Voiced uvular | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | ŋ̊ | ŋ | ɴ̥̟/ŋ̠̊ | ɴ̟/ŋ̠ | ɴ̥ | ɴ |
| Plosive | k | g | q̟/k̠ | ɢ̟/g̠ | q | ɢ |
| Affricate | kx | gɣ | qχ̟ /kx̠ | ɢʁ̟/gɣ̠ | qχ | ɢʁ |
| Fricative | x | ɣ | χ̟ /x̠ | ʁ̟/ɣ̠ | χ | ʁ |
| Approximant | ɰ̊ | ɰ | ʁ̞̟̊/ɰ̠̊ | ʁ̞̟/ɰ̠ | ʁ̞̊ | ʁ̞ |
| Flap | – | – | ɢ̟̆̊/ʀ̟̆̊ | ɢ̟̆/ʀ̟̆ | ɢ̥̆/ʀ̥̆ | ɢ̆/ʀ̆ |
| Trill | – | – | ʀ̟̊ | ʀ̟ | ʀ̥ | ʀ |
| Lateral affricate | t̪ɬ̪ | d̪ɮ̪ | tɬ | dɮ | t̠ɬ̠ | d̠ɮ̠ |
| Lateral fricative | ʟ̠̝̊ | ʟ̠̝ | ||||
| Lateral approximant | ʟ̥ | ʟ | ʟ̠̊ | ʟ̠ | ||
| Lateral flap | ɺ̪̊ | ɺ̪ | ɺ̊ | ɺ | ɺ̠̊ | ɺ̠ |
Implosives
Voiced
- Voiced bilabial implosive: [ɓ]
- Voiced labiodental implosive: [ɓ̪]
- Voiced linguolabial implosive: [ɗ̼]/[ɓ̺]
- Voiced dental implosive: [ɗ̪]
- Voiced alveolar implosive: [ɗ]
- Voiced postalveolar implosive: [ɗ̠]
- Voiced retroflex implosive: [ᶑ]
- Voiced alveolo-palatal implosive: [ʄ̟]/[ɗ̠ʲ]
- Voiced palatal implosive: [ʄ]
- Voiced palato-velar implosive: [ɠ̟]/[ʄ̠]
- Voiced velar implosive: [ɠ]
- Voiced velo-uvular implosive: [ʛ̟]/[ɠ̠]
- Voiced uvular implosive: [ʛ]
Voiceless
More implosives
Voiceless approximants
Central approximants
- voiceless bilabial approximant [β̞̊]
- voiceless labiodental approximant [ʋ̥]
- voiceless dental approximant [ð̞̊]
- voiceless alveolar approximant [ɹ̊]
- voiceless retroflex approximant [ɻ̊] (a consonantal [ḁ])
- voiceless palatal approximant [j̊] (a consonantal [i̊])
- voiceless velar approximant [ɰ̊] (a consonantal [ɯ̊])
- voiceless uvular approximant [ʁ̞̊]
- voiceless pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞̊] (a consonantal [ɑ̥])
Lateral approximants
- voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [l̥]
- voiceless retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ̊]
- voiceless palatal lateral approximant [ʎ̥]
- voiceless velar lateral approximant [ʟ̥]
- voiceless uvular lateral approximant [ʟ̠̊]
Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols
- voiceless labialized velar approximant [w̥] (a consonantal [u̥])
- voiceless labialized palatal approximant [ɥ̊] (a consonantal [ẙ])
Nasalised approximants
- nasalised bilabial approximant [β̞̃]
- nasalised labiodental approximant [ʋ̃]
- nasalised dental approximant [ð̞̃]
- nasalised alveolar approximant [ɹ̃]
- nasalised retroflex approximant [ɻ̃] (a consonantal [ã])
- naslaised palatal approximant [j̃] (a consonantal [ĩ])
- nasalised velar approximant [ɰ̃] (a consonantal [ɯ̃])
- nasalised uvular approximant [ʁ̞̃]
- nasalised pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞̃] (a consonantal [ɑ̃])
Coarticulated nasalised approximants with dedicated IPA symbols
- nasalised labialized velar approximant [w̃] (a consonantal [ũ])
- nasalised labialized palatal approximant [ɥ̃] (a consonantal [ỹ])
Affrication
Some vowels
Between [e] and [ɛ]: [e̞] or [ɛ̝]
Between [ø] and [œ]: [ø̞] or [œ̝]
Between [ɤ] and [ʌ]: [ɤ̞] or [ʌ̝]
Between [o] and [ɔ]: [o̞] or [ɔ̝]
Semivowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fricative | ʝ ʝʷ | ʝ̈ ɣ̈ʷ | ɣ ɣʷ |
| Semivowel | j ɥ | j̈ ẅ | ɰ w |
| Close | i y | ɨ ʉ | ɯ u |
| Near-close | ɪ ʏ | ɪ̈ ʊ̈ | ɯ̽ ʊ |
Dark L
- Voiceless dental dark L [ɫ̪̊]
- Voiced dental dark L [ɫ̪]
- Voiceless dark L [ɫ̥]
- Voiced dark L [ɫ]
- Voiceless postalveolar dark L [ɫ̠̊]
- Voiced postalveolar dark L [ɫ̠]
Affricates
Approximant affricates
| Sound (voiceless) | IPA | Languages | Sound (voiced) | IPA | Languages |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless bilabial approximant affricate | [pɸ] | Present allophonically in Kaingang and Taos. Not reported as a phoneme in any natural language. | Voiced bilabial approximant affricate | [bβ] | Allophonic in Banjun [1] and Shipibo [2] |
| Voiceless labiodental approximant affricate | [p̪ʋ̥] | Voiced labiodental approximant affricate | [b̪ʋ] | ||
| Voiceless dental approximant affricate | [t̪ð̞̊] | Voiced dental approximant affricate | [d̪ð̞] | ||
| Voiceless alveolar approximant affricate | [tɹ̊] | Voiced alveolar approximant affricate | [dɹ] | ||
| Voiceless retroflex approximant affricate | [tɻ̊] | Mapudungun [ verification needed], Malagasy | Voiced retroflex approximant affricate | [dɻ] | Malagasy |
| Voiceless palatal approximant affricate | [cj̊] | Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech), Albanian (transcribed as [c]), allophonically in Kaingang | Voiced palatal approximant affricate | [ɟj] | Skolt Sami (younger speakers), Hungarian (casual speech), Albanian (transcribed as [ɟ]), some Spanish dialects. Not reported to contrast with a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] |
| Voiceless velar approximant affricate | [kɰ̊] | Voiced velar approximant affricate | [ɡɰ] | ||
| Voiceless uvular approximant affricate | [qʁ̞̊] | Voiced uvular approximant affricate | [ɢʁ̞] | ||
| Voiceless pharyngeal approximant affricate | [ʡħ] | Haida. Not reported to contrast with an epiglottal stop [ʡ] | Voiced pharyngeal approximant affricate | [ʡʕ] | Not attested in any natural language |
| Voiceless glottal affricate | [ʔh] | Yuxi dialect, allophonic in Received Pronunciation [3] | Voiced glottal affricate | [ʔɦ] | Not attested in any natural language |
- ^ "Phoible 2.0 -". Archived from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2020-12-27.
- ^ Valenzuela, Márquez Pinedo & Maddieson (2001).
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 148.