A straight razor is a razor with a blade that can fold into its handle. ^[2] They are also called open razors and cut-throat razors. ^{[3] [4] [5]}

Although straight razors were once the principal method of manual shaving, they have been largely overshadowed by the safety razor, incorporating a disposable blade. Electric razors of various types have also been an available alternative especially since the 1950s. ^{[5] [6] [7]} Despite that, straight razors still hold a market share, and forums and outlets provide products, directions, and advice to straight razor users. Straight razor manufacturers still exist in Europe, Asia (especially Japan), and the United States. Antique straight razors are also actively traded.

Straight razors require considerable skill to hone and strop, and require more care during shaving. ^[8] These methods were once a major portion of the curriculum in barber colleges.

History

Various forms of razors were used throughout history, which are different in appearance but similar in use to modern straight razors. In prehistoric times clam shells, shark's teeth, and flint were sharpened and used to shave with. Drawings of such blades were found in prehistoric caves. Some tribes still use blades made of flint to this day. Excavations in Egypt have unearthed solid gold and copper razors in tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. The Roman historian Livy reported that the razor was introduced in ancient Rome in the 6th century BCE. by legendary king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Priscus was ahead of his time because razors did not come to general use until a century later. ^[6]

The first modern straight razor complete with decorated handles and hollow ground blades was constructed in Sheffield, in England, the centre of the cutlery industry, in the 18th and 19th centuries. Benjamin Huntsman produced the first superior hard steel grade, through a special crucible process, suitable for use as blade material in 1740. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later; albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist sentiments. The English manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt the process and only did so after they saw its success in France. ^[6] Sheffield steel, a highly polished steel, also known as Sheffield silver steel' and famous for its deep gloss finish, is considered a superior quality steel and is still used to this day in France by such manufacturers as Thiers Issard. ^[9]

In the 18th and 19th centuries the wealthy had servants to shave them or could frequent barbershops. Daily shaving was not a widespread practice in the 19th century so some people never shaved. The custom of shaving every day among American men is a 20th century innovation. ^{[10] [11]} In the 19th century, cutlers in Sheffield, England and Solingen, Germany produced a variety of razors.

Straight razors were the most common form of shaving before the 20th century and remained that common in many countries until the 1950s. ^[7] Barbers were specially trained to give customers a thorough and quick shave, and a collection of straight razors ready for use was a common sight in most barbershops. Barbers still have them, but they use them less often.

Straight razors eventually fell out of fashion. Their first challenger was manufactured by King C. Gillette: a double-edged safety razor with replaceable blades. Gillette's idea was the use of the " loss leader" concept, in which the razors were sold at a loss, but the replacement blades earned a high margin and provided continuous sales. They provided a less effective shave, ^{[8] [12]} yet were immensely successful due to advertising campaigns and slogans denigrating the straight razor's effectiveness and questioning its safety.

These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. ^[8] The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, though they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. And as shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased. ^[7]

Around 1960, stainless steel blades which could be used more than once became available, reducing the cost of safety-razor shaving. The first such blades were made by the Wilkinson firm, famous maker of ceremonial swords, in Sheffield. Soon Gillette, Schick, and other manufacturers were making stainless-steel blades.

These were followed by multiple-blade cartridges and disposable razors. For each type of replaceable blade, there is generally a disposable razor.

In the 1930s, electric razors became available. These can rival the cost of a good straight razor, although the whole straight-razor shaving kit can exceed the cost of even an expensive electric razor.

Parts description

The parts of a straight razor and their function are described as follows: The narrow end of the blade rotates on a pin called the pivot, between two protective pieces called the scales or handle. The upward curved metal end of the narrow part of the blade beyond the pivot is called the tang and acts as a lever to help raise the blade from the handle. One or two fingers resting on the tang also help stabilize the blade, while shaving. The narrow support piece between the tang and the main blade is called the shank, but this reference is often avoided because it can be confusing. The shank sometimes features decorations and the stamp of the country of origin. The top side and the underside of the shank can sometimes exhibit indentations known as fluting, or jimps for a more secure grip. ^[9] The curved lower part of the main blade from the shank to the cutting edge is called the shoulder. ^[13] The point where the shoulder joins the cutting edge is called the heel.

A thick strip of metal running transversely at the junction where the main blade attaches to the shank is called the stabiliser. The stabiliser can be double, ^[1] single or can be absent in some razor models. The first stabiliser is usually very narrow and thicker and runs at the shank to blade junction, covering the shank and just spilling over to the shoulder. The second stabiliser can be distinguished since it is considerably wider and narrower, appearing after the first stabiliser and running lower into the shoulder.

The noncutting top of the blade is called the back or the spine while the cutting part of the blade opposite the back is called the cutting edge. ^[14] Finally the other free end of the blade, at the opposite end of the tang, is called the point and, sometimes, the head or the nose. ^{[13] [15]}

There are two to three pins in any handle. The middle pin, if present, is plastic coated and is called the plug. ^[16] Its function is to stabilise the sides of the handle so that they cannot be squeezed in the middle. When folded into the scales, the blade is protected from accidental damage, and the user is protected from accidental injury. During folding, the back of the blade, being thick and normally with a curved cross-section, acts as a natural stopper and prevents further rotation of the blade out of the handle from the other side.

Construction

Straight razors consist of a blade sharpened on one edge and a handle attached to the blade through a pin. The blade can then rotate in and out of the handle. The blade can be made of either stainless steel, which is resistant to rust but can be more difficult to hone, or high-carbon steel, which is much easier to hone, but stays sharp for less time, and will rust if neglected. ^[14] Cheap stainless steel straight razors from Asia and more expensive stainless steel and carbon steel razors from Europe are available.

A razor blade starts as a shape called the blank supplied by the steel manufacturer. ^[5]

Forging

The first step is to clean the blank using a heavy forge. The material used for open razors is steel with a minimum carbon content of 0.6%. This percentage of carbon content ensures optimum hardness, flexibility and resistance to wear. ^[5] Following the forging stage, a hole is drilled in the tang at the pivot point. This is a crucial step, since after the steel hardening process it would be impossible to drill. This process requires great skill. ^[9]

Hardening and tempering

The steel is hardened through a special process where the forged steel blade is heated up to approximately 1,300 °C (degrees Celsius). This heating enables fast and uniform heating of the steel at the optimum temperature for maximum hardness. The tempering stage follows the hardening process, where the blade is heated in a bath of oil at a temperature between 200 °C - 400 °C. Tempering imparts the steel its flexibility and toughness according to the phase diagrams for steel. ^[5]

Grinding

Following the processes of hardening and tempering, the blanks are ground, according to the two fundamental blade cross sectional area profiles.

Finishing

Subsequent to grinding, the blade is polished to various degrees of gloss. The finest finish, used in the most expensive razors, is the mirror finish. ^[9] Mirror finish is the only finish used if gold leafing is to be part of the decoration of the blade. ^[9]

Satin finish requires less polishing time and therefore is not as expensive to produce. This finish is mostly used with black acid etching. Satin finish can sometimes be applied, as a compromise, to the back of the blade while the mirror finish and gold leafing are applied to the more visible front of the blade. This way the blade will not be as expensive as a fully mirror finished one. ^[9]

Blade decoration

The blade is decorated by engraving or gold leafing depending on the price. Less expensive blades undergo an electrolytic black acid engraving process. For more expensive blades, gold leafing applied by hand is employed, following a traditional process. ^[9]

Sharpening

Sharpening is the final stage in the process. At first the blade is sharpened on a grinding wheel. Following that the blade can be honed by holding the blades against the flat side of rotating round stones, or by drawing the blade across stationary flat stones. The cutting edge is finished using a strop. ^[9]

Handle materials and their properties

Handle scales are made of various materials, including mother-of-pearl, Bakelite, celluloid, bone, plastic, wood, horn, ivory and tortoise shell. ^{[17] [18]} Celluloid can spontaneously combust at elevated temperatures. Buffalo horn tends to deform with time and it possesses form memory so it tends to warp. Mother of pearl is a brittle material and can exhibit cracks after some use. ^[17]

Plastic handles are flexible and can impact the blade if not handled carefully. To remedy this, some plastic handles have a plastic coated third pin at the center called the plug that acts as a bridge between the sides of the handle.

Resin impregnated wooden handles are water resistant, do not deform and their weight complements the blade's to provide good overall balance for the razor. Snakewood is also suitable for long term and intensive use.

The mechanical properties of bone make it a good handle material. ^[17] Handles were once made of elephant ivory, but this has been discontinued, though fossil ivory, such as mammoth, is still sometimes used, and antique razors with ivory scales are occasionally found (it is illegal to kill elephants for their ivory, but it is legal to buy an ivory-handled razor made before 1972).^{[ citation needed]}

Blade geometry and characteristics

The geometry of the blade can be categorised according to the following three factors: First according to the shape of the profile of the point of the razor, second according to the type of grinding method used for the blade; the degree of curvature, and therefore hollowness (or thinness), of the sides of the cross section of the razor blade depends on the grinding method. ^[5] Finally the blades are categorised according to their width.

Classification

Point type

Blades are, at first, categorised according to point type. There are three main types of point: ^[5]

1. Square, spike or sharp point, so called because the point profile is straight and terminates at a very sharp point perpendicular to the cutting edge of the razor. This type of blade is used for precise shaving in small areas but, at the risk of pinching the skin, it requires some experience in handling. ^[19]
2. French (or oblique) point. Its point profile resembles a quarter circle, but with a sharper angled curve, and while it ends in a similarly sharp point as the square point it lacks the abrupt straight line edge profile. The difference between these two is mainly aesthetic.
3. Round point. As the name implies the point profile is semicircular and therefore it lacks any sharp end points. As such it is a more forgiving blade than the other two types and, although lacking the pinpoint accuracy of the other two, it is recommended for relatively new users. There are also secondary edge types that derive from a combination of the above such as half round point incorporating round edges joined by a linear segment.

Grinding method

The second category refers to the type of grinding method used and, since it affects the curvature of the blade cross section, includes the following two main types of blade grinds:

1. Flat or straight grind, indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are linear. This cross section most closely resembles a wedge and therefore this blade is sometimes called the wedge. ^[14]
2. Hollow grind, indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are concave. ^{[5] [20]}

The combination of the types found in these two classification categories can, in theory, lead to a wide variety of blade types such as round point hollow ground, square point flat ground etc., but in practice some points are combined with a specific grind. As an example, a French point blade is usually flat ground. ^{[5] [19]}

For a blade to be most effective in cutting it must be as thin as possible. Therefore the grinding method that removes the most material from the blade, without compromising blade integrity, is to be preferred. A hollow grind produces a thinner blade than the flat grind because it removes more material from the blade (hollows or thins the blade more) and is generally considered a more effective (and expensive) method. In fact some high-end razor manufacturers limit their production exclusively to hollow ground razors. ^[9]

Blade width

The third and final category refers to blade width. The width of the blade is defined as the distance between the back of the blade and the cutting edge. It is expressed in units of eighth of an inch. ^[14] The sizes vary from 3/8” up to 7/8”, rarely 8/8”. ^[14] A wider blade can carry more lather, much like a scoop, during multiple successive shaving strokes and thus it allows the user more shaving time and minimises blade rinse cycles. The disadvantage of the wider blade is that it is not as manoeuverable as a narrower blade. A narrow blade can shave tight facial spots such as under the nose, but it must be rinsed more often. The most popular blade width size is 5/8”. ^[14]

Stability

The degree of hollowness and thus the cross sectional area (thickness) of the blade vary depending on the grinding method used. Higher degree of hollowness in the blade implies a thinner cross section and this affects the stability ( bending or buckling properties) of the blade; the thinner the blade the more flexible it is. ^{[5] [17]}

Longitudinal stabiliser

To stabilise the blade a ridge was created parallel to the cutting edge and the blade was ground in two areas, each with different degrees of hollowness; the area between the back of the blade and the ridge (less hollow) and the area between the ridge and the cutting edge (more hollow) These two areas have different curvatures and they transition seamlessly in the ridge for a well made razor. ^[17]

The ridge stabilizes the blade against flexing in the longitudinal direction by acting as a spine for the blade in that direction. The distance between the ridge and the back of the blade is inversely proportional to the hollowness of the blade and is described in fractional terms in ascending steps of 1/4 as, for example, 1/4 hollow, 1/2 hollow, or 4/4 or 1/1 (full hollow). Full hollow indicates that the stabilizing ridge is very close to the midsection of the blade and the farthest from the cutting edge compared to the other grades. This is considered the most expensive blade. ^[17]

At the highest end of hollow ground, more hollow than even the 1/1 grade, is the so called singing razor, so named because its blade produces a specific resonant tone when plucked, similar to a guitar string, however such use is not recommended as it can distort the cutting edge. ^{[9] [14]} Its manufacturing process is so demanding that a full 25% of the blades get rejected as not meeting standards. ^[9]

Transverse stabiliser

In addition to the stabilising ridge which spans the longitudinal direction of the blade, sometimes blade stability is augmented by a transverse stabiliser in the form of one or two narrow strips of thicker metal running from the back of the blade to the end of the shoulder (at the junction where the blade meets the shank). This piece, if present, is simply called the stabiliser (single or double) and indicates a hollow ground blade, since a flat ground blade is massive and stable enough to not need a stabiliser. ^{[1] [17]} A double stabiliser implies 1/1 (full) hollow ground blade. ^[17] The stabiliser protects the blade from torsional bending in the transverse direction (transverse spine). ^[17]

Stability and sharpness

There is a tradeoff between stability and long term blade sharpness. A full hollow ground (1/1) blade can keep a very sharp edge even after a great number of honing cycles because of its high degree of hollowness but it is more susceptible to torsional bending because it is thinner. ^[17] A partially hollow blade (1/2 or 1/4 for example) cannot sustain the same degree of sharpness for as long, because as the cutting edge erodes it can eventually reach the stabilising ridge faster, but it is more stable because it is less hollow. ^[17] In addition a flat ground blade, since by definition is not hollow (curved) at all, is the most stable of the blades but because its cross sectional area is the largest it also feels heavier than hollow ground and this can affect the feel of balance of the blade. ^{[5] [14]}

Uses

The characteristics of each blade type determine the type of recommended uses for each blade as well as their maintenance routines.

Each type has its own strengths and weaknesses depending on the requirements of use.

Extra hollow blades such as singing blades are the thinnest and therefore they provide the best possible shave from all the other types. ^[9] However they are also very flexible and therefore not suitable for tasks requiring increased pressure to the blade such as heavy beard growth etc. Care should also be taken when stropping so that the thin blade will not be overly stressed, since it cannot withstand abuse as well as lower grades. ^[9] Flat ground razors are very stable and as such they can handle tough shaving jobs since they do not easily deform under pressure and they can take rough handling such as heavy stropping and honing. ^[9]

Examples

• 
  A straight razor from Japan with a square point 7/8” blade. The narrow curved end on the right is the tang. There are two copper pins (or plugs) and the handle is white plastic. The shank is smooth (without decorations or fluting) and there is no stabiliser part on the blade after the shank because the blade of this particular model is flat ground and therefore is very stable. The tang is rather stubby and short for the size of the blade, indicating poor ergonomics.The gold etching of the manufacturer can be discerned on the central part of the blade. Being flat ground this blade feels slightly heavy. The plastic handle deforms if improperly handled because it lacks the plug at the centre and care should be taken that the cutting edge does not touch it during folding. The steel of the blade is good quality and it is a competent no frills shaver, although it needs some skill to sharpen, as stainless steel blades can be stubborn. ^[14]
• 
  A straight razor with an oversized (and rare) round point 8/8” blade with plastic handle. The etching is very poor quality and the faint Best Brand logo indicates a generic Asian import. Some corrosion is apparent on the blade at the lower end of the shoulder, near the heel. The tang is very short compared to the size of the big blade and therefore indicates poor design. The main advantage of such a large blade size is that it can carry lots of lather through multiple successive shaving strokes and it does not have to be rinsed as often as a smaller sized blade, if at all, for a complete shave
• 
  This straight razor features a square point and a double stabiliser (therefore it is full hollow ground) and two copper pins. The 5/8” blade is decorated with a dual colour stamp. Made in Germany can be seen on the shank. The tang is not as elegant and thin as other Solingen razors but is adequate. The underside of the shank exhibits the characteristic indentations known as fluting for a more secure grip. ^[1] The fluting is also repeated at the top side of the shank (not shown). The shoulder is not very round and it joins the cutting edge at an angle (just below the second stabiliser). This point is called the heel. ^[1] The razor handle lacks the middle plug and therefore the handle is not stabilised in the middle
• 
  The complete set. Antique razor made in Solingen, Germany with antique strop made in the U.S. and honing stone made in Slovenia. The strop has an open hanging hook, made of copper, on the left and, just to the right of the hook, the leather is embossed with the instruction FINISH, meaning after stropping on the opposite side (marked SHARPEN), one must finish the blade by stropping on the finish side, and the strop model is DRAGON SHELL No 343 manufactured by IRWIN Leather Goods Company of Chicago. The honing stone is stamped with the brand name SWATY, (from a Slovenian grinding wheel and honing stone factory est. 1879) ^{[14] [21] [22]}

Method of use

Despite the connotations of the term "cut-throat razor" a man is exceedingly unlikely to cut anything vital (like the trachea, carotid arteries, or jugular veins) while shaving himself with a straight razor. This is because shaving is done with the blade at approximately an angle of thirty degrees to the skin; ^[13] a deep incision requires both the blade to be nearly perpendicular to the skin and the movement of the blade to be sideways. ^[14] These circumstances are always avoided by the shaver, who always shaves in a direction perpendicular to the cutting edge of the blade. ^[14]

To be most effective, a straight razor must be kept extremely sharp. The edge is delicate, and inexpert use may bend or fold over the razor's edge. To unfold and straighten the microscopic sharp edge, one must strop the blade on leather periodically. ^[23]

To sharpen or finish the blade using a suspended strop the razor is pushed toward the suspension ring while both the back and the cutting edge lie flat on the strop and with the back of the blade as shown in the picture below. No pressure should be applied on the cutting edge.

When reaching the end of the cloth or leather near the suspension ring, the razor is turned clockwise about its back until the cutting edge touches the strop. It is then pulled toward the rectangular handle of the strop with back and cutting edge flat on the strop as before. The blade should be moved in a slightly diagonal direction so to give every point of the blade a chance to touch the strop, without applying too much pressure. This process aligns the cutting edge properly with the back of the blade, avoiding "bumps" on the cutting edge. Care should be taken so that the blade is never rotated on the strop about the cutting edge because such use will damage the micro-alignment of the edge. The blade must also be sharpened occasionally by honing with a razor hone. Strops prepared with pastes containing fine grit are also used for honing but are not recommended for the inexperienced user as they can easily rake off the edge if they apply the wrong amount or apply too much pressure. ^{[18] [24]} Some strops have a linen or canvas back embedded with a fine abrasive used to maintain a sharp edge before final polishing with the leather side. A face's worth of thick hair may require multiple stroppings for one shave, but a blade is usually honed only two or three times a year. Occasional regrinding by a professional may be required to restore a badly worn or damaged edge.

Experienced straight razor aficionados often advocate stropping after each shave and allowing the blade to recover its edge for several days before reuse. ^[25] Historically this necessitated a collection of several razors sometimes sold in a sets for a week's use. ^[23] Shaving soap in a cup is traditionally lathered and applied using a rotating in-and-out motion of a shaving brush, usually made of boar or badger bristles. ^[26] The shave is completed using as few strokes as possible, stropping sparingly if at all. A second shave with another razor in an alternate direction against the beard yields an extremely close shave, at the risk of producing ingrown hairs. Rinsing with cold water constricts minor abrasions or cuts, followed by patting dry (not rubbing) and an astringent or aftershave lotion. More serious nicks can be attended with direct pressure for perhaps a minute with a styptic pencil. A light steady touch is most effective at providing a close shave, preserving the edge and avoiding cuts.

In the heyday of straight razor shaving, wealthy users maintained a weekly "rotation" of seven razors to reduce wear on any one piece. ^[23] Straight razors were often sold in special boxes of seven labeled for the days of the week. However, many users owned only one razor. ^[23]

Modern use

Straight razors are still manufactured. DOVO, of Solingen, Germany, and Thiers Issard of France are two of the most well-known European manufacturers. Feather Safety Razor Co. Ltd. of Osaka, Japan makes a razor with the same form as a traditional straight, but featuring a disposable blade that can be installed through an injector-type system. They also have models that along with using disposable blades, can safely survive autoclaving, which makes them more sanitary for barber-shop use. ^[27]

Advantages

Modern straight razor users are known to favor them for a variety of reasons. Some are attracted to the nostalgia of using old and traditional methods of shaving. It is a masculine ritual comparable to pipe smoking. Others profess an interest in reducing the waste of disposable blades. ^{[14] [28]}

Still others agree that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multiblade razors.

They also don't have to be rinsed as often because their blade acts like a scoop and carries the lather on it during multiple shaving strokes while the multiblade razors are not nearly as efficient at such a task because of their considerably smaller blade geometry. ^{[14] [29]}

Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily clogged even with relatively short beard stubble. ^{[29] [30]}

In addition multi-edge razors can irritate the skin due to their multiblade action and this can lead to a condition known as Pseudofolliculitis barbae, colloquially known as razor bumps. One of the recommended actions for those so affected is to switch to single blade use. ^[31]

Others simply like the good results and the satisfaction of maintaining the blade themselves. ^[14] Yet others cite aesthetic reasons in addition to the practical ones. A well made blade, in a nice handle with a well crafted etching and decorated shank, carries a sense of craftsmanship and ownership difficult to associate with a disposable blade cartridge. ^[14]

Finally, a well kept razor can last for decades, ^[14] and can become a family heirloom that can be passed from parent to child. ^[14] For all of these reasons, devotees of the straight razor make for an active market.

Commercial use

Some areas require barbers who provide straight-razor shaving to use a version that employs a disposable blade system. Still other jurisdictions ban the use of all straight razors and barbers use modern disposable blade razors instead. In places such as Australia, New Zealand, Pennsylvania, Denver, Boston, Texas and San Diego, however, the use of straight razors is legal. ^{[3] [26] [32] [33] [34]}

Collecting

There is an active market for antique straight razors. Antique razors are used for shaving, or as collectible memorabilia depending on the condition of the razor and the individual preferences of the collector. A modern resurgence of skilled craftsmen, such as Joe Chandler, Robert Williams, Lido Livi and Bill Ellis is the cause of an injection of some pieces that sport exotic materials, stunning workmanship and unusual shapes and sizes. Due to their uniqueness, they are likely to fetch high prices in the collectors' market in the decades to come.

See also

• Rolls Razor

Notes and references