Medieval European Jews who redeemed Beta Israeli captives made no remarks about their physical appearance. [1] However, with the advent of scientific racism in the late 19th Century it became commonplace for modern observers to identify physical "Jewish" features in Beta Israelies. Henry Aaron Sternโ, a German Jew who joined the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People and was sent as a missionary to Abyssinia in 1859, has remarked that: "In physiognomy, most of the Falashas bear striking traces of their Semitic origin. Among the first group we saw at Gondar there were some whose Jewish features no one could have mistaken, who had ever seen the descendants of Abraham either in London or Berlin. Their complexion is a shade paler than that of the Abyssinians, and their eyes, although black and sparkling, are not so disproportionately large as those which characteristically mark the other occupants of the land." [2] Similar remarks were made by Dr. Jacques Faitlovitch, [3] Aaron Zeev Aescoly, Jewish Agency workers Yehuda Azrieli and Shaul Meizlish, Rabbi David Chelouche and even Nathan Shapiro, president of the AAEJ, as late as 1985. [4]
The racial discourse about the origin of the Beta Israel played a dominant role in the debate regarding their immigration to Israel. In November 14 1934, the executive branch of the World Zionist Organization has turned down the request of Jacques Faitlovitch to bring the Ethiopian Jews to the Land of Israel. Arthur Ruppin, then head of the Zionist executive, claimed that the Ethiopians were โNiggers, who came to Judaism by force of the sword in the sixth century B.C. They have no blood connection to the Jews. [โฆ] [Therefore] their number in Palestine should not be increased.โ [6] As Ruppin viewed the "Jewish race" as a subclade of white Indo-Germanic races, he ruled out their racial connection to the Jews of Ethiopia. [6] In a 1942 document Ruppin further classified Faitlovitch himself to the โAschkenasisch-Negroiderโ type, one of eight types of the Jewish race supposedly distinguishable by the shape of the nose. [7] Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir has opposed the aliyah of Beta Israel to Israel in 1969, arguing โDonโt we have enough problems? What do we need these blacks for?โ. [8] [9] [10] Chief Rabbi Yitzhak Nissim has objected a mission to assist Beta Israeli communities in 1957, with the sharp exclamation: "Who needs those blacks?". [11] A 1973 report composed at the Immigrant Absorption Ministry has asserted that the dark skin color of Ethiopian Jews is likely to cause problems with their integration into Israeli society, thereby "supplying plentiful material for hostile elements in the international community to increase anti-Israeli incitement by blaming it in "racism", as well as discrimination, religious coercion, etc." [12]
Like other ethnic groups in northern Ethiopia, the Beta Israel view their own skin color as reddish-brown ('qeyy' in Amharic), whereas a black ('tequr') skin color is attributed to low status groups used as slaves. [4] Both the Beta Israel and their Christian neighbours share the view that they are descendants of the people of Israel who have immigrated to the horn of Africa in Biblical times, and have intermarried with the local population to some extent.
According to Rabbinical Halakha, the children of a mother who is not living in accordance with Jewish law, or has even converted to another religion, are still recognized as Jews, as their mother is "a Gentile by virtue of her acts, but a Jew by her birth/history". [13] However, according to Haymanot (Beta Israeli code of law), being a Jew necessarily means observing Jewish law, and thus a Jew who has ceased to practice Jewish law (notbaly dietary laws or Shabbat observance) ceases to be a Jew until he undergoes a ritual process of conversion in order to return to Judaism. Until then he is excommunicated and his descendants are not recognized as Jews. Thus, while biological ancestry plays a role in the Jewish identity of non-practicing Jews according to Rabbinical Halakha, it plays no such role according to Beta Israeli code of law.
"A lack of a common genetic origin does not refute the Jewish identity, just as Jewish genetic markers do not establish the Jewish identity of a community which is not recognized as a Jewish community according to Halacha". [14]
"Jewishness is not a matter of DNA. Nor can DNA be used to disprove or prove and individual's or group's Jewishness." [15]
Kaplan2006:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504630600823668
[16]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2010.12.016
ืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืคืกืืื-ืืืขื ื ืืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืืื ืืชืฉืข ืขืฉืจื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื, ืืืกืืจืชื ืืืื ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืคื ืืืืคืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื. [5] [4] ื ืืืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืืืื ืืืงื ืืืืข ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื, ืืื ืขื ืงืืืชื. ืืฉื ืช 1940 ืืืกืื 44 ืืจืืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืืืช, ืฉืืืืฉืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื. [18] ืืฉื ืช 1941 ืืืืขื ืคืงืืืืช ื ืจืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื, ืื ืชืืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื ื ืงืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืื ืขื ืืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืืจืืืช. [19]
ืืืืงืจ ืืืจื ืืฉืืึนึผืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจื ืืฉื ืช 1943 ืขืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืขืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืจ, ืืคืื ืื ืคืืืฉื ืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืขืื ืืคื ืชืืื ืคื ืื, ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืืื. [20] ืืืืืื ืืืืืชื ืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืืจ ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืช ืฆืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืจืื ืื ื ืขืกืงื ืื ื ืืืืืงืช ืืืชืืฉืืช ืขื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืชื ื ืขืืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืฉืืืช. [4] ืืฉื ืช 1973 ืืชืคืจืกื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืจ ื"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืง ื ืืฉืจื ืืงืืืื, ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืงืจืื ืฉืืกืงื ืืชืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืื:
Error: No text given for quotation (or equals sign used in the actual argument to an unnamed parameter)
ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืจ ืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืคืกืง ืืื ืฉืื"ื ืืืืืง ืืื "ืขืื ืืกืื ืืืคืืื ื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืคื"ื" ืืืืจื ืืื ืื "ืืืงืื ืฉืฆืขืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืชื". [23]
ืืืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืงื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช. [24] ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ( Lemba) ื ืืจืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืงืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืืืื, ืืฉืคืืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืชื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ื ืืืืจืชื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืื. [5] ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืชืืขืื ืืืืกืืืจื ืืืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื, ืืงืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืืืืจืืคื. [5]
ืืขืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืจืื ืืืชืืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฆืืข ืขืืจื ื ืืืื ("ืงืื") - ืืื ("ืืขืื") ืืื ื ืฉืืืจ ("ืืืงืืจ"). ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืก ืืคืืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืจืื-ืืชืืืคืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืืช. [4] ืืืฆืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืชืืื ื ืื ืืืงื ืืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฆืืืขืื ืขื ืงืจืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช ื ืืืจื ืืชืืืื.โโ [25] [26] ื ืืขื ืื ืืชืจืืฉื ืืืืจื ืื ืืฉืืช ืื-ืกืืจืืช ืขื ืคื ื ืฉื ื ื ืชืืืื - ืืืื ืืจื ืืฆืจืื ื ืกืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืจื ืืฆื ืืื ืขืจื ืืขื ืคื ื ืืืฆืจื ืืื ืื ืื ืื. [27]โโ [26] ืืืืืจื ืืืืืจืช ืื ืฉื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืชืืืืช ืืช ืืชืืขืื ืืืืกืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืฉืชืจืขื ืืฉื ื ืขืืจื ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืื ืกืื ื ืืงืกืื. [25] [27] [[ืงืืืฅ:Boxwood Buxus sempervirens var. arborescens Bark Closeup 1825px.jpg|ืฉืืื|ืืืืืขืจ|250px| ืืืข ืืืงืกืืก ืืจืืง ืขื, ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืืืืงืจืื ืขื ืขืฅ ื ืืฉืืจืืข. ืืคื ืจืื ืืฉืืขืื,โโ [28] ืืืื ืืขืืจ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืชืงืืคืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจืืข - "ืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืื, ืืื ืืื ืื ืืื".]] ืืืืงืจืื ืืกืคืืจืื ืฉื ืขืฉื ืขื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืฉืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืชืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืฉ ื ืืืื,โโ [29] ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืง ืืฉื ืช 2006 ืืืืืื ืฉ ืืืืืงืืชื ืืกืืืืกืืืช ืื ื ืืืงื ืืืืื.โโ [30] ื ืืืืจ ืืืืขื ืืฉื ืช 2005 ืคืืจืกืื ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืื ื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืฉืืืืชืืช ืฉื 898 ื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืชืื ืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช.โโ ืื ืืืืฆืืื ืขืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืงืจืืืื ืืืืื ื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืื-ืืืืืื. ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืื ืงืืื ืืจืืื ืื- ืืคืจืืงื ื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื. [26] ืืืืืจืื ืืฆืืขื ืขืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืขืืจื ืืืืจ ืขื ืคื ืืื ื ืขืื ืื ืขื ื ืืืฆืืจืคื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืขืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืชื ืฆืจ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืงืืืืืืฆืื ืืืชืืืคืืช. [26] ืื ืื, ืืืืงืจ ืืงืืฃ ืฉืคืืจืกื ืืฉื ืช 2010, ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืืืง ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื 1,287 ื ืืืงืื, ื ืืฆื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื 13 ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ื-21 ืื ืืืงืื ืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. [31] ืืืช ืืขืื ืจืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืคืืื ื ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืื ืืื. ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ืืคืืื ื ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงื ืฉืืืจืื ืืกืืจื (ืืขืืื ืื ืื, ืืืจืืื, ืื ืืื ืงื, ืกื ื ืคืืืืื). [32] ืื ืืืืงืจ ืื, ืืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืกืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฆืืื. ืืืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืงื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn_SM,_[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11013-005-7424-5_'''The_multiple_meanings_of_Jewish_genes'''],_Cult_Med_Psychiatry._2005_Jun;29(2):179-92,_'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000002F-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16249949_16249949]-33|[33]]] ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืคืืจืกืื ืกืงืืจืืช ืืืขืืืช ( review articles) ืืืกืืืืช ืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืงืืืืื ืื ืืฉื, ืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืกืืฆืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืื. [34][[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParfitt_T,_Egorova_Y.,_[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11013-005-7425-4_'''Genetics,_history,_and_identity:_the_case_of_the_Bene_Israel_and_the_Lemba'''],_Cult_Med_Psychiatry._2005_Jun;29(2):193-224_'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000033-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16249950_16249950]-35|[35]]] ืืืืฆืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืชืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืืืฆื ืืขืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืจืืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืขืจื ืื. ืืคืจื, ืื ื ืืชื ืืงืืืข ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชืืช ืฉื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืจื-ืชืืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืช. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืฆืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืื ื ืืชืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืฉืืืขืืชื ืืขืืจ, ืืคืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืคืจืืงืื ืฉืืชืืืืจ. [34] [34]
ืืกืืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืืขื ืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืืื ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืงืืืืืชืื, ืืืืงืจ ืืืืขื ืื ืืฉื ืืฆืื ืขืืืื ืืืืชืืืื. ืืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืื ืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืจืืง ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืืฆืข ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืงื ืืื ืงืื ืืืจืื ืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืชืื ืื ืงืืืฆืช ืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืขืืช ืชืคืงืืืืช ืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืฉืื ืืช. ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืจืคืืืืช ืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืื ื ืงืืืชืืื ืืขืฉืืืื ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืชืืคืขืืช ืกืืฃ ืื ืื. ืกืจืงืืืช ืงืคืืกื ืืืฉื ืืชืคืจืฆืช ืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืงื ืื ืืืืฆื ืืืืืงื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืจืืงื, [36] ืื ืืืขื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืืคืื.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman_Z,_Iscovich_J,_Schwartz_F,_Azizi_E,_Klepfish_A,_Schattner_A,_Sarid_R,_[http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=171_'''Absence_of_Kaposi_sarcoma_among_Ethiopian_immigrants_to_Israel_despite_high_seroprevalence_of_human_herpesvirus_8.'''],_Mayo_Clin_Proc._2002_Sep;77(9):905-9._'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000038-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12233922_12233922]-37|[37]]] ืืืฆื ืื ืืชืืืฉื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืงืืช ืืกืจืงืืืช ืงืคืืกื ืืืืขื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืชืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืจืืื ืื ืืขืงืืืชืื, ืืื ืืชืคืฉืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืืชืืจ ืืืกืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืช ืืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืกืืืข ืืคืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ื ื ืืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืชื. [34] ืืื ืื ืืืืช HIVANโโ [38] ืืืคืืขื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืคืจืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืงืืื ืืคืจืืงืืื. [39] ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืงืจื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื ืืืคืืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. [40] ืืืฆื ืื ืชืืื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืชืจืืืืช ืงืืืืช ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื. [34] [34]
ืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืจืจืื ืืงืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืจื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืืืชืจืืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช. [24] [4] ืขืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืื ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืคื ืืืืคืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื, ืืืืง ืืืฉืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืคืกืืื-ืืืขื ื ืืืจืืคื. [5] [4] ืงืืืืฅ ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืงื ืขื ืืฆืืืช ืืืกืืก ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืฆื ืืืืืื. ืืฉื ืื ืืงืื ืคืจืืค' ืจืืฆ'ืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืขืื ืืืืฃ ื ืืืงืื, ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช. [41] ืืืงืจืื ื ืื ืืืงื ืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืชืคืจืกื ื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืชืฉืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืขื ืกืื ืืงืืขืื ืงืื ืื ืขื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื. ืืจืืืืืื Y ืขืืืจ ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืง/ืช.
ืืืืืจ ืืฉื ืช 1997 ื ืืขื ืื ืกืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืกืืื ืืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉืืื ืืืืคื ืืจืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืฆืื. [42] ืืืขื ืช ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืฆื ืื ืืขืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืื ืืคื ื ืืืคืืื ืขื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืคืื ืฉื ื, ืืืืืจ ืืขืจื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื. [43] ืืืงืจืื ืืงืืคืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืคืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื "ืืืื ื" ืฉืืื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืื ืืคื ื 3.5 ยฑ 18.5 ืืืคื ืฉื ืื. [44] [45] ืื ืืืฉื ื ืืฆื ืืืืคืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืื ืืืงืื ื ืชืืื, ืืจืืข ืืื ืืืงืื ื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืงืื ืื ื ืื, ื ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืืจืืืกืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืคืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื "ืืืืื ื" ืงืืื ืืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืืืฆืื ืื ืืืขืืจื ืืื ื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืขื ืืืฆืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืืง, ืื ืืคืืื ืขื ืืืืืชื. [46]
ืืืืงืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืฉืืชืคืจืกื ืืฉื ืช 2000 ื ืืืื ืืงืืขืื ื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื 336 ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืข ืชืคืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืฆื 1,035 ืืืจืื ืื-ืืืืืืื ื-22 ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื. [47] ืืืขื ืช ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช (Israelite population) ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉืืืืชื ืืกืชืขืคืืช ืืืืืจืคืืช ืืืขืงืืืชืื โ ืืชืคืชืืืช ืขืฆืืืืช. [48]
ืืืืงืจ ืืฉื ืช 2001 ืฉื ืขืจื ืขื ืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืขืืืชืื, ื ืืืื ืืงืืขืื ื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื 526 ื ืืืงืื ืืืืืฆืืื ืฉืฉ ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืจื ืชืืืื ืืืช ( ืืฉืื ืืื, ืกืคืจืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื, ืืืจืืื ืืืกืืืืื, ืขืจืืื ืืืกืืืืื ื ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืื). [49] ืืืืงืจ ืืืง ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืคืจื ื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ื ืื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืงืืื. ืืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืชื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืจื ืืื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื, ืกืคืจืื ืืืฉืื ืื. ืืืืงืจืื ืืขืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืืื ืงืื ืขื ืืกืืืื ืืืืจืืคืืช. ืืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืงืจ ืขื ืงืจืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช.
ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืจืื ื ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ื ืืืืชืจืืช ืืื ืืฆื ื ืืืงืื ื ืืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื. ืืืช ืืฃ ืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืชืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืืืืช ืืืกืืื. ืืืฆื ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืจื ืื ืืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืชืขืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขืจืืื ืื ืืจืืจืื ืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื. [50]
ืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื ืจืืื-ืืืงืฃ ืฉืืชืคืจืกืื ืืืื ื 2010 ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจืืคื, ืืืกืื, ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืฆื ืืื ืขืจื.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtzmon,_G.,_et_al.,_[http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297(10)00246-6_'''Abraham's_Children_in_the_Genome_Era:_Major_Jewish_Diaspora_Populations_Comprise_Distinct_Genetic_Clusters_with_Shared_Middle_Eastern_Ancestry.''']_The_American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics._86(6):_p._850โ859._'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000004E-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20560205_20560205]-51|[51]]] [52] [53] [54] [55] ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืชืืืืื ืืกืืจื ืื ืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืขื ืื-ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืชืื ืืงืืืื ืืขื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืื ืืืืงืจืื ื ืืขื ืขืื, ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืืชื ืช ืืชืื ืืืฉืคืื. [34] ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืงืืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืขืืจืืง, ืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืจืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืคื ืื ืืืืืช ืกืืจืื ืืคื ื ื- 100-150 ืืืจืืช. [34] ืืืืจ ืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืืืงืจืื ืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืชืงืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืืช ืื ืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืฉืฉืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืงืืกืจืืช ืืจืืืืช. [34]
ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืชืืืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืืืกืืจืชืืช, ืฉืืคืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืฆืืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืชืืืจืืืช ืฉืืคืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืงืืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืช ื ืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืืข ืฉื ื ืืืืจืื. [56] [57] [58] [59] ืืฃ ืื ืืืชืื ืฉืงืืืฆืืช ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืชืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช โ ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืืจืื, ื ืืืืืช ืืฉืื ื โ ืืฉืคืขืชื ืขื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื ืืืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื. [60] [48] ืจืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืืชืคืจืกืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืขืืช ืขืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืื, ืื ืืชื ืืืขื ืืง ืืื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืืชืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืจืื. [61] ื ืืขื ืื ืขืฆื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืชื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืฉื ืงืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืื. [5]
![]() | Parts of this section (those related to opposing findings published in the scientific literature later than 2002 (e.g. [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67]) ) need to be updated. Please help update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2010) |
A 1999 study by Lucotte and Smets studied the DNA of 38 unrelated Beta Israel males living in Israel and 104 Ethiopians living in regions located north of Addis Ababa and concluded that "the distinctiveness of the Y-chromosome haplotype distribution of the Beta-Israel from conventional Jewish populations and their relatively greater similarity in haplotype profile to non-Jewish Ethiopians are consistent with the view that the Beta Israel people descended from ancient inhabitants of Ethiopia and not the Levant." [68] [69] This study confirmed the findings of a 1991 study by Zoossmann-Disken et al.. [70] A 2000 study by Hammer et al. of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes of Jewish and non-Jewish groups suggested that "paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population," with the exception of the Beta Israel, who were "affiliated more closely with non-Beta Israel (non-Falasha) Ethiopians and other East Africans." [71] A 2004 study by Shen et al reached similar conclusions, that the Beta Israel were likely descended from local Ethiopian populations. [72]
A 2001 study by the Department of Biological Sciences at Stanford University found a possible genetic similarity between 11 Ethiopian Falashas and 4 Yemenite Jews who took part in the testing. The differentiation statistic and genetic distances for the 11 Ethiopian Falashas and 4 Yemenite Jews tested were quite low, among the smallest of comparisons involving either of these populations. The 4 Yemenite Jews from this study may be descendants of reverse migrants of African origin who crossed Ethiopia to Yemen. The study result suggests gene flow between Ethiopia and Yemen as a possible explanation for the closeness. The study also suggests that the gene flow between Ethiopian and Yemenite Jewish populations may not have been direct, but instead could have been between Jewish and non-Jewish populations of both regions. [73]
A 2002 study of Mitochondrial DNA (which is passed through only maternal lineage to both men and women) by Thomas et al. showed that the most common mtDNA type found among the Ethiopian Falasha sample was present only in Somalia. This further supported the view that all Ethiopian Beta-Israel (Falashas) were of local or Ethiopian origin. [74]
A 2009 study of Autosomal DNA (which is inherited from both parents) by Tishkoff et al. observed that the Beta Israel were predominantly of the Cushitic genetic cluster, typically found in populations from East Africa. Furthermore, the Beta Israel had elevated levels of the European genetic cluster compared to the other examined Ethiopian and East African populations in the Global Structure Run. [75]
A 2010 study by Behar et al. on the Genome-wide structure of Jews observed that the Beta Israel had similar levels of the Middle Eastern genetic clusters as the Semitic-speaking Tigreans and Amharas. Indeed, compared to the Cushitic-speaking Oromos, who are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, the Beta Israel had higher levels of Middle Eastern admixture. [76]
{{
citation}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |doi-inactive=
, |lay-source=
, |lay-date=
, |separator=
, |lay-summary=
, |nopp=
, and |month=
(
help); More than one of |author=
and |last=
specified (
help)
{{
citation}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(
help); Unknown parameter |month=
ignored (
help)CS1 maint: date and year (
link)
{{
citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link)
{{
citation}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |doi-inactive=
, |lay-source=
, |lay-date=
, |separator=
, |lay-summary=
, |nopp=
, and |month=
(
help); More than one of |author=
and |last=
specified (
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (
link)
Medieval European Jews who redeemed Beta Israeli captives made no remarks about their physical appearance. [1] However, with the advent of scientific racism in the late 19th Century it became commonplace for modern observers to identify physical "Jewish" features in Beta Israelies. Henry Aaron Sternโ, a German Jew who joined the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People and was sent as a missionary to Abyssinia in 1859, has remarked that: "In physiognomy, most of the Falashas bear striking traces of their Semitic origin. Among the first group we saw at Gondar there were some whose Jewish features no one could have mistaken, who had ever seen the descendants of Abraham either in London or Berlin. Their complexion is a shade paler than that of the Abyssinians, and their eyes, although black and sparkling, are not so disproportionately large as those which characteristically mark the other occupants of the land." [2] Similar remarks were made by Dr. Jacques Faitlovitch, [3] Aaron Zeev Aescoly, Jewish Agency workers Yehuda Azrieli and Shaul Meizlish, Rabbi David Chelouche and even Nathan Shapiro, president of the AAEJ, as late as 1985. [4]
The racial discourse about the origin of the Beta Israel played a dominant role in the debate regarding their immigration to Israel. In November 14 1934, the executive branch of the World Zionist Organization has turned down the request of Jacques Faitlovitch to bring the Ethiopian Jews to the Land of Israel. Arthur Ruppin, then head of the Zionist executive, claimed that the Ethiopians were โNiggers, who came to Judaism by force of the sword in the sixth century B.C. They have no blood connection to the Jews. [โฆ] [Therefore] their number in Palestine should not be increased.โ [6] As Ruppin viewed the "Jewish race" as a subclade of white Indo-Germanic races, he ruled out their racial connection to the Jews of Ethiopia. [6] In a 1942 document Ruppin further classified Faitlovitch himself to the โAschkenasisch-Negroiderโ type, one of eight types of the Jewish race supposedly distinguishable by the shape of the nose. [7] Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir has opposed the aliyah of Beta Israel to Israel in 1969, arguing โDonโt we have enough problems? What do we need these blacks for?โ. [8] [9] [10] Chief Rabbi Yitzhak Nissim has objected a mission to assist Beta Israeli communities in 1957, with the sharp exclamation: "Who needs those blacks?". [11] A 1973 report composed at the Immigrant Absorption Ministry has asserted that the dark skin color of Ethiopian Jews is likely to cause problems with their integration into Israeli society, thereby "supplying plentiful material for hostile elements in the international community to increase anti-Israeli incitement by blaming it in "racism", as well as discrimination, religious coercion, etc." [12]
Like other ethnic groups in northern Ethiopia, the Beta Israel view their own skin color as reddish-brown ('qeyy' in Amharic), whereas a black ('tequr') skin color is attributed to low status groups used as slaves. [4] Both the Beta Israel and their Christian neighbours share the view that they are descendants of the people of Israel who have immigrated to the horn of Africa in Biblical times, and have intermarried with the local population to some extent.
According to Rabbinical Halakha, the children of a mother who is not living in accordance with Jewish law, or has even converted to another religion, are still recognized as Jews, as their mother is "a Gentile by virtue of her acts, but a Jew by her birth/history". [13] However, according to Haymanot (Beta Israeli code of law), being a Jew necessarily means observing Jewish law, and thus a Jew who has ceased to practice Jewish law (notbaly dietary laws or Shabbat observance) ceases to be a Jew until he undergoes a ritual process of conversion in order to return to Judaism. Until then he is excommunicated and his descendants are not recognized as Jews. Thus, while biological ancestry plays a role in the Jewish identity of non-practicing Jews according to Rabbinical Halakha, it plays no such role according to Beta Israeli code of law.
"A lack of a common genetic origin does not refute the Jewish identity, just as Jewish genetic markers do not establish the Jewish identity of a community which is not recognized as a Jewish community according to Halacha". [14]
"Jewishness is not a matter of DNA. Nor can DNA be used to disprove or prove and individual's or group's Jewishness." [15]
Kaplan2006:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504630600823668
[16]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2010.12.016
ืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืคืกืืื-ืืืขื ื ืืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืืื ืืชืฉืข ืขืฉืจื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื, ืืืกืืจืชื ืืืื ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืคื ืืืืคืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื. [5] [4] ื ืืืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืืืื ืืืงื ืืืืข ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื, ืืื ืขื ืงืืืชื. ืืฉื ืช 1940 ืืืกืื 44 ืืจืืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืืืช, ืฉืืืืฉืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื. [18] ืืฉื ืช 1941 ืืืืขื ืคืงืืืืช ื ืจืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื, ืื ืชืืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื ื ืงืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืื ืขื ืืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืืจืืืช. [19]
ืืืืงืจ ืืืจื ืืฉืืึนึผืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจื ืืฉื ืช 1943 ืขืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืขืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืจ, ืืคืื ืื ืคืืืฉื ืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืขืื ืืคื ืชืืื ืคื ืื, ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืืื. [20] ืืืืืื ืืืืืชื ืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืืจ ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืช ืฆืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืจืื ืื ื ืขืกืงื ืื ื ืืืืืงืช ืืืชืืฉืืช ืขื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืชื ื ืขืืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืฉืืืช. [4] ืืฉื ืช 1973 ืืชืคืจืกื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืจ ื"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืง ื ืืฉืจื ืืงืืืื, ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืงืจืื ืฉืืกืงื ืืชืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืื:
Error: No text given for quotation (or equals sign used in the actual argument to an unnamed parameter)
ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืจ ืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืคืกืง ืืื ืฉืื"ื ืืืืืง ืืื "ืขืื ืืกืื ืืืคืืื ื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืคื"ื" ืืืืจื ืืื ืื "ืืืงืื ืฉืฆืขืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืชื". [23]
ืืืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืงื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช. [24] ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ( Lemba) ื ืืจืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืงืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืืืื, ืืฉืคืืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืชื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ื ืืืืจืชื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืื. [5] ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืชืืขืื ืืืืกืืืจื ืืืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื, ืืงืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืืืืจืืคื. [5]
ืืขืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืจืื ืืืชืืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฆืืข ืขืืจื ื ืืืื ("ืงืื") - ืืื ("ืืขืื") ืืื ื ืฉืืืจ ("ืืืงืืจ"). ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืก ืืคืืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืจืื-ืืชืืืคืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืืช. [4] ืืืฆืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืชืืื ื ืื ืืืงื ืืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฆืืืขืื ืขื ืงืจืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช ื ืืืจื ืืชืืืื.โโ [25] [26] ื ืืขื ืื ืืชืจืืฉื ืืืืจื ืื ืืฉืืช ืื-ืกืืจืืช ืขื ืคื ื ืฉื ื ื ืชืืืื - ืืืื ืืจื ืืฆืจืื ื ืกืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืจื ืืฆื ืืื ืขืจื ืืขื ืคื ื ืืืฆืจื ืืื ืื ืื ืื. [27]โโ [26] ืืืืืจื ืืืืืจืช ืื ืฉื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืชืืืืช ืืช ืืชืืขืื ืืืืกืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืฉืชืจืขื ืืฉื ื ืขืืจื ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืื ืกืื ื ืืงืกืื. [25] [27] [[ืงืืืฅ:Boxwood Buxus sempervirens var. arborescens Bark Closeup 1825px.jpg|ืฉืืื|ืืืืืขืจ|250px| ืืืข ืืืงืกืืก ืืจืืง ืขื, ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืืืืงืจืื ืขื ืขืฅ ื ืืฉืืจืืข. ืืคื ืจืื ืืฉืืขืื,โโ [28] ืืืื ืืขืืจ ืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืชืงืืคืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจืืข - "ืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืื, ืืื ืืื ืื ืืื".]] ืืืืงืจืื ืืกืคืืจืื ืฉื ืขืฉื ืขื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืฉืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืชืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืฉ ื ืืืื,โโ [29] ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืง ืืฉื ืช 2006 ืืืืืื ืฉ ืืืืืงืืชื ืืกืืืืกืืืช ืื ื ืืืงื ืืืืื.โโ [30] ื ืืืืจ ืืืืขื ืืฉื ืช 2005 ืคืืจืกืื ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืื ื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืฉืืืืชืืช ืฉื 898 ื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืชืื ืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช.โโ ืื ืืืืฆืืื ืขืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืงืจืืืื ืืืืื ื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืื-ืืืืืื. ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืื ืงืืื ืืจืืื ืื- ืืคืจืืงื ื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื. [26] ืืืืืจืื ืืฆืืขื ืขืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืขืืจื ืืืืจ ืขื ืคื ืืื ื ืขืื ืื ืขื ื ืืืฆืืจืคื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืขืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืชื ืฆืจ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืงืืืืืืฆืื ืืืชืืืคืืช. [26] ืื ืื, ืืืืงืจ ืืงืืฃ ืฉืคืืจืกื ืืฉื ืช 2010, ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืืืง ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื 1,287 ื ืืืงืื, ื ืืฆื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื 13 ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ื-21 ืื ืืืงืื ืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. [31] ืืืช ืืขืื ืจืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืคืืื ื ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืื ืืื. ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ืืคืืื ื ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงื ืฉืืืจืื ืืกืืจื (ืืขืืื ืื ืื, ืืืจืืื, ืื ืืื ืงื, ืกื ื ืคืืืืื). [32] ืื ืืืืงืจ ืื, ืืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืกืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฆืืื. ืืืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืงื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืชืคืืฆืืช ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahn_SM,_[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11013-005-7424-5_'''The_multiple_meanings_of_Jewish_genes'''],_Cult_Med_Psychiatry._2005_Jun;29(2):179-92,_'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000002F-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16249949_16249949]-33|[33]]] ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืคืืจืกืื ืกืงืืจืืช ืืืขืืืช ( review articles) ืืืกืืืืช ืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืงืืืืื ืื ืืฉื, ืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืกืืฆืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืื. [34][[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParfitt_T,_Egorova_Y.,_[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11013-005-7425-4_'''Genetics,_history,_and_identity:_the_case_of_the_Bene_Israel_and_the_Lemba'''],_Cult_Med_Psychiatry._2005_Jun;29(2):193-224_'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000033-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16249950_16249950]-35|[35]]] ืืืืฆืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืชืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืืืฆื ืืขืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืจืืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืขืจื ืื. ืืคืจื, ืื ื ืืชื ืืงืืืข ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชืืช ืฉื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืจื-ืชืืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืช. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืฆืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืื ื ืืชืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืฉืืืขืืชื ืืขืืจ, ืืคืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืคืจืืงืื ืฉืืชืืืืจ. [34] [34]
ืืกืืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืืขื ืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืืื ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืงืืืืืชืื, ืืืืงืจ ืืืืขื ืื ืืฉื ืืฆืื ืขืืืื ืืืืชืืืื. ืืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืื ืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืจืืง ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืืฆืข ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืงื ืืื ืงืื ืืืจืื ืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืชืื ืื ืงืืืฆืช ืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืขืืช ืชืคืงืืืืช ืืงืจืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืฉืื ืืช. ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืจืคืืืืช ืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืื ื ืงืืืชืืื ืืขืฉืืืื ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืชืืคืขืืช ืกืืฃ ืื ืื. ืกืจืงืืืช ืงืคืืกื ืืืฉื ืืชืคืจืฆืช ืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืงื ืื ืืืืฆื ืืืืืงื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืจืืงื, [36] ืื ืืืขื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืืคืื.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman_Z,_Iscovich_J,_Schwartz_F,_Azizi_E,_Klepfish_A,_Schattner_A,_Sarid_R,_[http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=171_'''Absence_of_Kaposi_sarcoma_among_Ethiopian_immigrants_to_Israel_despite_high_seroprevalence_of_human_herpesvirus_8.'''],_Mayo_Clin_Proc._2002_Sep;77(9):905-9._'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000038-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12233922_12233922]-37|[37]]] ืืืฆื ืื ืืชืืืฉื ืขื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืงืืช ืืกืจืงืืืช ืงืคืืกื ืืืืขื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืชืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืจืืื ืื ืืขืงืืืชืื, ืืื ืืชืคืฉืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืืชืืจ ืืืกืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืช ืืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืกืืืข ืืคืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ื ื ืืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืชื. [34] ืืื ืื ืืืืช HIVANโโ [38] ืืืคืืขื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืคืจืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืงืืื ืืคืจืืงืืื. [39] ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืงืจื ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื ืืืคืืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. [40] ืืืฆื ืื ืชืืื ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืชืจืืืืช ืงืืืืช ืืืชื ืืฉืจืื. [34] [34]
ืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืจืจืื ืืงืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืจืจืช ืขื ืืื ืจื ืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืืืชืจืืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช. [24] [4] ืขืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืื ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืชืืจืช ืืืืข ืคื ืืืืคืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืคืจืืงื, ืืืืง ืืืฉืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืคืกืืื-ืืืขื ื ืืืจืืคื. [5] [4] ืงืืืืฅ ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืงื ืขื ืืฆืืืช ืืืกืืก ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืฆื ืืืืืื. ืืฉื ืื ืืงืื ืคืจืืค' ืจืืฆ'ืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืขืื ืืืืฃ ื ืืืงืื, ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช. [41] ืืืงืจืื ื ืื ืืืงื ืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืชืคืจืกื ื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืชืฉืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืขื ืกืื ืืงืืขืื ืงืื ืื ืขื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื. ืืจืืืืืื Y ืขืืืจ ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืง/ืช.
ืืืืืจ ืืฉื ืช 1997 ื ืืขื ืื ืกืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืกืืื ืืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉืืื ืืืืคื ืืจืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืฆืื. [42] ืืืขื ืช ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืฆื ืื ืืขืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืื ืืคื ื ืืืคืืื ืขื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืคืื ืฉื ื, ืืืืืจ ืืขืจื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื. [43] ืืืงืจืื ืืงืืคืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืคืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื "ืืืื ื" ืฉืืื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืื ืืคื ื 3.5 ยฑ 18.5 ืืืคื ืฉื ืื. [44] [45] ืื ืืืฉื ื ืืฆื ืืืืคืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืื ืืืงืื ื ืชืืื, ืืจืืข ืืื ืืืงืื ื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืงืื ืื ื ืื, ื ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืืจืืืกืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืคืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื "ืืืืื ื" ืงืืื ืืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืืืฆืื ืื ืืืขืืจื ืืื ื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืขื ืืืฆืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืืง, ืื ืืคืืื ืขื ืืืืืชื. [46]
ืืืืงืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืฉืืชืคืจืกื ืืฉื ืช 2000 ื ืืืื ืืงืืขืื ื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื 336 ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืข ืชืคืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืฆื 1,035 ืืืจืื ืื-ืืืืืืื ื-22 ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืืื. [47] ืืืขื ืช ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช (Israelite population) ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉืืืืชื ืืกืชืขืคืืช ืืืืืจืคืืช ืืืขืงืืืชืื โ ืืชืคืชืืืช ืขืฆืืืืช. [48]
ืืืืงืจ ืืฉื ืช 2001 ืฉื ืขืจื ืขื ืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืขืืืชืื, ื ืืืื ืืงืืขืื ื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื 526 ื ืืืงืื ืืืืืฆืืื ืฉืฉ ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืจื ืชืืืื ืืืช ( ืืฉืื ืืื, ืกืคืจืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื, ืืืจืืื ืืืกืืืืื, ืขืจืืื ืืืกืืืืื ื ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืื). [49] ืืืืงืจ ืืืง ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืคืจื ื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ื ืื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืงืืื. ืืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืชื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืจื ืืื ืืจืืืืืื Y ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื, ืกืคืจืื ืืืฉืื ืื. ืืืืงืจืื ืืขืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืืื ืงืื ืขื ืืกืืืื ืืืืจืืคืืช. ืืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืงืจ ืขื ืงืจืื ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช.
ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืจืื ื ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืื ื ืืืืชืจืืช ืืื ืืฆื ื ืืืงืื ื ืืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื. ืืืช ืืฃ ืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืชืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืืืืช ืืืกืืื. ืืืฆื ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืจื ืื ืืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืชืขืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขืจืืื ืื ืืจืืจืื ืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื. [50]
ืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื ืจืืื-ืืืงืฃ ืฉืืชืคืจืกืื ืืืื ื 2010 ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจืืคื, ืืืกืื, ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืฆื ืืื ืขืจื.[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtzmon,_G.,_et_al.,_[http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297(10)00246-6_'''Abraham's_Children_in_the_Genome_Era:_Major_Jewish_Diaspora_Populations_Comprise_Distinct_Genetic_Clusters_with_Shared_Middle_Eastern_Ancestry.''']_The_American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics._86(6):_p._850โ859._'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000004E-QINU`"'[[PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20560205_20560205]-51|[51]]] [52] [53] [54] [55] ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืชืืืืื ืืกืืจื ืื ืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืขื ืื-ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืชืื ืืงืืืื ืืขื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืื ืืืืงืจืื ื ืืขื ืขืื, ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืงืฉืจื ืืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืืชื ืช ืืชืื ืืืฉืคืื. [34] ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืงืืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืขืืจืืง, ืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืจืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืคื ืื ืืืืืช ืกืืจืื ืืคื ื ื- 100-150 ืืืจืืช. [34] ืืืืจ ืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืืืงืจืื ืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืชืงืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืืช ืื ืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืฉื ืฉืฉืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืงืืกืจืืช ืืจืืืืช. [34]
ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืชืืืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืืืกืืจืชืืช, ืฉืืคืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืฆืืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืชืืืจืืืช ืฉืืคืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืงืืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืช ื ืืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืืข ืฉื ื ืืืืจืื. [56] [57] [58] [59] ืืฃ ืื ืืืชืื ืฉืงืืืฆืืช ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืชืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช โ ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืืจืื, ื ืืืืืช ืืฉืื ื โ ืืฉืคืขืชื ืขื ืืืืขื ืืชืืจืฉืชื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื ืืืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื. [60] [48] ืจืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืืชืคืจืกืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืขืืช ืขืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืื, ืื ืืชื ืืืขื ืืง ืืื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืืชืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืจืื. [61] ื ืืขื ืื ืขืฆื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืชื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืจืฉืชื ืืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืฉื ืงืืืืช ืื ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืื. [5]
![]() | Parts of this section (those related to opposing findings published in the scientific literature later than 2002 (e.g. [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67]) ) need to be updated. Please help update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2010) |
A 1999 study by Lucotte and Smets studied the DNA of 38 unrelated Beta Israel males living in Israel and 104 Ethiopians living in regions located north of Addis Ababa and concluded that "the distinctiveness of the Y-chromosome haplotype distribution of the Beta-Israel from conventional Jewish populations and their relatively greater similarity in haplotype profile to non-Jewish Ethiopians are consistent with the view that the Beta Israel people descended from ancient inhabitants of Ethiopia and not the Levant." [68] [69] This study confirmed the findings of a 1991 study by Zoossmann-Disken et al.. [70] A 2000 study by Hammer et al. of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes of Jewish and non-Jewish groups suggested that "paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population," with the exception of the Beta Israel, who were "affiliated more closely with non-Beta Israel (non-Falasha) Ethiopians and other East Africans." [71] A 2004 study by Shen et al reached similar conclusions, that the Beta Israel were likely descended from local Ethiopian populations. [72]
A 2001 study by the Department of Biological Sciences at Stanford University found a possible genetic similarity between 11 Ethiopian Falashas and 4 Yemenite Jews who took part in the testing. The differentiation statistic and genetic distances for the 11 Ethiopian Falashas and 4 Yemenite Jews tested were quite low, among the smallest of comparisons involving either of these populations. The 4 Yemenite Jews from this study may be descendants of reverse migrants of African origin who crossed Ethiopia to Yemen. The study result suggests gene flow between Ethiopia and Yemen as a possible explanation for the closeness. The study also suggests that the gene flow between Ethiopian and Yemenite Jewish populations may not have been direct, but instead could have been between Jewish and non-Jewish populations of both regions. [73]
A 2002 study of Mitochondrial DNA (which is passed through only maternal lineage to both men and women) by Thomas et al. showed that the most common mtDNA type found among the Ethiopian Falasha sample was present only in Somalia. This further supported the view that all Ethiopian Beta-Israel (Falashas) were of local or Ethiopian origin. [74]
A 2009 study of Autosomal DNA (which is inherited from both parents) by Tishkoff et al. observed that the Beta Israel were predominantly of the Cushitic genetic cluster, typically found in populations from East Africa. Furthermore, the Beta Israel had elevated levels of the European genetic cluster compared to the other examined Ethiopian and East African populations in the Global Structure Run. [75]
A 2010 study by Behar et al. on the Genome-wide structure of Jews observed that the Beta Israel had similar levels of the Middle Eastern genetic clusters as the Semitic-speaking Tigreans and Amharas. Indeed, compared to the Cushitic-speaking Oromos, who are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, the Beta Israel had higher levels of Middle Eastern admixture. [76]
{{
citation}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |doi-inactive=
, |lay-source=
, |lay-date=
, |separator=
, |lay-summary=
, |nopp=
, and |month=
(
help); More than one of |author=
and |last=
specified (
help)
{{
citation}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(
help); Unknown parameter |month=
ignored (
help)CS1 maint: date and year (
link)
{{
citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link)
{{
citation}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |doi-inactive=
, |lay-source=
, |lay-date=
, |separator=
, |lay-summary=
, |nopp=
, and |month=
(
help); More than one of |author=
and |last=
specified (
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires |journal=
(
help); Missing or empty |title=
(
help)
{{
cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (
link)