1846 –
Urbain Le Verrier and
John Couch Adams, studying
Uranus' orbit, independently prove that another, farther planet must exist.
Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position.
1855 – Le Verrier observes a 35 arcsecond per century excess
precession of
Mercury's
orbit and attributes it to another planet, inside Mercury's orbit. The planet was never found. See
Vulcan.
1876 –
William Kingdon Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space[22]
1882 –
Simon Newcomb observes a 43 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit
1902 –
Paul Gerber explains the movement of the perihelion of Mercury using finite speed of gravity.[26] His formula, at least approximately, matches the later model from Einstein's general relativity, but Gerber's theory was incorrect.
1907 – Albert Einstein introduces the
principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass and uses it to predict gravitational lensing and
gravitational redshift,[32] historically known as the Einstein shift.[33]
1911 – Albert Einstein explains the need to replace both special relativity and Newton's theory of gravity; he realizes that the principle of equivalence only holds locally, not globally.[41]
1916 –
Karl Schwarzschild publishes the
Schwarzschild metric about a month after Einstein published his general theory of relativity.[47][48] This was the first solution to the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution.[49][50][51]
1919 – Arthur Eddington leads a
solar eclipse expedition which detects gravitational deflection of light by the Sun,[62] which, despite opinion to the contrary, survives modern scrutiny.[63] Other teams fail for reasons of
war and politics.[64]
1953 –
P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.
1954 –
Suraj Gupta sketches how to derive the equations of general relativity from quantum field theory for a massless spin-2 particle (the
graviton).[103] His procedure was later carried out by
Stanley Deser in 1970.[104][105]
1955-56 –
Robert Kraichnan shows that under the appropriate assumptions, Einstein's field equations of gravitation arise from the
quantum field theory of a massless spin-2 particle coupled to the stress-energy tensor.[106][107] This follows from his unpublished work as an undergraduate in 1947.[105]
1960 – Thomas Matthews and
Allan R. Sandage associate
3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,
1964 –
Steven Weinberg shows that a quantum field theory of interacting massless spin-2 particles is Lorentz invariant only if it satisfies the principle of equivalence.[125][126][105]
1986 –
Bernard Schutz shows that cosmic distances can be determined using sources of gravitational waves without references to the
cosmic distance ladder.[192] Standard-siren astronomy is born.
1995 – John F. Donoghue show that general relativity is a quantum
effective field theory.[198] This framework could be used to analyze binary systems observed by gravitational-wave observatories.[199]
2017 –
LIGO-VIRGO collaboration detects gravitational waves emitted by a neutron-star binary,
GW170817.[223] The
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the International Gamma-ray Astrophysics Laboratory (
INTEGRAL) unambiguously detect the corresponding gamma-ray burst.[224][225] LIGO-VIRGO and Fermi constrain the difference between the speed of gravity and the speed of light in vacuum to 10−15.[226] This marks the first time electromagnetic and gravitational waves are detected from a single source,[227][228] and give direct evidence that some (short) gamma-ray bursts are due to colliding neutron stars.[223][224]
2017 –
MICROSCOPE satellite experiment verifies the principle of equivalence to 10−15 in terms of the Eötvös ratio .[235] The final report is published in 2022.[236][237]
2017 – Scientists begin using gravitational-wave sources as "
standard sirens" to measure the Hubble constant, finding its value to be broadly in line with the best estimates of the time.[239][240] Refinements of this technique will help resolve
discrepancies between the different methods of measurements.[241]
2018 – Final paper by the
Planck satellite collaboration.[242] Planck operated between 2009 and 2013.
2018 – Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk disprove the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis for the Cauchy horizon of a uncharged, rotating black hole.[243]
2018 – Advanced LIGO-VIRGO collaboration constrains
equations of state for a neutron star using GW170817.[244][245]
2018 – Luciano Rezzolla, Elias R. Most, and Lukas R. Weih used gravitational-wave data from GW170817 constrain the possible maximum mass for a neutron star to around 2.17 solar masses.[246]
2018 – Kris Pardo, Maya Fishbach, Daniel Holz, and David Spergel limit the number of spacetime dimensions through which gravitational waves can propagate to 3 + 1, in line with general relativity and ruling out models that allow for "leakage" to higher dimensions of space.[247][248] Analyses of GW170817 have also ruled out many other alternatives to general relativity,[249][250][251][252] and proposals for dark energy.[253][254][255][256][257]
2018 – Two different experimental teams report highly precise values of Newton's gravitational constant that slightly disagree.[258][259][260]
2019 – Advanced LIGO and VIRGO detect
GW190814, the collision of a 26-solar-mass black hole and a 2.6-solar-mass object, either an extremely heavy neutron star or a very light black hole.[264][265] This is the largest mass gap seen in a gravitational-wave source to-date.
2021 –
Jun Ye and his team measure gravitational redshift with an accuracy of 7.6 × 10−21 using an
ultracold cloud of 100,000 strontium atoms in an
optical lattice.[268][269]
2021 – EHT measures the polarization of the ring of M87*,[270] and other properties of the magnetic field in its vicinity.[271]
2021 – EHT releases an image of
Sagittarius A*, the central supermassive black hole of the Milky Way,[272][273] measures its shadow,[274] and shows that it is accurately described by the Kerr metric.[275][276]
2022 – JWST identifies several candidate high-redshift objects, corresponding to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.[286][287]
2023 – James Nightingale and colleagues detect
Abell 1201, an ultramassive black hole (33 billion solar masses), using strong gravitational lensing.[288]
^
abBauer, Susan Wise (2015). "Chapter Seven: The Last Ancient Astronomer". The Story of Science from the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN978-0-393-24326-0.
^Gribbin, John (2003). "Chapter 3: The First Scientists". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. Random House. pp. 76–7.
ISBN978-1-400-06013-9.
^
abPasachoff, Naomi; Pasachoff, Jay (2012). "Galileo Galilei". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^
abDolnick, Edward (2011). "Timeline". The Clockwork Universe: Isaac Newton, the Royal Society, and the Birth of the Modern World. New York: Harper Collins.
ISBN9780061719516.
^Bauer, Susan Wise (2015). "Chapter Ten: The Death of Aristotle". The Story of Science: From the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN978-0-393-24326-0.
^
abIliffe, Rob (2012). "Isaac Newton". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^
abNewton, Isaac (1999). The Principia: The Authoritative Translation and Guide. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. University of California Press.
ISBN978-0-520-29088-4.
^Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert J. (1973). "8.4: The Principle of Equivalence". An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–54.
ISBN0-07-035048-5.
^Maclaurin, Colin. A Treatise of Fluxions: In Two Books. 1. Vol. 1. Ruddimans, 1742.
^Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1969). "5: The Maclaurin Spheroids". Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-30001-116-6.
^
abWoolfson, M.M. (1993). "Solar System – its origin and evolution". Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 34: 1–20.
Bibcode:
1993QJRAS..34....1W. For details of Kant's position, see Stephen Palmquist, "Kant's Cosmogony Re-Evaluated", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 18:3 (September 1987), pp.255–269.
^French, A. P. (1968). "Chapter 2: Perplexities in the Propagation of Light". Special Relativity. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 52–58.
ISBN0-393-09793-5.
^
abRobinson, Andrew (2012). "Albert Einstein". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^Gribbin, John (2004). "11. Let There be Light". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. Random House. pp. 440–1.
ISBN978-0-812-96788-3.
^Born, Max (1909). "Über die Dynamik des Elektrons in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 10: 814–17.
^Ehrenfest, Paul (1909). "Gleichförmige Rotation starrer Körper und Relativitätstheorie" [Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and Theory of Relativity]. Physikalische Zeitschrift (in German). 10 (918): 918.
Bibcode:
1909PhyZ...10..918E.
^Einstein, Albert (1915). "Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Field Equations of Gravitation]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte: 844–847.
^Einstein, Albert (1915). "Erklärung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Explanation of the Perihelion Motion of Mercury from the General Theory of Relativity]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte: 831–839.
Bibcode:
1915SPAW.......831E.
^Hilbert, David (1915), "Die Grundlagen der Physik" [Foundations of Physics], Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen – Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse (in German), 3: 395–407
^Marsden, Jerrold; Tromba, Anthony (2012). "7.7 Applications to Differential Geometry, Physics, and Forms of Life". Vector Calculus (6th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman Company. p. 422.
ISBN978-1-4292-1508-4.
^Schwarzschild, Karl (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit" [On the Gravitational Field of a Sphere of Incompressible Fluid]. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
^Eisenstaedt, "The Early Interpretation of the Schwarzschild Solution," in D. Howard and J. Stachel (eds), Einstein and the History of General Relativity: Einstein Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 213-234. Boston: Birkhauser, 1989.
^Bartusiak, Marcia (2015). "Chapter 3: One Would Then Find Oneself... in a Geometrical Fairyland". Black Hole: How An Idea Abandoned by Newtonians, Hated by Einstein, and Gambled on by Hawking Became Loved. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-21085-9.
^Einstein, Albert (1916). "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Approximate Integration of the Field Equations of Gravitation]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte (in German): 688–696.
Bibcode:
1916SPAW.......688E.
^Einstein, Albert (1917). "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte (in German). 1: 142–152.
^The Internal Constitution of the Stars A. S. Eddington The Scientific Monthly Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1920), pp. 297–303
JSTOR6491
^Thirring, H. (1918). "Über die Wirkung rotierender ferner Massen in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 19: 33.
Bibcode:
1918PhyZ...19...33T. [On the Effect of Rotating Distant Masses in Einstein's Theory of Gravitation]
^Thirring, H. (1921). "Berichtigung zu meiner Arbeit: 'Über die Wirkung rotierender Massen in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie'". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 22: 29.
Bibcode:
1921PhyZ...22...29T. [Correction to my paper "On the Effect of Rotating Distant Masses in Einstein's Theory of Gravitation"]
^Lense, J.; Thirring, H. (1918). "Über den Einfluss der Eigenrotation der Zentralkörper auf die Bewegung der Planeten und Monde nach der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 19: 156–163.
Bibcode:
1918PhyZ...19..156L. [On the Influence of the Proper Rotation of Central Bodies on the Motions of Planets and Moons According to Einstein's Theory of Gravitation]
^Kaluza, Theodor (1921). "Zum Unitätsproblem in der Physik". Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin. (Math. Phys.) (in German): 966–972.
Bibcode:
1921SPAW.......966K.
^Pais, Abraham (2000). "Chapter 7: Oskar Klein". The Genius of Science: A Portrait Gallery of Twentieth-Century Physicists. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN0-19-850614-7.
^Einstein, Albert (1931). "Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [On the Cosmological Problem of the General Theory of Relativity]. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse (in German): 235–237.
^D. I., Blokhintsev; F. M., Gal'perin (1934). "Гипотеза нейтрино и закон сохранения энергии" [Neutrino hypothesis and conservation of energy]. Pod Znamenem Marxisma (in Russian). 6: 147–157.
ISBN978-5-04-008956-7.
^Einstein, Albert; Infeld, Leopold; Hoffmann, Banesh (1938). "The Gravitational Equations and the Problem of Motion". Annals of Mathematics. 39 (1): 65–100.
doi:
10.2307/1968714.
JSTOR1968714.
^
abcdePreskill, John and Kip S. Thorne. Foreword to Feynman Lectures On Gravitation. Feynman et al. (Westview Press; 1st ed. (June 20, 2002).
PDF link
^Weinberg, Steven (1964). "Photons and gravitons in S-matrix theory: derivation of charge conservation and equality of gravitational and inertial mass". Physical Review. 135 (4B): B1049–B1056.
Bibcode:
1964PhRv..135.1049W.
doi:
10.1103/PhysRev.135.B1049.
^Chiu, Hong-Yee (May 1964).
"Gravitational collapse". Physics Today. 17 (5): 21–34.
Bibcode:
1964PhT....17e..21C.
doi:10.1063/1.3051610. So far, the clumsily long name 'quasi-stellar radio sources' is used to describe these objects. Because the nature of these objects is entirely unknown, it is hard to prepare a short, appropriate nomenclature for them so that their essential properties are obvious from their name. For convenience, the abbreviated form 'quasar' will be used throughout this paper.
^Bartusiak, Marcia (2015). "Chapter 9: Why Don't You Call It A Black Hole?". Black Hole: How an Idea Abandoned by Newtonians, Hated by Einstein, and Gambled on by Hawking Became Loved. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-21085-9.
^Chandrasekhar, S. (1967). "The post-Newtonian effects of General Relativity on the equilibrium of uniformly rotating bodies. II. The deformed figures of the MacLaurin spheroids". The Astrophysical Journal. 147: 334.
Bibcode:
1967ApJ...147..334C.
doi:
10.1086/149003.
^H. G. Ellis (1973). "Ether flow through a drainhole: A particle model in general relativity". Journal of Mathematical Physics. 14 (1): 104–118.
Bibcode:
1973JMP....14..104E.
doi:
10.1063/1.1666161.
^Townsend, John S. (2012). "Section 8.7: Quantum Interference due to Gravity". A Modern Approach to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). University Science Books. pp. 297–99.
ISBN978-1-891389-78-8.
^Reiss, Adam G.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Challis, Peter; Clocchiatti, Alejandro; Diercks, Alan; Garnavich, Peter M.; Gilliland, Ron L.; Hogan, Craig J.; Jha, Saurabh; Kirshner, Robert P.; Leibundgut, B.; Phillips, M. M.; Reiss, David; Schmidt, Brian P.; Schommer, Robert A.; Smith, R. Chris; Spyromilio, J.; Stubbs, Christopher; Suntzeff, Nicholas B.; Tonry, John (1998). "Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant". The Astronomical Journal. 116 (3): 1009–1038.
arXiv:astro-ph/9805201.
Bibcode:
1998AJ....116.1009R.
doi:
10.1086/300499.
S2CID15640044.
^McLaughlin, Maura (October 16, 2017).
"Neutron Star Merger Seen and Heard". Physics. Vol. 10, no. 114. American Physical Society. Retrieved May 12, 2023.
^Landau, Elizabeth (April 10, 2019).
"Black Hole Image Makes History". Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. Retrieved May 17, 2023.
1846 –
Urbain Le Verrier and
John Couch Adams, studying
Uranus' orbit, independently prove that another, farther planet must exist.
Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position.
1855 – Le Verrier observes a 35 arcsecond per century excess
precession of
Mercury's
orbit and attributes it to another planet, inside Mercury's orbit. The planet was never found. See
Vulcan.
1876 –
William Kingdon Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space[22]
1882 –
Simon Newcomb observes a 43 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit
1902 –
Paul Gerber explains the movement of the perihelion of Mercury using finite speed of gravity.[26] His formula, at least approximately, matches the later model from Einstein's general relativity, but Gerber's theory was incorrect.
1907 – Albert Einstein introduces the
principle of equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass and uses it to predict gravitational lensing and
gravitational redshift,[32] historically known as the Einstein shift.[33]
1911 – Albert Einstein explains the need to replace both special relativity and Newton's theory of gravity; he realizes that the principle of equivalence only holds locally, not globally.[41]
1916 –
Karl Schwarzschild publishes the
Schwarzschild metric about a month after Einstein published his general theory of relativity.[47][48] This was the first solution to the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution.[49][50][51]
1919 – Arthur Eddington leads a
solar eclipse expedition which detects gravitational deflection of light by the Sun,[62] which, despite opinion to the contrary, survives modern scrutiny.[63] Other teams fail for reasons of
war and politics.[64]
1953 –
P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.
1954 –
Suraj Gupta sketches how to derive the equations of general relativity from quantum field theory for a massless spin-2 particle (the
graviton).[103] His procedure was later carried out by
Stanley Deser in 1970.[104][105]
1955-56 –
Robert Kraichnan shows that under the appropriate assumptions, Einstein's field equations of gravitation arise from the
quantum field theory of a massless spin-2 particle coupled to the stress-energy tensor.[106][107] This follows from his unpublished work as an undergraduate in 1947.[105]
1960 – Thomas Matthews and
Allan R. Sandage associate
3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,
1964 –
Steven Weinberg shows that a quantum field theory of interacting massless spin-2 particles is Lorentz invariant only if it satisfies the principle of equivalence.[125][126][105]
1986 –
Bernard Schutz shows that cosmic distances can be determined using sources of gravitational waves without references to the
cosmic distance ladder.[192] Standard-siren astronomy is born.
1995 – John F. Donoghue show that general relativity is a quantum
effective field theory.[198] This framework could be used to analyze binary systems observed by gravitational-wave observatories.[199]
2017 –
LIGO-VIRGO collaboration detects gravitational waves emitted by a neutron-star binary,
GW170817.[223] The
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the International Gamma-ray Astrophysics Laboratory (
INTEGRAL) unambiguously detect the corresponding gamma-ray burst.[224][225] LIGO-VIRGO and Fermi constrain the difference between the speed of gravity and the speed of light in vacuum to 10−15.[226] This marks the first time electromagnetic and gravitational waves are detected from a single source,[227][228] and give direct evidence that some (short) gamma-ray bursts are due to colliding neutron stars.[223][224]
2017 –
MICROSCOPE satellite experiment verifies the principle of equivalence to 10−15 in terms of the Eötvös ratio .[235] The final report is published in 2022.[236][237]
2017 – Scientists begin using gravitational-wave sources as "
standard sirens" to measure the Hubble constant, finding its value to be broadly in line with the best estimates of the time.[239][240] Refinements of this technique will help resolve
discrepancies between the different methods of measurements.[241]
2018 – Final paper by the
Planck satellite collaboration.[242] Planck operated between 2009 and 2013.
2018 – Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk disprove the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis for the Cauchy horizon of a uncharged, rotating black hole.[243]
2018 – Advanced LIGO-VIRGO collaboration constrains
equations of state for a neutron star using GW170817.[244][245]
2018 – Luciano Rezzolla, Elias R. Most, and Lukas R. Weih used gravitational-wave data from GW170817 constrain the possible maximum mass for a neutron star to around 2.17 solar masses.[246]
2018 – Kris Pardo, Maya Fishbach, Daniel Holz, and David Spergel limit the number of spacetime dimensions through which gravitational waves can propagate to 3 + 1, in line with general relativity and ruling out models that allow for "leakage" to higher dimensions of space.[247][248] Analyses of GW170817 have also ruled out many other alternatives to general relativity,[249][250][251][252] and proposals for dark energy.[253][254][255][256][257]
2018 – Two different experimental teams report highly precise values of Newton's gravitational constant that slightly disagree.[258][259][260]
2019 – Advanced LIGO and VIRGO detect
GW190814, the collision of a 26-solar-mass black hole and a 2.6-solar-mass object, either an extremely heavy neutron star or a very light black hole.[264][265] This is the largest mass gap seen in a gravitational-wave source to-date.
2021 –
Jun Ye and his team measure gravitational redshift with an accuracy of 7.6 × 10−21 using an
ultracold cloud of 100,000 strontium atoms in an
optical lattice.[268][269]
2021 – EHT measures the polarization of the ring of M87*,[270] and other properties of the magnetic field in its vicinity.[271]
2021 – EHT releases an image of
Sagittarius A*, the central supermassive black hole of the Milky Way,[272][273] measures its shadow,[274] and shows that it is accurately described by the Kerr metric.[275][276]
2022 – JWST identifies several candidate high-redshift objects, corresponding to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.[286][287]
2023 – James Nightingale and colleagues detect
Abell 1201, an ultramassive black hole (33 billion solar masses), using strong gravitational lensing.[288]
^
abBauer, Susan Wise (2015). "Chapter Seven: The Last Ancient Astronomer". The Story of Science from the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN978-0-393-24326-0.
^Gribbin, John (2003). "Chapter 3: The First Scientists". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. Random House. pp. 76–7.
ISBN978-1-400-06013-9.
^
abPasachoff, Naomi; Pasachoff, Jay (2012). "Galileo Galilei". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^
abDolnick, Edward (2011). "Timeline". The Clockwork Universe: Isaac Newton, the Royal Society, and the Birth of the Modern World. New York: Harper Collins.
ISBN9780061719516.
^Bauer, Susan Wise (2015). "Chapter Ten: The Death of Aristotle". The Story of Science: From the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN978-0-393-24326-0.
^
abIliffe, Rob (2012). "Isaac Newton". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^
abNewton, Isaac (1999). The Principia: The Authoritative Translation and Guide. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. University of California Press.
ISBN978-0-520-29088-4.
^Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert J. (1973). "8.4: The Principle of Equivalence". An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–54.
ISBN0-07-035048-5.
^Maclaurin, Colin. A Treatise of Fluxions: In Two Books. 1. Vol. 1. Ruddimans, 1742.
^Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1969). "5: The Maclaurin Spheroids". Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-30001-116-6.
^
abWoolfson, M.M. (1993). "Solar System – its origin and evolution". Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 34: 1–20.
Bibcode:
1993QJRAS..34....1W. For details of Kant's position, see Stephen Palmquist, "Kant's Cosmogony Re-Evaluated", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 18:3 (September 1987), pp.255–269.
^French, A. P. (1968). "Chapter 2: Perplexities in the Propagation of Light". Special Relativity. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 52–58.
ISBN0-393-09793-5.
^
abRobinson, Andrew (2012). "Albert Einstein". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN978-0-500-25191-1.
^Gribbin, John (2004). "11. Let There be Light". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. Random House. pp. 440–1.
ISBN978-0-812-96788-3.
^Born, Max (1909). "Über die Dynamik des Elektrons in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 10: 814–17.
^Ehrenfest, Paul (1909). "Gleichförmige Rotation starrer Körper und Relativitätstheorie" [Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and Theory of Relativity]. Physikalische Zeitschrift (in German). 10 (918): 918.
Bibcode:
1909PhyZ...10..918E.
^Einstein, Albert (1915). "Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Field Equations of Gravitation]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte: 844–847.
^Einstein, Albert (1915). "Erklärung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Explanation of the Perihelion Motion of Mercury from the General Theory of Relativity]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte: 831–839.
Bibcode:
1915SPAW.......831E.
^Hilbert, David (1915), "Die Grundlagen der Physik" [Foundations of Physics], Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen – Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse (in German), 3: 395–407
^Marsden, Jerrold; Tromba, Anthony (2012). "7.7 Applications to Differential Geometry, Physics, and Forms of Life". Vector Calculus (6th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman Company. p. 422.
ISBN978-1-4292-1508-4.
^Schwarzschild, Karl (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit" [On the Gravitational Field of a Sphere of Incompressible Fluid]. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
^Eisenstaedt, "The Early Interpretation of the Schwarzschild Solution," in D. Howard and J. Stachel (eds), Einstein and the History of General Relativity: Einstein Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 213-234. Boston: Birkhauser, 1989.
^Bartusiak, Marcia (2015). "Chapter 3: One Would Then Find Oneself... in a Geometrical Fairyland". Black Hole: How An Idea Abandoned by Newtonians, Hated by Einstein, and Gambled on by Hawking Became Loved. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-21085-9.
^Einstein, Albert (1916). "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation" [Approximate Integration of the Field Equations of Gravitation]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte (in German): 688–696.
Bibcode:
1916SPAW.......688E.
^Einstein, Albert (1917). "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" [Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity]. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte (in German). 1: 142–152.
^The Internal Constitution of the Stars A. S. Eddington The Scientific Monthly Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1920), pp. 297–303
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