'{{Short description|Florentine statesman, diplomat and political theorist (1469–1527)}} {{redirect| Machiavelli}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}} {{Infobox philosopher |region = [[Western philosophy]] |era = [[Renaissance philosophy]] |image = Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli.jpg |caption = Portrait by [[Santi di Tito]], {{circa|1550–1600}} |name = Niccolò Machiavelli |birth_date = {{birth date|1469|5|3|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Florence]], Republic of Florence |death_date = {{death date and age|1527|6|21|1469|5|3|df=y}} |death_place = Florence, Republic of Florence |school_tradition = {{ubl|[[Classical realism (international relations)|Classical realism]]|[[Republicanism]]}} |main_interests = [[Politics]] and [[political philosophy]], [[military theory]], history |notable_works = {{ubl|''[[The Prince]]''|''[[Discourses on Livy]]''}} |spouse = {{marriage|Marietta [[Corsini family|Corsini]]|1501}} |notable_ideas = Classical realism, ''[[virtù]]'', [[multitude]], [[national interest]] |signature = Machiavelli Signature.svg }} '''Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɪ|k|ə|l|əʊ|_|ˌ|m|æ|k|i|ə|ˈ|v|ɛ|l|i}} {{respell|NIK|ə|loh|_|MAK|ee|ə|VEL|ee}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|-|_|ˌ|m|ɑː|k|-}} {{respell|-_|MAHK|-}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/niccolo-machiavelli|title=Machiavelli, Niccolò|work=[[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]]|publisher=[[Longman]]|accessdate=5 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/en/definition/Machievelli,+Niccol%C3%B2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210021945/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/machiavelli,_niccolo?s=t |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 February 2022 |title=Machievelli, Niccolò |dictionary=[[Lexico]] US English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Machiavelli|access-date=9 February 2022}}</ref> {{IPA-it|nikkoˈlɔ mmakjaˈvɛlli|lang}}; also [[#Machiavel|occasionally rendered]] in English as '''Nicholas&nbsp;Machiavel''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|k|i|ə|v|ɛ|l}} {{respell|MAK|ee|ə|vel}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|m|ɑː|k|-}} {{respell|MAHK|-}}).}} (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who lived during the [[Renaissance]]. He is best known for his political treatise ''[[The Prince]]'' ({{lang|it|Il Principe}}), written around 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death.<ref>For example: {{cite web|url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli|title= Niccolo Machiavelli – Italian statesman and writer|date= 17 June 2023}} and {{Cite web|url= https://www.iep.utm.edu/machiave/|title= Niccolò Machiavelli |website= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=1 November 2018}}</ref> He has often been called the father of modern [[political philosophy]] and [[political science]].<ref>For example: {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1w5sCPpcDPMC&pg=PA65|title=Between Eternities: On the Tradition of Political Philosophy, Past, Present, and Future|last=Smith|first=Gregory B.|date=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0739120774|page=65}}, {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2d4qgsSLZQgC&pg=PA29|title=Hume and Machiavelli: Political Realism and Liberal Thought|last=Whelan|first=Frederick G.|date=2004|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0739106310|page=29}}, {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5m6lCFR53YC|title=What is Political Philosophy? And Other Studies|last=Strauss|year=1988|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226777139|page=41}}</ref> For many years he served as a senior official in the [[Florentine Republic]] with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is also important to historians and scholars of Italian correspondence.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1mYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Between Friends: Discourses of Power and Desire in the Machiavelli-Vettori Letters of 1513–1515|last=Najemy|first=John M.|year= 2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691656649}}</ref> He worked as [[Diplomat#Diplomatic ranks|secretary]] to the second [[wikt:chancery|chancery]] of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the [[Medici]] were out of power. After his death [[wikt:Machiavellian|Machiavelli's name came to evoke unscrupulous acts]] of the sort he advised most famously in his work, ''The Prince''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli|title=Niccolo Machiavelli|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> He claimed that his experience and reading of history showed him that politics have always been played with deception, treachery, and crime.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mythofstate0000cass|url-access=registration|quote=ernst cassirer the myth of the state.|title=The Myth of the State|last=Cassirer|first=Ernst|date=1946|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300000368|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythofstate0000cass/page/141 141]–145}}</ref> He also notably said that a ruler who is establishing a kingdom or a republic, and is criticized for his deeds, including violence, should be excused when the intention and the result are beneficial to him.<ref>For example, The Prince chap. 15, and The Discourses Book I, chapter 9</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7mScxst9UoC&q=history%20of%20political%20philosophy&pg=PT315|title=History of Political Philosophy|last1=Strauss|first1=Leo|last2=Cropsey|first2=Joseph|year= 2012|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226924717|page=297}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4EULB2IM50C&q=machiavelli's%20virtue&pg=PA178|title=Machiavelli's Virtue|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey C.|year= 1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226503721|page=178}}</ref> Machiavelli's ''Prince'' has been surrounded by controversy since it was published. Some consider it to be a straightforward description of political reality. Others view ''The Prince'' as a manual, teaching would-be tyrants how they should seize and maintain power.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Giorgini |first1= Giovanni |title= Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli's Prince |journal= Review of Politics |date= 2013 |volume= 75 |issue= 4 |pages= 625–640|doi= 10.1017/S0034670513000624|s2cid= 146970196 }}</ref> Even into recent times, some scholars, such as [[Leo Strauss]], have restated the traditional opinion that Machiavelli was a "teacher of evil".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strauss|first=Leo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oi2GDwAAQBAJ&q=thoughts+on+Machiavelli|title=Thoughts on Machiavelli|year=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226230979|language=en|page=9}}</ref> Even though Machiavelli has become most famous for his work on principalities, scholars also give attention to the exhortations in his other works of political philosophy. While less well known than ''The Prince'', the ''[[Discourses on Livy]]'' (composed {{circa|1517}}) has been said to have paved the way for modern [[republicanism]].<ref>Harvey Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov, "Introduction to the Discourses". In their translation of the ''Discourses on Livy''</ref> His works were a major influence on [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] authors who revived interest in [[classical republicanism]], such as [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and [[James Harrington (author)|James Harrington]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Theodosiadis|first=Michail|date=June–August 2021|title=From Hobbes and Locke to Machiavelli's virtù in the political context of meliorism: popular eucosmia and the value of moral memory|journal=Polis Revista|volume=11|pages=25–60}}</ref> Machiavelli's political realism has continued to influence generations of academics and politicians, including [[Hannah Arendt]] and [[Otto von Bismarck]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pflanze |first=Otto |date=1958 |title=Bismarck's "Realpolitik" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1404857 |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=492–514 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500034185 |jstor=1404857 |s2cid=144663704 |issn=0034-6705}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arendt |first=Hannah |title=The Human Condition |publisher=Chicago University Press |year=1988 |location=Chicago |page=77}}</ref> == Life == {{For timeline|Timeline of Niccolò Machiavelli}} [[File:Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli Cristofano di Papi dell'Altissimo.jpg|thumb|upright|Oil painting of Machiavelli by [[Cristofano dell'Altissimo]]]] Machiavelli was born in [[Florence]], Italy, the third child and first son of attorney [[Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli]] and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli, on 3 May 1469.<ref>{{Harvtxt|de Grazia|1989}}</ref> The Machiavelli family is believed to be descended from the old [[marquesses of Tuscany]] and to have produced thirteen Florentine [[Gonfaloniere of Justice|Gonfalonieres of Justice]],<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Niccolò Machiavelli}}</ref> one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months and who formed the government, or [[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]]; he was never, though, a full citizen of Florence because of the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time even under the republican regime. Machiavelli married Marietta [[Corsini family|Corsini]] in 1501. They had seven children, five sons and two daughters: Primerana, Bernardo, Lodovico, Guido, {{interlanguage link|lt=Piero|Piero Machiavelli|it}}, Baccina and Totto.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Guarini|1999|p=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Machiavèlli, Niccolò nell'Enciclopedia Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/niccolo-machiavelli |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}</ref> Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era. The Italian [[city-state]]s, and the families and individuals who ran them could rise and fall suddenly, as popes and the kings of France, Spain, and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] waged acquisitive wars for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring [[condottieri]] (mercenary leaders), who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments.<ref>Maurizio Viroli, ''Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli'' (2000), ch 1</ref> Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin by his teacher, Paolo da Ronciglione.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://totallyhistory.com/niccolo-machiavelli/|title=Niccolo Machiavelli Biography – Life of Florentine Republic Official|date=13 December 2013}}</ref> It is unknown whether Machiavelli knew Greek; Florence was at the time one of the centres of Greek scholarship in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) |url=https://iep.utm.edu/machiave/ |website=IEP |publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> In 1494 Florence restored [[Republic of Florence|the republic]], expelling the [[Medici]] family that had ruled Florence for some sixty years. Shortly after the execution of [[Savonarola]], Machiavelli was appointed to an office of the second chancery, a medieval writing office that put Machiavelli in charge of the production of official Florentine government documents.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QMasak4LLcQC&pg=PT28|title=The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli|last=Ridolfi|first=Roberto|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135026615|page=28|language=en}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the ''Dieci di Libertà e Pace''. In the first decade of the sixteenth century, he carried out several diplomatic missions, most notably to the papacy in Rome. Florence sent him to [[Pistoia]] to pacify the leaders of two opposing factions which had broken into riots in 1501 and 1502; when this failed, the leaders were banished from the city, a strategy which Machiavelli had favoured from the outset.{{sfn|Machiavelli|1981|p=136|loc=notes}} From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of [[Cesare Borgia]] (1475–1507) and his father, [[Pope Alexander VI]], who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of central Italy under their possession.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli|title=Niccolo Machiavelli {{!}} Biography, Books, Philosophy, & Facts|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref> The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a partial justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of [[Louis XII]] and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as ''[[The Prince]]''. At the start of the 16th century, Machiavelli conceived of a militia for Florence, and he then began recruiting and creating it.<ref name="Viroli 81–86">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hIPlryeSTQC&pg=PA105|title=Niccolo's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli|last=Viroli|first=Maurizio|year= 2002|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0374528003|pages= 81–86}}</ref> He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust that he explained in his official reports and then later in his theoretical works for their unpatriotic and uninvested nature in the war that makes their allegiance fickle and often unreliable when most needed),<ref>This point is made especially in ''The Prince'', Chap XII</ref> and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy that yielded some positive results. By February 1506 he was able to have four hundred farmers marching on parade, suited (including iron breastplates), and armed with lances and small firearms.<ref name="Viroli 81–86"/> Under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers conquered [[Pisa]] in 1509.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hIPlryeSTQC&pg=PA105|title=Niccolo's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli|last=Viroli|first=Maurizio|year= 2002|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0374528003|page=105}}</ref> [[File:Santa Croce Firenze Apr 2008 (20).JPG|thumb|upright|Machiavelli's tomb in the [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Santa Croce Church]] in Florence]] Machiavelli's success was short-lived. In August 1512, the Medici, backed by [[Pope Julius II]], used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at [[Prato]].<ref>Many historians have argued that this was due to [[Piero Soderini]]'s unwillingness to compromise with the Medici, who were holding Prato under siege.</ref> In the wake of the siege, [[Piero Soderini]] resigned as Florentine head of state and fled into exile. The experience would, like Machiavelli's time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, heavily influence his political writings. The Florentine city-state and the republic were dissolved, with Machiavelli then being removed from office and banished from the city for a year.{{sfn|Machiavelli|1981|p=3|loc=intro}} In 1513, the Medici accused him of conspiracy against them and had him imprisoned.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skinner |first=Quentin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kiYz6d278IC&q=quentin%20skinner%20machiavelli&pg=PT36 |title=Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0191540349 |publication-place=Oxford, England |page=36 |language=en}}</ref> Despite being subjected to torture{{sfn|Machiavelli|1981|p=3|loc=intro}} ("[[strappado|with the rope]]", in which the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight and dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released after three weeks. Machiavelli then retired to his farm estate at [[Sant'Andrea in Percussina]], near [[San Casciano in Val di Pesa]], where he devoted himself to studying and writing political treatises. During this period, he represented the Florentine Republic on diplomatic visits to France, Germany, and elsewhere in Italy.{{sfn|Machiavelli|1981|p=3|loc=intro}} Despairing of the opportunity to remain directly involved in political matters, after a time he began to participate in intellectual groups in Florence and wrote several plays that (unlike his works on political theory) were both popular and widely known in his lifetime. Politics remained his main passion, and to satisfy this interest, he maintained a well-known correspondence <ref>{{Cite web |title=https://machiavellianotium.org/ |url=https://machiavellianotium.org/ |access-date=2023-12-11 |language=en-US}}</ref> with more politically connected friends, attempting to become involved once again in political life.<ref>Niccolò Machiavelli (1996), ''Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence'', Northern Illinois University Press, translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices.</ref> In a letter to [[Francesco Vettori]], he described his experience: <blockquote>When evening comes, I go back home, and go to my study. On the threshold, I take off my work clothes, covered in mud and filth, and I put on the clothes an ambassador would wear. Decently dressed, I enter the ancient courts of rulers who have long since died. There, I am warmly welcomed, and I feed on the only food I find nourishing and was born to savour. I am not ashamed to talk to them and ask them to explain their actions and they, out of kindness, answer me. Four hours go by without my feeling any anxiety. I forget every worry. I am no longer afraid of poverty or frightened of death. I live entirely through them.<ref>Joshua Kaplan, "Political Theory: The Classic Texts and their Continuing Relevance," ''The Modern Scholar'' (14 lectures in the series; lecture #7 / disc 4), 2005.</ref></blockquote> Machiavelli died on 21 June 1527 from a stomach ailment<ref>{{Cite web |title=Washingtonpost.com: Horizon Section |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/horizon/jan99/morality.htm |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=www.washingtonpost.com}}</ref> at the age of 58 after receiving his [[last rites]].<ref>"Even such men as Malatesta and Machiavelli, after spending their lives in estrangement from the Church, sought on their deathbeds her assistance and consolations. Both made good confessions and received the Holy Viaticum." – Ludwig von Pastor, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofthepope05pastuoft#page/136/mode/2up ''History of the Popes''], Vol. 5, p. 137.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Robert |title=Machiavelli |year= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317699583 |page=283 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C54lAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> He was buried at the [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Church of Santa Croce]] in Florence. In 1789 [[George Clavering-Cowper, 3rd Earl Cowper|George Nassau Clavering]], and [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Pietro Leopoldo, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], initiated the construction of a monument on Machiavelli's tomb. It was sculpted by [[Innocenzo Spinazzi]], with an epitaph by Doctor Ferroni inscribed on it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sil |first1=Narasingha Prosad |title=Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra: A Comparative Study |date=1985 |publisher=Academic Publishers Calcutta|page=217 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2_9tHqptIMC|language=en}}</ref>{{efn|The Latin legend reads: <small>TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM</small> ("So great a name (has) no adequate praise" or "No [[eulogy]] (would be) a match for such a great name" or "There is no praise equal to so great a name.")}} ==Major works== ===''The Prince''=== {{Main|The Prince}} [[File:Duke-Lorenzo.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Lorenzo II de' Medici|Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici]], to whom the final version of ''The Prince'' was dedicated]] Machiavelli's best-known book ''Il Principe'' contains several maxims concerning politics. Instead of the more traditional target audience of a hereditary prince, it concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince". To retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully balance the interests of a variety of institutions to which the people are accustomed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zuckert|first=Catherine H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZUtDwAAQBAJ&q=catherine+zuckert+machiavelli|title=Machiavelli's Politics|year= 2017|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226434803|language=en}}</ref> By contrast, a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling: He must first stabilise his newfound power in order to build an enduring political structure. Machiavelli suggests that the social benefits of stability and security can be achieved in the face of moral corruption. Machiavelli believed that public and private morality had to be understood as two different things in order to rule well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolo |title=The Prince |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1984 |isbn=0192816020 |location=Oxford, New York |pages=59–60 |language=English}}</ref> As a result, a ruler must be concerned not only with reputation, but also must be positively willing to act unscrupulously at the right times. Machiavelli believed that, for a ruler, it was better to be widely feared than to be greatly loved; a loved ruler retains authority by obligation, while a feared leader rules by fear of punishment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Prince|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year=1532|location=Italy|pages=120–121}}</ref> As a political theorist, Machiavelli emphasized the "necessity" for the methodical exercise of brute force or deceit, including extermination of entire noble families, to head off any chance of a challenge to the prince's authority.<ref>Machiavelli, ''The Prince'', Chapter III</ref> Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies instrumentality in state building, an approach embodied by the saying, often attributed to interpretations of ''The Prince'', "[[The ends justify the means]]".<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4EULB2IM50C&q=harvey+mansfield+machiavelli| title = Machiavelli's Virtue| isbn = 978-0226503721| last1 = Mansfield| first1 = Harvey C.|year=1998| publisher = University of Chicago Press}}</ref> Fraud and deceit are held by Machiavelli as necessary for a prince to use.<ref>''The Prince'', Chapter XVIII, "In What Mode Should Faith Be Kept By Princes"</ref> Violence may be necessary for the successful stabilization of power and introduction of new political institutions. Force may be used to eliminate political rivals, destroy resistant populations, and purge the community of other men strong enough of a character to rule, who will inevitably attempt to replace the ruler.<ref>''The Prince''. especially Chapters 3, 5 and 8</ref> Machiavelli has become infamous for such political advice, ensuring that he would be remembered in history through the adjective, "Machiavellian".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kanzler|first=Peter|title=The Prince (1532), The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776)|year=2020|isbn=978-1716844508|page=22|publisher=Peter Kanzler }}</ref> Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, the [[Catholic Church]] banned ''The Prince'', putting it on the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]''. [[humanism|Humanists]] also viewed the book negatively, including [[Erasmus]] of [[Rotterdam]]. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political [[Realism (international relations)|realism]] and political [[Idealism in international relations|idealism]], due to it being a manual on acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], Machiavelli insisted that an imaginary ideal society is not a model by which a prince should orient himself. Concerning the differences and similarities in Machiavelli's advice to ruthless and tyrannical princes in ''The Prince'' and his more republican exhortations in ''Discourses on Livy'', a few commentators assert that ''The Prince'', although written as advice for a monarchical prince, contains arguments for the superiority of republican regimes, similar to those found in the ''Discourses''. In the 18th century, the work was even called a [[satire]], for example by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]].<ref>''Discourse on Political Economy'': opening pages.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Berlin|first=Isaiah|title=The Originality of Machiavelli|url=http://berlin.wolf.ox.ac.uk/published_works/ac/machiavelli.pdf|access-date=18 October 2012|archive-date=2 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202125009/http://berlin.wolf.ox.ac.uk/published_works/ac/machiavelli.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Scholars such as [[Leo Strauss]] and [[Harvey Mansfield]] have stated that sections of ''The Prince'' and his other works have deliberately esoteric statements throughout them.<ref>This point made most notably by {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958}}.</ref> However, Mansfield states that this is the result of Machiavelli's seeing grave and serious things as humorous because they are "manipulable by men", and sees them as grave because they "answer human necessities".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4EULB2IM50C&q=machiavelli%27s+virtue|title=Machiavelli's Virtue|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey C.|year= 1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226503721|pages=228–229|language=en}}</ref> Another interpretation is that of [[Antonio Gramsci]], who argued that Machiavelli's audience for this work was not even the ruling class, but the common people, because rulers already knew these methods through their education. ===''Discourses on Livy''=== {{Main|Discourses on Livy}} The ''Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius'', written around 1517, and published in 1531, often referred to simply as the ''Discourses'' or ''Discorsi'', is nominally a discussion regarding the classical history of early [[Ancient Rome]], although it strays far from this subject matter and also uses contemporary political examples to illustrate points. Machiavelli presents it as a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured. It is a larger work than ''The Prince'', and while it more openly explains the advantages of republics, it also contains many similar themes from his other works.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia_oOgHlR58C|title=Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey C.|year=2001|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226503707}}</ref> For example, Machiavelli has noted that to save a republic from corruption, it is necessary to return it to a "kingly state" using violent means.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.constitution.org/mac/disclivy1.htm|title=Discourses on Livy: Book 1, Chapter 18|website=www.constitution.org|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> He excuses Romulus for murdering his brother [[Remus]] and co-ruler [[Titus Tatius]] to gain absolute power for himself in that he established a "civil way of life".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km5itjMehYUC&q=discourses+machiavelli|title=Discourses on Livy: Book One, Chapter 9|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226500331}}</ref> Commentators disagree about how much the two works agree with each other, as Machiavelli frequently refers to leaders of republics as "princes".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km5itjMehYUC&q=the+discourses+machiavelli+mansfield|title=Discourses on Livy|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226500331}}</ref> Machiavelli even sometimes acts as an advisor to [[tyrants]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km5itjMehYUC&q=discourses+machiavelli|title=Discourses on Livy: Book One, Chapter 16|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226500331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqroV-TkIhgC&q=Thus,+the+charge+that+Machiavelli's+republic+is+a+tyranny+turns+out+to+be+true+after+&pg=PR60|title=Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy|last=Rahe|first=Paul A.|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139448338|page=3}}</ref> Other scholars have pointed out the aggrandizing and imperialistic features of Machiavelli's republic.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCsxDwAAQBAJ&q=hulliung+citizen+machiavelli|title=Citizen Machiavelli|last=Hulliung|first=Mark|year=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1351528481}}</ref> Nevertheless, it became one of the central texts of modern [[republicanism]], and has often been argued to be a more comprehensive work than ''The Prince''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Pocock|1975|pp=183–219}}</ref> == Originality == [[File:Niccolò-Machiavelli-Amelot-de-La-Houssaie-Il-principe MG 1089.tif|thumb|upright|Engraved portrait of Machiavelli, from the Peace Palace Library's ''Il Principe'', published in 1769]] Major commentary on Machiavelli's work has focused on two issues: how unified and philosophical his work is and how innovative or traditional it is.<ref name=Fischer>{{Harvcoltxt|Fischer|2000}}</ref> === Coherence === There is some disagreement concerning how best to describe the unifying themes, if there are any, that can be found in Machiavelli's works, especially in the two major political works, ''The Prince'' and ''Discourses''. Some commentators have described him as inconsistent, and perhaps as not even putting a high priority on consistency.<ref name=Fischer/> Others such as [[Hans Baron]] have argued that his ideas must have changed dramatically over time. Some have argued that his conclusions are best understood as a product of his times, experiences and education. Others, such as [[Leo Strauss]] and [[Harvey Mansfield]], have argued strongly that there is a strong and deliberate consistency and distinctness, even arguing that this extends to all of Machiavelli's works including his comedies and letters.<ref name=Fischer/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4EULB2IM50C&q=mansfield+machiavelli+virtue|title=Machiavelli's Virtue|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey C.|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226503721|language=en}}</ref> === Influences === Commentators such as Leo Strauss have gone so far as to name Machiavelli as the deliberate originator of [[modernity]] itself. Others have argued that Machiavelli is only a particularly interesting example of trends which were happening around him. In any case, Machiavelli presented himself at various times as someone reminding Italians of the old virtues of the Romans and Greeks, and other times as someone promoting a completely new approach to politics.<ref name=Fischer/> That Machiavelli had a wide range of influences is in itself not controversial. Their relative importance is however a subject of ongoing discussion. It is possible to summarize some of the main influences emphasized by different commentators. '''The Mirror of Princes genre''' {{Harvcoltxt|Gilbert|1938}} summarized the similarities between ''The Prince'' and the genre it obviously imitates, the so-called "[[Mirror of Princes]]" style. This was a classically influenced genre, with models at least as far back as [[Xenophon]] and [[Isocrates]]. While Gilbert emphasized the similarities, however, he agreed with all other commentators that Machiavelli was particularly novel in the way he used this genre, even when compared to his contemporaries such as [[Baldassare Castiglione]] and [[Erasmus]]. One of the major innovations Gilbert noted was that Machiavelli focused on the "deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom". Normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. (Xenophon is also an exception in this regard.) '''Classical republicanism''' Commentators such as [[Quentin Skinner]] and [[J.G.A. Pocock]], in the so-called "Cambridge School" of interpretation, have asserted that some of the republican themes in Machiavelli's political works, particularly the ''[[Discourses on Livy]]'', can be found in medieval Italian literature which was influenced by classical authors such as [[Sallust]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GF6X2ow__MgC&q=quentin+skinner+machiavelli|title=The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume 1, The Renaissance|last=Skinner|first=Quentin|year= 1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521293372|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oj8CwAAQBAJ&q=pocock+machiavelli|title=The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition|last=Pocock|first=J. G. A.|year=2016|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1400883516|language=en}}</ref> '''Classical political philosophy: Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle''' [[File:Xenophon.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Xenophon]], author of the ''[[Cyropedia]]'']] The Socratic school of classical political philosophy, especially [[Aristotle]], had become a major influence upon European political thinking in the late [[Middle Ages]]. It existed both in the Catholicised form presented by [[Thomas Aquinas]], and in the more controversial "[[Averroism|Averroist]]" form of authors like [[Marsilius of Padua]]. Machiavelli was critical of Catholic political thinking and may have been influenced by Averroism. But he rarely cites Plato and Aristotle, and most likely did not approve of them. [[Leo Strauss]] argued that the strong influence of [[Xenophon]], a student of Socrates more known as a historian, rhetorician and soldier, was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli, sometimes not in line with Aristotle. While interest in [[Plato]] was increasing in Florence during Machiavelli's lifetime, Machiavelli does not show particular interest in him, but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as [[Polybius]], [[Plutarch]] and [[Cicero]]. The major difference between Machiavelli and the Socratics, according to Strauss, is Machiavelli's materialism, and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. With their [[teleological]] understanding of things, Socratics argued that by nature, everything that acts, acts towards some end, as if nature desired them, but Machiavelli claimed that such things happen by blind chance or human action.<ref name=Strauss>{{Harvcoltxt|Strauss|1958}}</ref> '''Classical materialism''' Strauss argued that Machiavelli may have seen himself as influenced by some ideas from classical materialists such as [[Democritus]], [[Epicurus]] and [[Lucretius]]. Strauss however sees this also as a sign of major innovation in Machiavelli, because classical materialists did not share the Socratic regard for political life, while Machiavelli clearly did.<ref name=Strauss/> '''Thucydides''' Some scholars note the similarity between Machiavelli and the Greek historian [[Thucydides]], since both emphasized [[power politics]].<ref>Paul Anthony Rahe, ''Against throne and altar: Machiavelli and political theory under the English Republic'' (2008), p. 282.</ref><ref>Jack Donnelly, ''Realism and International Relations'' (2000), p. 68.</ref> Strauss argued that Machiavelli may indeed have been influenced by [[pre-Socratic philosophers]], but he felt it was a new combination: <blockquote>...contemporary readers are reminded by Machiavelli's teaching of Thucydides; they find in both authors the same "realism", i.e., the same denial of the power of the gods or of justice and the same sensitivity to harsh necessity and elusive chance. Yet Thucydides never calls in question the intrinsic superiority of nobility to baseness, a superiority that shines forth particularly when the noble is destroyed by the base. Therefore Thucydides' History arouses in the reader a sadness which is never aroused by Machiavelli's books. In Machiavelli we find comedies, parodies, and satires but nothing reminding of tragedy. One half of humanity remains outside of his thought. There is no tragedy in Machiavelli because he has no sense of the sacredness of "the common". – {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958|p=292}}</blockquote> == Beliefs == Amongst commentators, there are a few consistently made proposals concerning what was most new in Machiavelli's work. === Empiricism and realism versus idealism === Machiavelli is sometimes seen as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist, building generalizations from experience and historical facts, and emphasizing the uselessness of theorizing with the imagination.<ref name=Fischer/> {{blockquote|He emancipated politics from theology and moral philosophy. He undertook to describe simply what rulers actually did and thus anticipated what was later called the scientific spirit in which questions of good and bad are ignored, and the observer attempts to discover only what really happens.|Joshua Kaplan, 2005<ref name=twsC11r44fzf>{{cite news|author=Joshua Kaplan|title=Political Theory: The Classic Texts and their Continuing Relevance|publisher=The Modern Scholar|quote=14 lectures in the series; (lectures #7) – see disc 4|year=2005}}</ref>}} Machiavelli felt that his early schooling along the lines of traditional classical education was essentially useless for the purpose of understanding politics. Nevertheless, he advocated intensive study of the past, particularly regarding the founding of a city, which he felt was a key to understanding its later development.<ref name=twsC11r44fzf/> Moreover, he studied the way people lived and aimed to inform leaders how they should rule and even how they themselves should live. Machiavelli denies the classical opinion that living virtuously always leads to happiness. For example, Machiavelli viewed misery as "one of the vices that enables a prince to rule."<ref>Leo Strauss, Joseph Cropsey, ''History of Political Philosophy'' (1987), p. 300.</ref> Machiavelli stated that "it would be best to be both loved and feared. But since the two rarely come together, anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved."<ref>Niccolò Machiavelli, ''The Prince'', Chap 17.</ref> In much of Machiavelli's work, he often states that the ruler must adopt unsavoury policies for the sake of the continuance of his regime. A related and more controversial proposal often made is that he described how to do things in politics in a way which seemed neutral concerning who used the advice{{snd}}tyrants or good rulers.<ref name=Fischer/> That Machiavelli strove for realism is not doubted, but for four centuries scholars have debated how best to describe his morality. ''The Prince'' made the word ''Machiavellian'' a byword for deceit, despotism, and political manipulation. [[Leo Strauss]] declared himself inclined toward the traditional view that Machiavelli was self-consciously a "teacher of evil", since he counsels the princes to avoid the values of justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people in preference to the use of cruelty, violence, fear, and deception.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oi2GDwAAQBAJ&q=leo+strauss|title=Thoughts on Machiavelli|last=Strauss|first=Leo|year= 2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226230979|language=en}}</ref> Strauss takes up this opinion because he asserted that failure to accept the traditional opinion misses the "intrepidity of his thought" and "the graceful subtlety of his speech".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Leo |url=http://archive.org/details/LeoStraussThoughtsOnMachiavelli_201411 |title=Leo Strauss "Thoughts On Machiavelli" |page=9}}</ref> Italian [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] philosopher [[Benedetto Croce]] (1925) concludes Machiavelli is simply a "realist" or "pragmatist" who accurately states that moral values, in reality, do not greatly affect the decisions that political leaders make.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carritt |first=E. F. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.123166 |title=Benedetto Croce My Philosophy |date=1949}}</ref> German philosopher [[Ernst Cassirer]] (1946) held that Machiavelli simply adopts the stance of a political scientist{{snd}}a [[Galileo]] of politics{{snd}}in distinguishing between the "facts" of political life and the "values" of moral judgment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassirer |first=Ernst |title=The Myth of the State |date=1961-09-10 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-00036-8 |location=New Haven, Connecticut; London, England |pages=136 |language=English}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Walter Russell Mead]] has argued that ''The Prince''{{'}}s advice presupposes the importance of ideas like [[legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] in making changes to the political system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.the-american-interest.com/stratblog/2011/05/03/when-isms-go-to-war/|title=When Isms go to War {{!}} StratBlog|date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210725/http://blogs.the-american-interest.com/stratblog/2011/05/03/when-isms-go-to-war/|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> === Fortune === Machiavelli is generally seen as being critical of Christianity as it existed in his time, specifically its effect upon politics, and also everyday life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km5itjMehYUC&q=machiavelli |title=Discourses on Livy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0226500331 |page=131 |language=en-us}}</ref> In his opinion, Christianity, along with the [[Teleology|teleological]] [[Aristotelianism]] that the Church had come to accept, allowed practical decisions to be guided too much by imaginary [[idealism|ideals]] and encouraged people to lazily leave events up to [[Divine Providence|providence]] or, as he would put it, chance, luck or fortune. While Christianity sees modesty as a virtue and pride as sinful, Machiavelli took a more classical position, seeing ambition, spiritedness, and the pursuit of glory as good and natural things, and part of the virtue and prudence that good princes should have. Therefore, while it was traditional to say that leaders should have virtues, especially prudence, Machiavelli's use of the words ''virtù'' and ''prudenza'' was unusual for his time, implying a spirited and immodest ambition. Mansfield describes his usage of ''virtù'' as a "compromise with evil".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mansfield |first=Harvey C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4EULB2IM50C&dq=machiavelli's%20virtue&pg=PA233 |title=Machiavelli's Virtue |date=1998-02-25 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-50372-1 |pages=233 |language=en-us}}</ref> Famously, Machiavelli argued that virtue and prudence can help a man control more of his future, in the place of allowing fortune to do so. {{Harvcoltxt|Najemy|1993}} has argued that this same approach can be found in Machiavelli's approach to love and desire, as seen in his comedies and correspondence. Najemy shows how Machiavelli's friend Vettori argued against Machiavelli and cited a more traditional understanding of fortune. On the other hand, [[humanism]] in Machiavelli's time meant that classical pre-Christian ideas about virtue and prudence, including the possibility of trying to control one's future, were not unique to him. But humanists did not go so far as to promote the extra glory of deliberately aiming to establish a new state, in defiance of traditions and laws. While Machiavelli's approach had classical precedents, it has been argued that it did more than just bring back old ideas and that Machiavelli was not a typical humanist. {{Harvcoltxt|Strauss|1958}} argues that the way Machiavelli combines classical ideas is new. While Xenophon and Plato also described realistic politics and were closer to Machiavelli than Aristotle was, they, like Aristotle, also saw philosophy as something higher than politics. Machiavelli was apparently a [[materialist]] who objected to explanations involving [[four causes|formal and final causation]], or [[teleology]]. Machiavelli's promotion of ambition among leaders while denying any higher standard meant that he encouraged risk-taking, and innovation, most famously the founding of new modes and orders. His advice to princes was therefore certainly not limited to discussing how to maintain a state. It has been argued that Machiavelli's promotion of innovation led directly to the argument for [[Progress (history)|progress]] as an aim of [[politics]] and [[civilization]]. But while a belief that humanity can control its own future, control nature, and "progress" has been long-lasting, Machiavelli's followers, starting with his own friend [[Francesco Guicciardini|Guicciardini]], have tended to prefer peaceful progress through economic development, and not warlike progress. As Harvey {{Harvtxt|Mansfield|1995|p=74}} wrote: "In attempting other, more regular and scientific modes of overcoming fortune, Machiavelli's successors formalized and emasculated his notion of virtue." Machiavelli however, along with some of his classical predecessors, saw ambition and spiritedness, and therefore war, as inevitable and part of [[human nature]]. Strauss concludes his 1958 book ''[[Thoughts on Machiavelli]]'' by proposing that this promotion of progress leads directly to the advent of new technologies being invented in both good and bad governments. Strauss argued that the unavoidable nature of such arms races, which existed before modern times and led to the collapse of peaceful civilizations, show that classical-minded men "had to admit in other words that in an important respect the good city has to take its bearings by the practice of bad cities or that the bad impose their law on the good". {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958|pp=298–299}} ===Religion=== Machiavelli shows repeatedly that he saw religion as man-made, and that the value of religion lies in its contribution to social order and the rules of morality must be dispensed with if security requires it.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km5itjMehYUC&q=discourses+on+livy|title=Discourses on Livy, Book 1, Chapter 11–15|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year= 2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226500331|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehzOd8DVlNkC&q=the+prince+mansfield|title=The Prince: Second Edition|last=Machiavelli|first=Niccolò|year= 2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226500508|pages=69–71|language=en}}</ref> In ''The Prince'', the ''Discourses'' and in the ''[[Life of Castruccio Castracani]]'' he describes "prophets", as he calls them, like [[Moses]], [[Romulus]], [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Theseus]] (he treated pagan and Christian patriarchs in the same way) as the greatest of new princes, the glorious and brutal founders of the most novel innovations in politics, and men whom Machiavelli assures us have always used a large amount of armed force and murder against their own people.<ref>Especially in the ''Discourses'' III.30, but also ''The Prince'' Chap.VI</ref> He estimated that these sects last from 1,666 to 3,000 years each time, which, as pointed out by Leo Strauss, would mean that Christianity became due to start finishing about 150 years after Machiavelli.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Strauss|1987|p=314}}</ref> Machiavelli's concern with Christianity as a sect was that it makes men weak and inactive, delivering politics into the hands of cruel and wicked men without a fight.<ref>See for example {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958|p=206}}.</ref> While fear of [[God]] can be replaced by fear of the prince, if there is a strong enough prince, Machiavelli felt that having a religion is in any case especially essential to keeping a republic in order. For Machiavelli, a truly great prince can never be conventionally religious himself, but he should make his people religious if he can. According to {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958|pp=226–227}} he was not the first person to explain religion in this way, but his description of religion was novel because of the way he integrated this into his general account of princes. Machiavelli's judgment that governments need religion for practical political reasons was widespread among modern proponents of republics until approximately the time of the [[French Revolution]]. This, therefore, represents a point of disagreement between Machiavelli and late modernity.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958|p=231}}</ref> ===Positive side to factional and individual vice=== Despite the classical precedents, which Machiavelli was not the only one to promote in his time, Machiavelli's realism and willingness to argue that good ends justify bad things, is seen as a critical stimulus towards some of the most important theories of modern politics. Firstly, particularly in the ''Discourses on Livy,'' Machiavelli is unusual in the positive side to factionalism in republics which he sometimes seems to describe. For example, quite early in the ''Discourses,'' (in Book I, chapter 4), a chapter title announces that ''the disunion'' of the [[plebs]] and [[Roman senate|senate]] in Rome ''"kept Rome free".'' That a community has different components whose interests must be balanced in any good regime is an idea with classical precedents, but Machiavelli's particularly extreme presentation is seen as a critical step towards the later political ideas of both a [[division of powers]] or [[Separation of powers#Checks and balances|checks and balances]], ideas which lay behind the [[US constitution]], as well as many other modern state constitutions. Similarly, the modern economic argument for [[capitalism]], and most modern forms of economics, was often stated in the form of "[[The Fable of the Bees|public virtue from private vices]]". Also in this case, even though there are classical precedents, Machiavelli's insistence on being both realistic and ambitious, not only admitting that vice exists but being willing to risk encouraging it, is a critical step on the path to this insight. Mansfield however argues that Machiavelli's own aims have not been shared by those he influenced. Machiavelli argued against seeing mere peace and economic growth as worthy aims on their own if they would lead to what Mansfield calls the "taming of the prince".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mansfield|1993}}</ref> ==Influence== [[File:Machiavel Offices Florence.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue at the [[Uffizi]]]] To quote Robert Bireley:<ref>Bireley, Robert (1990), ''The Counter Reformation Prince'', p. 14.</ref> {{blockquote|...there were in circulation approximately fifteen editions of the ''Prince'' and nineteen of the ''Discourses'' and French translations of each before they were placed on [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|the Index]] of [[Paul IV]] in 1559, a measure which nearly stopped publication in Catholic areas except in France. Three principal writers took the field against Machiavelli between the publication of his works and their condemnation in 1559 and again by the Tridentine Index in 1564. These were the English cardinal [[Reginald Pole]] and the Portuguese bishop [[Jerónimo Osório|Jeronymo Osorio]], both of whom lived for many years in Italy, and the Italian humanist and later bishop, [[Lancelotto Politi|Ambrogio Caterino Politi]].}} Machiavelli's ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west, helped by the new technology of the printing press. During the first generations after Machiavelli, his main influence was in non-republican governments. Pole reported that ''The Prince'' was spoken of highly by [[Thomas Cromwell]] in England and had influenced [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]].<ref name="BireleyP15">{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|p=15}}</ref> A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Haitsma Mulier|1999|p=248}}</ref> In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with [[Catherine de' Medici]] and the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]]. As {{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|p=17}} reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers "associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic". In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings.<ref>While Bireley focuses on writers in the Catholic countries, {{Harvcoltxt|Haitsma Mulier|1999}} makes the same observation, writing with more of a focus upon the Protestant [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]].</ref> One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli, especially ''The Prince'', was that of the [[Huguenot]], [[Innocent Gentillet]], whose work commonly referred to as ''Discourse against Machiavelli'' or ''Anti Machiavel'' was published in [[Geneva]] in 1576.<ref>The first English edition was ''A Discourse upon the meanes of wel governing and maintaining in good peace, a Kingdome, or other principalitie'', translated by Simon Patericke.</ref> He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians of his time by saying that his works were the "Koran of the courtiers", that "he is of no reputation in the court of France which hath not Machiavel's writings at the fingers ends".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|p=17}}</ref> Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done, despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century. This includes the Catholic [[Counter Reformation]] writers summarised by Bireley: [[Giovanni Botero]], [[Justus Lipsius]], Carlo Scribani, [[Adam Contzen]], [[Pedro de Ribadeneira]], and [[Diego de Saavedra Fajardo]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|p=18}}</ref> These authors criticized Machiavelli, but also followed him in many ways. They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation, and even a need for cunning and deceit, but compared to Machiavelli, and like later modernist writers, they emphasized [[Economic growth|economic progress]] much more than the riskier ventures of war. These authors tended to cite [[Tacitus]] as their source for realist political advice, rather than Machiavelli, and this pretence came to be known as "[[Tacitean studies|Tacitism]]".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|pp=223–230}}</ref> "Black tacitism" was in support of princely rule, but "red tacitism" arguing the case for republics, more in the original spirit of Machiavelli himself, became increasingly important. [[File:British - Francis Bacon - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|[[Francis Bacon]] argued the case for what would become [[modern science]] which would be based more upon real experience and experimentation, free from assumptions about metaphysics, and aimed at increasing control of nature. He named Machiavelli as a predecessor.]] Modern [[materialism|materialist]] philosophy developed in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, starting in the generations after Machiavelli. Modern political philosophy tended to be republican, but as with the Catholic authors, Machiavelli's realism and encouragement of innovation to try to control one's own fortune were more accepted than his emphasis upon war and factional violence. Not only was innovative economics and politics a result, but also [[modern science]], leading some commentators to say that the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] involved a "humanitarian" moderating of Machiavellianism.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Kennington|2004}}, {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}</ref> The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavour, for example [[Jean Bodin|Bodin]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990|p=17}}: "Jean Bodin's first comments, found in his ''Method for the Easy Comprehension of History'', published in 1566, were positive."</ref> [[Francis Bacon]],<ref>Bacon wrote: "We are much beholden to Machiavelli and other writers of that class who openly and unfeignedly declare or describe what men do, and not what they ought to do." {{Citation|title=Of the Advancement of Learning|chapter=II.21.9}}. See {{Harvtxt|Kennington|2004}} Chapter 4.</ref> [[Algernon Sidney]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}} chapter 6.</ref> [[James Harrington (author)|Harrington]], [[John Milton]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Worden|1999}}</ref> [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Spinoza's Political Philosophy|url= http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-political/#IntBac|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=19 March 2011|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year= 2013}}</ref> [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[David Hume|Hume]],<ref>Danford "Getting Our Bearings: Machiavelli and Hume" in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}.</ref> [[Edward Gibbon]], and [[Adam Smith]]. Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers, such as [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Schaefer|1990}}</ref> [[René Descartes|Descartes]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Kennington|2004}}, chapter 11.</ref> [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[John Locke|Locke]]<ref>Barnes Smith "The Philosophy of Liberty: Locke's Machiavellian Teaching" in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}.</ref> and [[Montesquieu]].<ref>Carrese "The Machiavellian Spirit of Montesquieu's Liberal Republic" in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shklar|1999}}</ref> Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who is associated with very different political ideas, viewed Machiavelli's work as a satirical piece in which Machiavelli exposes the faults of a one-man rule rather than exalting amorality. <blockquote>In the seventeenth century it was in England that Machiavelli's ideas were most substantially developed and adapted, and that republicanism came once more to life; and out of seventeenth-century English republicanism there were to emerge in the next century not only a theme of English political and historical reflection{{snd}}of the writings of the [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Bolingbroke]] circle and of [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] and of early parliamentary radicals{{snd}}but a stimulus to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] in Scotland, on the Continent, and in America.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Worden|1999}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:John Adams A18236.jpg|thumb|John Adams admired Machiavelli's rational description of the realities of statecraft. Adams used Machiavelli's works to argue for [[mixed government]].]] Scholars have argued that Machiavelli was a major indirect and direct influence upon the political thinking of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] due to his overwhelming favouritism of [[republicanism]] and the republican type of government. According to John McCormick, it is still very much debatable whether or not Machiavelli was "an advisor of tyranny or partisan of liberty."<ref>John P. McCormick, ''Machiavellian democracy'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 23.</ref> [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[James Madison]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] followed Machiavelli's republicanism when they opposed what they saw as the emerging aristocracy that they feared [[Alexander Hamilton]] was creating with the [[Federalist Party]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}</ref> Hamilton learned from Machiavelli about the importance of foreign policy for domestic policy, but may have broken from him regarding how rapacious a republic needed to be in order to survive.<ref>Walling "Was Alexander Hamilton a Machiavellian Statesman?" in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Harper|2004}}</ref> [[George Washington]] was less influenced by Machiavelli.<ref>Spalding "The American Prince? George Washington's Anti-Machiavellian moment" in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}</ref> The Founding Father who perhaps most studied and valued Machiavelli as a political philosopher was [[John Adams]], who profusely commented on the Italian's thought in his work, ''A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America''.<ref name="thompson">{{Harvtxt|Thompson|1995}}</ref> In this work, John Adams praised Machiavelli, with Algernon Sidney and [[Montesquieu]], as a philosophic defender of mixed government. For Adams, Machiavelli restored empirical reason to politics, while his analysis of factions was commendable. Adams likewise agreed with the Florentine that human nature was immutable and driven by passions. He also accepted Machiavelli's belief that all societies were subject to cyclical periods of growth and decay. For Adams, Machiavelli lacked only a clear understanding of the institutions necessary for good government.<ref name="thompson" /> ===20th century=== The 20th-century Italian Communist [[Antonio Gramsci]] drew great inspiration from Machiavelli's writings on ethics, morals, and how they relate to the State and revolution in his writings on [[Passive Revolution]], and how a society can be manipulated by controlling popular notions of morality.<ref>Marcia Landy, "Culture and Politics in the work of Antonio Gramsci," 167–188, in ''Antonio Gramsci: Intellectuals, Culture, and the Party'', ed. James Martin (New York: Routledge, 2002).</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]] read ''The Prince'' and annotated his own copy.<ref>Service, Robert. ''Stalin: A Biography'', p.10.</ref> In the 20th century there was also renewed interest in Machiavelli's play ''[[The Mandrake|La Mandragola]]'' (1518), which received numerous stagings, including several in New York, at the [[New York Shakespeare Festival]] in 1976 and the [[Riverside Shakespeare Company]] in 1979, as a musical comedy by [[Peer Raben]] in Munich's Anti Theatre in 1971, and at London's [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] in 1984.<ref name="Jann Racquoi 1979">Review by Jann Racquoi, ''Heights/Inwood Press of North Manhattan'', 14 March 1979.</ref> {{Anchor|Machiavellian}} === "Machiavellian" === [[File:Cesareborgia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Portrait of a Gentleman (Melone)|Portrait of a Gentleman]]'' ([[Cesare Borgia]]), used as an example of a successful ruler in ''The Prince'']] Machiavelli's works are sometimes even said to have contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words ''politics'' and ''politician'',<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bireley|1990|p=241}}</ref> and it is sometimes thought that it is because of him that ''Old Nick'' became an English term for the [[Devil]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fischer|2000|p=94}}</ref> More obviously, the adjective ''Machiavellian'' became a term describing a form of politics that is "marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith".<ref>{{Cite dictionary|title=Definition of MACHIAVELLIAN|dictionary=[[merriam-webster.com]]|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Machiavellian|access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> ''Machiavellianism'' also remains a popular term used casually in political discussions, often as a byword for bare-knuckled political realism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rahe|first=Paul A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqroV-TkIhgC&q=paul%20a%20rahe&pg=PR36|title=Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139448338|page=xxxvi|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Definition of Machiavellianism|dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster's Dictionary]]|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Machiavellianism|access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> While Machiavellianism is notable in the works of Machiavelli, scholars generally agree that his works are complex and have equally influential themes within them. For example, J. G. A. {{Harvtxt|Pocock|1975}} saw him as a major source of the [[republicanism]] that spread throughout England and North America in the 17th and 18th centuries and Leo {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1958}}, whose view of Machiavelli is quite different in many ways, had similar remarks about Machiavelli's influence on republicanism and argued that even though Machiavelli was a teacher of evil he had a "grandeur of vision" that led him to advocate immoral actions. Whatever his intentions, which are still debated today, he has become associated with any proposal where "[[Consequentialism|the end justifies the means]]". For example, Leo {{Harvtxt|Strauss|1987|p=297}} wrote: {{blockquote|Machiavelli is the only political thinker whose name has come into common use for designating a kind of politics, which exists and will continue to exist independently of his influence, a politics guided exclusively by considerations of expediency, which uses all means, fair or foul, iron or poison, for achieving its ends{{snd}}its end being the aggrandizement of one's country or fatherland{{snd}}but also using the fatherland in the service of the self-aggrandizement of the politician or statesman or one's party.}} {{anchor|Machiavel}} ===In popular culture=== In [[English Renaissance theatre]] (Elizabethan and Jacobian), the term "[[:wikt:Machiavel|Machiavel]]" (from 'Nicholas Machiavel', an "anglicization" of Machiavelli's name based on French) was used for a stock antagonist that resorted to ruthless means to preserve the power of the state, and is now considered a synonym of "Machiavellian".<ref>{{cite web|access-date=31 December 2021|title=Machiavel|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100122752|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=31 December 2021|title=MACHIAVEL English Definition and Meaning {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/machiavel|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516180221/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/machiavel|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 May 2021|website=Lexico Dictionaries }}</ref> [[Christopher Marlowe]]'s play ''[[The Jew of Malta]]'' (ca. 1589) contains a prologue by a character called Machiavel, a [[Seneca the Younger|Senecan]] ghost based on Machiavelli.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://player.fm/series/jew-of-malta-the-by-marlowe-christopher |title=Jew of Malta, The by MARLOWE, Christopher |work=Player FM |year=2016 |access-date=12 May 2018}}</ref> Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying "I count religion but a childish toy,/And hold there is no sin but ignorance." [[Somerset Maugham]]'s last book ''[[Then and Now (novel)|Then and Now]]'' fictionalizes Machiavelli's interactions with Cesare Borgia, which formed the foundation of ''The Prince''. Niccolò Machiavelli plays a vital role in the young adult book series ''[[The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel]]'' by [[Michael Scott (Irish author)|Michael Scott]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Warlock by Michael Scott|url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/206279/the-warlock-by-michael-scott/9780385735346|access-date=22 January 2021|website=Penguin Random House Canada|language=English}}</ref> He is immortal, and is working in national security for the French government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knickerbocker |first=Joan L. |title=Literature for Young Adults: Books (and More) for Contemporary Readers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTorDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2017 |page=355 |isbn=978-1351813020}}</ref> Niccolò Machiavelli aids [[Cesare Borgia]] and protagonist Nicholas Dawson in their dangerous intrigues in [[Cecelia Holland]]'s 1979 [[historical novel]] ''[[City of God (Holland novel)|City of God]]''.<ref name="Maclaine">{{cite web |url=http://www.historicalnovels.info/City-of-God.html |title=''City of God'' by Cecelia Holland |first=David |last=Maclaine |website=Historicalnovels.info |access-date=5 September 2014}}</ref> David Maclaine writes that in the novel, Machiavelli "is an off-stage presence whose spirit permeates this work of intrigue and betrayal ... It is a brilliant introduction to the people and events that gave us the word 'Machiavellian.'"<ref name="Maclaine" /> Machiavelli appears as an Immortal adversary of [[Duncan MacLeod]] in [[Nancy Holder]]'s 1997 ''[[Highlander (franchise)|Highlander]]'' novel ''The Measure of a Man'', and is a character in [[Michael Scott (Irish author)|Michael Scott]]'s novel series ''[[The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel]]'' (2007–2012). Machiavelli is also one of the main characters in ''[[The Enchantress of Florence]]'' (2008) by [[Salman Rushdie]], mostly referred to as "Niccolò 'il Macchia", and the central protagonist in the 2012 novel ''The Malice of Fortune'' by Michael Ennis. Television dramas centring on the early [[The Renaissance|Renaissance]] have also made use of Machiavelli to underscore his influence in early modern political philosophy. Machiavelli has been featured as a supporting character in ''[[The Tudors (TV series)|The Tudors]]'' (2007–2010),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/the-tudors-episode-guide/the-tudors-season-1/the-tudors-season-1-episode-2-simply-henry/ |title=The Tudors Season 1 Episode 2 – Simply Henry |access-date=8 February 2018 |work=The Anne Boleyn Files|date=22 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Lucinda |title=An epic for our times: How Game of Thrones reached highbrow status |url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/arts-and-books/an-epic-for-our-times-how-game-of-thrones-reached-highbrow-status |date=25 July 2017 |access-date=8 February 2018 |journal=[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]}}</ref> [[Borgia (TV series)|''Borgia'']] (2011–2014) and ''[[The Borgias (2011 TV series)|The Borgias]]'' (2011–2013),<ref name=Ashurst>{{cite journal |last=Ashurst |first=Sam |title=The 7 most wildly inaccurate historical dramas on TV |url=http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/feature/a833561/inaccurate-historical-drama/ |date=20 July 2017 |access-date=8 February 2018 |journal=[[Digital Spy]]}}</ref> and the 1981 BBC mini series [[The Borgias (1981 TV series)|''The Borgias'']]. Machiavelli appears in the popular historical [[video game]]s ''[[Assassin's Creed II]]'' (2009) and ''[[Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood]]'' (2010), in which he is portrayed as a member of the secret society of Assassins.<ref name=collider>{{cite web |url=https://collider.com/assassins-creed-timeline-explained/ |title='Assassin's Creed' Timeline, Explained: From Ancient Civilizations and Greek Gods to Vikings and Pirates |first=Rafael |last=Motamayor |website=Collider |date=25 December 2020 |access-date=27 January 2021}}</ref> A highly fictionalised version of Machiavelli appears in the [[BBC]] children's TV series ''[[Leonardo (2011 TV series)|Leonardo]]'' (2011–2012),<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBBC – Leonardo |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01mzqyy |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> in which he is "Mac", a black streetwise hustler who is best friends with fellow teenagers [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Mona Lisa]], and [[Lorenzo di Medici]]. In the 2013 episode "Ewings Unite!" of the television series ''[[Dallas (2012 TV series)|Dallas]]'', legendary oil baron [[J. R. Ewing]] wills his copy of ''[[The Prince]]'' to his adopted nephew [[Christopher Ewing]], telling him to "use it, because being smart and sneaky is an unbeatable combination." In ''[[Da Vinci's Demons]]'' (2013–2015) – an American [[historical fantasy]] drama series that presents a fictional account of Leonardo da Vinci's early life<ref>{{Cite news |author=Jones |first=Jonathan |date=16 April 2013 |title=''Da Vinci's Demons'': the new TV show that totally reinvents Leonardo's life |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2013/apr/16/da-vincis-demons-reinvents-leonardo |access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref> – [[Eros Vlahos]] plays a young Niccolò "Nico" Machiavelli, although the character's full name is not revealed until the finale of the second season. The 1967 ''[[The Time Tunnel]]'' episode "The Death Merchant" stars character actor [[Malachi Throne]] as Niccolò Machiavelli, who has been time-displaced to the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. The character's personality and behaviour seem to portray Cesare Borgia rather than Machiavelli himself, suggesting that the writers may have confused the two. Machiavelli is played by [[Damian Lewis]] in the 2013 BBC radio play ''The Prince'' written by [[Jonathan Myerson]]. Together with his defence attorney [[Lucrezia Borgia]] ([[Helen McCrory]]), he presents examples from history to the devil to support his political theories and appeal his sentence in Hell.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01slm1l|title=BBC Radio 4 – Saturday Drama, The Prince|publisher=BBC}}</ref> The historical novel ''The City of Man'' (2009) by author Michael Harrington fully portrays the complex personalities of the two main characters – [[Girolamo Savonarola]] and a formative Niccolò Machiavelli – in opposition during the turbulent last decade of 15th-century Florence. The portrayal of Machiavelli draws from his later writings and observations of the chaotic events of his youth before rising from obscurity to be appointed as second chancellor of the Florentine Republic at the age of twenty-nine, only one month after Savonarola's execution. Major characters include [[Lorenzo de' Medici]], his son Piero, [[Michelangelo]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], [[Pico della Mirandola]], [[Marsilio Ficino]], [[Pope Alexander VI]] (Rodrigo Borgia), [[Cesare Borgia]] (model for ''The Prince''), Piero and Tommaso Soderini, Il Cronaca and the diarist, Luca Landucci. Rapper [[Tupac Shakur]] studied in depth the teachings of ''The Prince'' while in prison recovering from an attempt on his life. He was so inspired that once released from prison he changed his stage name to a pseudonym derived from Niccolo Machiavelli; "Makaveli", stating: "Like, Machiavelli. My name is not Machiavelli. My name is Makaveli. I took it, that's mine. He gave me that. And I don't feel no guilt."<ref name="auto">{{cite web | url=https://tupacuncensored.com/reason-why-tupac-changed-his-name-to-makaveli/ | title=Reason Why Tupac Changed His Name to Makaveli | date=4 November 2022 }}</ref> "That's what got me here, My reading. It's not like I idolize this one guy Machiavelli. I idolize that type of thinking where you do whatever's gonna make you achieve your goal".<ref name="auto"/> Released only eight weeks after [[Tupac Shakur]] died from gunshot wounds, [[Death Row Records|Death Row]] records released [[The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory]] the posthumous album under the name of Makaveli, after having been influenced by Machiavelli's philosophy of using deception and fear on one's enemies. In the 1993 crime drama ''[[A Bronx Tale]]'', local mob boss Sonny tells his young protégé Calogero that while he was doing a 10-year sentence in jail, he passed the time and stayed out of trouble by reading Machiavelli, whom he describes as "a famous writer from 500 years ago". He then tells him how Machiavelli's philosophy, including his famous advice about how it is preferable for a leader to be feared rather than loved if he cannot be both, has made him a successful mob boss. Machiavelli also appears as a young [[Florence|Florentine]] spy in the third season of [[Medici (TV series)|''Medici'']], where he is portrayed by Vincenzo Crea. He is addressed as "Nico" in all appearances except the season finale, where he reveals his full name. ==Works== {{Republicanism sidebar}} {{See also|Category:Works by Niccolò Machiavelli}} ===Political and historical works=== [[File:Art of War-1573.jpg|thumb|Peter Withorne's 1573 translation of ''The Art of War'']] * ''[[Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa]]'' (1499) * ''[[Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati]]'' (1502) * ''[[Description of the Manner in which Duke Valentino put Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, Lord Pagola and the Duke of Gravina to Death|Descrizione del modo tenuto dal Duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, il Signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini]]'' (1502) – A ''Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini'' * ''[[Discourse about the Provision of Money|Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro]]'' (1502) – A discourse about the provision of money. * ''Ritratti delle cose di Francia'' (1510) – Portrait of the affairs of France. * ''[[Report on the state of Germany|Ritratto delle cose della Magna]]'' (1508–1512) – Portrait of the affairs of Germany. * ''[[The Prince]]'' (1513) * ''[[Discourses on Livy]]'' (1517) * ''Dell'Arte della Guerra'' (1519–1520) – ''[[The Art of War (Machiavelli)|The Art of War]]'', high military science. * ''[[Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze]]'' (1520) – A discourse about the reforming of Florence. * ''Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca'' (1520) – A summary of the affairs of the city of Lucca. * ''The [[Life of Castruccio Castracani]] of Lucca'' (1520) – ''Vita di [[Castruccio Castracani]] da Lucca'', a short biography. * ''Istorie Fiorentine'' (1520–1525) – ''[[Florentine Histories]]'', an eight-volume history of the city-state Florence, commissioned by Giulio de' Medici, later [[Pope Clement VII]]. ===Fictional works=== {{See also|Machiavelli as a dramatist}} Besides being a statesman and political scientist, Machiavelli also translated classical works, and was a playwright (''Clizia'', ''Mandragola''), a poet (''Sonetti'', ''Canzoni'', ''Ottave'', ''Canti carnascialeschi''), and a novelist (''Belfagor arcidiavolo''). Some of his other work: * ''[[The First Decade (poem)|Decennale primo]]'' (1506) – a poem in [[terza rima]]. * ''[[Decennale secondo]]'' (1509) – a poem. * [[Andria (Machiavelli)|Andria]] or ''The Girl from Andros'' (1517) – a semi-autobiographical comedy, adapted from [[Terence]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaledailynews.com/blog/2012/04/18/first-time-machiavelli-translation-debuts-at-yale/|title=First-time Machiavelli translation debuts at Yale|date=18 April 2012|publisher=yaledailynews.com}}</ref> * ''[[The Mandrake|Mandragola]]'' (1518) – ''[[The Mandrake]]'' – a five-act prose comedy, with a verse prologue. * ''[[Clizia]]'' (1525) – a prose comedy. * ''[[Belfagor arcidiavolo]]'' (1515) – a novella. * ''[[The Golden Ass (Machiavelli)|Asino d'oro]]'' (1517) – ''[[The Golden Ass (Machiavelli)|The Golden Ass]]'' is a [[terza rima]] poem, a new version of the [[The Golden Ass|classic work]] by [[Apuleius]]. * ''Frammenti storici'' (1525) – fragments of stories. ===Other works=== ''Della Lingua'' (Italian for "On the Language") (1514), a dialogue about Italy's language is normally attributed to Machiavelli. Machiavelli's literary executor, Giuliano de' Ricci, also reported having seen that Machiavelli, his grandfather, made a comedy in the style of [[Aristophanes]] which included living Florentines as characters, and to be titled ''Le Maschere''. It has been suggested that due to such things as this and his style of writing to his superiors generally, there was very likely some animosity to Machiavelli even before the return of the Medici.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Godman|1998|p=240}}. Also see {{Harvtxt|Black|1999|pp=97–98}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Italy|Biography}} * [[Florentine military reforms]] * [[Francesco Guicciardini]] * [[Francesco Vettori]] * [[Italian Renaissance]] * [[Mayberry Machiavelli]] * [[Republicanism]] * [[Scipione Ammirato]] ==References== '''Footnotes''' {{notelist}} '''Citations''' {{Reflist|30em}} ===Sources=== * {{cite book |last1=Machiavelli |first1=Niccolò |translator=Daniel Donno |title=The Prince and Selected Discourses |year=1981 |publisher=Bantam Classic Books |location=New York |isbn=0553212273 |edition=}} * {{Cite book|last=Haitsma Mulier|first=Eco|chapter=A controversial republican|title=Machiavelli and Republicanism|year=1999|editor1-last=Bock|editor1-first=Gisela|editor2-last=Skinner|editor2-first=Quentin|editor3-last=Viroli|editor3-first=Maurizio|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Harper |first=John Lamberton |title=American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of US Foreign Policy |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0521834858 }} * {{Cite book|last=Shklar|first=J.|chapter=Montesquieu and the new republicanism|title=Machiavelli and Republicanism|year=1999|editor1-last=Bock|editor1-first=Gisela|editor2-last=Skinner|editor2-first=Quentin|editor3-last=Viroli|editor3-first=Maurizio|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{Cite book|last=Worden|first=Blair|chapter=Milton's republicanism and the tyranny of heaven|title=Machiavelli and Republicanism|year=1999|editor1-last=Bock|editor1-first=Gisela|editor2-last=Skinner|editor2-first=Quentin|editor3-last=Viroli|editor3-first=Maurizio|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} ==Further reading== ===Biographies=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Baron |first1=Hans |title=Machiavelli: The Republican Citizen and the Author of 'the Prince' |journal=The English Historical Review |date=April 1961 |volume=76 |issue=299 |pages=217–253 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXVI.CCXCIX.217 |jstor=557541}} * Black, Robert. ''Machiavelli: From Radical to Reactionary''. London: Reaktion Books (2022) * Burd, L. A., "Florence (II): Machiavelli" in ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1902), vol. I, ch. vi. pp.&nbsp;190–218 [https://books.google.com/books?id=d7kFAAAAIAAJ&dq=Burd++Machiavelli+intitle:Cambridge+intitle:Modern+intitle:History&pg=RA3-PA720 online Google edition] * Capponi, Niccolò. ''An Unlikely Prince: The Life and Times of Machiavelli'' (Da Capo Press; 2010) 334 pages * Celenza, Christopher S. ''Machiavelli: A Portrait'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2015) 240 pages. {{ISBN|978-0674416123}} * {{Citation|last=Godman|first=Peter|title=From Poliziano to Machiavelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance|year=1998|publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{Citation|last=de Grazia|first=Sebastian|title=Machiavelli in Hell|year=1989|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |isbn=978-0679743422}}, an intellectual biography that won the Pulitzer Prize; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0679743421 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309023042/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0679743421 |date=9 March 2021 }} * Hale, J. R. ''Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy'' (1961) [https://www.questia.com/read/10359207?title=Machiavelli%20and%20Renaissance%20Italy online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619174443/http://www.questia.com/read/10359207?title=Machiavelli%20and%20Renaissance%20Italy |date=19 June 2009 }} * Hulliung, Mark. ''Citizen Machiavelli'' (Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 1983) * Lee, Alexander. ''Machiavelli: His Life and Times'' (London: Picador, 2020) * Oppenheimer, Paul. ''Machiavelli: A Life Beyond Ideology'' (London; New York: Continuum, 2011) {{ISBN|978-1847252210}} * Ridolfi, Roberto. ''The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli'' (1963) * Schevill, Ferdinand. ''Six Historians'' (1956), pp.&nbsp;61–91 * Skinner, Quentin. ''Machiavelli'', in ''Past Masters'' series. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1981. pp. vii, 102. {{ISBN|0192875167}} pbk. * Skinner, Quentin. ''Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction'' (2d ed., 2019) {{ISBN|978-0198837572}} pbk. * Unger, Miles J. ''Machiavelli: A Biography'' (Simon & Schuster, 2011) * Villari, Pasquale. ''The Life and Times of Niccolò Machiavelli'' (2 vols. 1892) ([https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimesnic00villgoog Vol 1]; [https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimesnic01villgoog Vol 2]) * {{Citation|last=Viroli|first=Maurizio|title=Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli|publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux|year=2000|title-link=Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0374221871 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324211333/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0374221871 |date=24 March 2021 }} * Viroli, Maurizio. ''Machiavelli'' (1998) [https://www.questia.com/read/23271960?title=Machiavelli online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020021045/https://www.questia.com/read/23271960?title=Machiavelli |date=20 October 2017 }} * Vivanti, Corrado. ''Niccolò Machiavelli: An Intellectual Biography'' (Princeton University Press; 2013) 261 pages {{refend}} ===Political thought=== {{refbegin|30em}} * Baron, Hans. ''The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny'' (2 vol 1955), highly influential, deep study of civic humanism (republicanism); 700 pp. [https://archive.org/details/crisisofearlyita0000baro <!-- quote=intitle:crisis intitle:early inauthor:hans inauthor:baron. --> excerpts and text search]; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01379 ACLS E-books]; also [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01379 vol 2 in ACLS E-books] * Baron, Hans. ''In Search of Florentine Civic Humanism'' (2 vols. 1988). * {{Citation|last= Baron|first=Hans|title=Machiavelli: the Republican Citizen and Author of ''The Prince''|journal=English Historical Review|issue=76|year=1961|pages=217–253|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXVI.CCXCIX.217|volume=lxxvi|postscript= .|jstor=557541}} [https://www.jstor.org/pss/557541 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055737/https://www.jstor.org/stable/557541 |date=18 November 2022 }} * [[Isaiah Berlin|Berlin, Isaiah]]. "The Originality of Machiavelli", in Berlin, Isaiah (1980). ''Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas''. New York: The Viking Press. * {{Citation|title=The Counter Reformation Prince|last=Bireley|first=Robert|year=1990}} * {{Citation|chapter=Machiavelli, servant of the Florentine republic|last=Black|first=Robert|title=Machiavelli and Republicanism|year=1999|editor1-last=Bock|editor1-first=Gisela|editor2-last=Skinner|editor2-first=Quentin|editor3-last=Viroli|editor3-first=Maurizio|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Bock |editor1-first=Gisela |editor2-last=Skinner |editor2-first=Quentin |editor3-last=Viroli |editor3-first=Maurizio |title=Machiavelli and Republicanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MNULqj7T4YC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0521435895}} * Chabod, Federico (1958). ''Machiavelli & the Renaissance'' [https://www.questia.com/read/56380461?title=Machiavelli%20%26%20the%20Renaissance online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619162346/http://www.questia.com/read/56380461?title=Machiavelli%20%26%20the%20Renaissance |date=19 June 2009 }}; [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01383 online from ACLS E-Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820112213/http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01383 |date=20 August 2008 }} * Connell, William J. (2001), "Machiavelli on Growth as an End," in Anthony Grafton and J.H.M. Salmon, eds., ''Historians and Ideologues: Essays in Honor of Donald R. Kelley'', Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 259–277. * Donskis, Leonidas, ed. (2011). Niccolò Machiavelli: History, Power, and Virtue. Rodopi, {{ISBN|978-9042032774}}, E-{{ISBN|978-9042032781}} * [[William Everdell|Everdell, William R.]] "Niccolò Machiavelli: The Florentine Commune" in ''The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. * {{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Markus |title=Machiavelli's Political Psychology |journal=The Review of Politics |date=Autumn 1997 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=789–829 |jstor=1408308 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500028333|s2cid=146570913 }} * {{Citation|title=Well-ordered License: On the Unity of Machiavelli's Thought|last=Fischer|first=Markus|publisher=Lexington Book|year=2000}} * {{cite book |last= Frederick II of Prussia|title=Anti-Machiavel: The Refutation of Machiavelli s Prince |date=1980 |orig-date=1740|translator-last=Sonnino|translator-first=Paul|publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=9780821405598}} * {{Citation|chapter=Machiavelli and the crisis of the Italian republics|last=Guarini|first=Elena|title=Machiavelli and Republicanism|year=1999|editor1-last=Bock|editor1-first=Gisela|editor2-last=Skinner|editor2-first=Quentin|editor3-last=Viroli|editor3-first=Maurizio|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{Citation|title=Machiavelli's ''Prince'' and Its Forerunners|year=1938|publisher=Duke University Press|last=Gilbert|first=Allan}} * Gilbert, Felix. ''Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Italy'' (2nd ed. 1984) [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01706 online from ACLS-E-books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055742/https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/rb68xf36w |date=18 November 2022 }} * Gilbert, Felix. "Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War," in Edward Mead Earle, ed. ''The Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1944) * Jensen, De Lamar, ed. ''Machiavelli: Cynic, Patriot, or Political Scientist?'' (1960) essays by scholars [https://www.questia.com/read/34624137?title=Machiavelli%3a%20Cynic%2c%20Patriot%2c%20or%20Political%20Scientist%3f online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425072059/http://www.questia.com/read/34624137?title=Machiavelli%3A%20Cynic%2C%20Patriot%2C%20or%20Political%20Scientist%3F |date=25 April 2010 }} * {{Cite book |last= Jurdjevic |first= Mark |year= 2014 |title= A Great and Wretched City: Promise and Failure in Machiavelli's Florentine Political Thought |location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0674725461}} * {{Citation|last=Kennington|first=Richard|year=2004|title=On Modern Origins|publisher=Lexington Books}} * Mansfield, Harvey C. "Machiavelli's Political Science," ''The American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 75, No. 2 (Jun. 1981), pp.&nbsp;293–305 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1961365 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808041013/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1961365 |date=8 August 2016 }} * {{Citation|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey|year=1993|title=Taming the Prince|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press}} * {{Citation|last=Mansfield|first=Harvey|chapter=Machiavelli and the Idea of Progress|year=1995|editor1-last=Melzer|editor2-last=Weinberger|editor3-last=Zinman|title=History and the Idea of Progress|publisher=Cornell University Press}} * Mansfield, Harvey C. '' Machiavelli's Virtue'' (1996), 371 pp. * Mansfield, Harvey C. ''Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0226503704 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311142259/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0226503704 |date=11 March 2021 }} * {{Citation| author = Roger Masters | title = Machiavelli, Leonardo and the Science of Power | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-0268014339 |author-link=Roger Masters}} See also [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0CE6DB123FF93BA35751C1A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print NYT book review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055737/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/08/us/scholar-sees-leonardo-s-influence-on-machiavelli.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print |date=18 November 2022 }}. * {{Citation| author = Roger Masters | title = Fortune is a River: Leonardo Da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificent Dream to Change the Course of Florentine History | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-452-28090-8 |author-link=Roger Masters}} Also available in Chinese ({{ISBN|9789572026113}}), Japanese ({{ISBN|978-4022597588}}), German ({{ISBN|978-3471794029}}), Portuguese ({{ISBN|978-8571104969}}), and Korean ({{ISBN|978-8984070059}}). See also [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9901E6D91730F934A25754C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print NYT book review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055738/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/17/books/books-of-the-times-a-river-ran-through-their-dreams.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print |date=18 November 2022 }}. * {{Citation|last= Mattingly|first=Garrett|title=Machiavelli's Prince: Political Science or Political Satire?|journal=The American Scholar|issue=27|date=Autumn 1958|pages=482–491|postscript=.}} * {{Citation|title=Between Friends: Discourses of Power and Desire in the Machiavelli-Vettori Letters of 1513–1515|last=Najemy|first=John|year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{Citation|last= Najemy|first=John M.|title=Baron's Machiavelli and Renaissance Republicanism|journal=American Historical Review|issue=1|year=1996|pages= 119–129|doi=10.2307/2169227|volume=101|jstor= 2169227|postscript=.}} * {{cite journal |last1=Parel |first1=A. J. |title=The Question of Machiavelli's Modernity |journal=The Review of Politics |date=Spring 1991 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=320–339 |jstor=1407757 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500014649|s2cid=170629105 }} * {{Citation|last=Parel|first=Anthony|chapter=Introduction: Machiavelli's Method and His Interpreters|title=The Political Calculus: Essays on Machiavelli's Philosophy|location=Toronto|year=1972|pages=3–28}} * {{Citation|last=Parsons|first=William B.|title=Machiavelli's Gospel|year=2016|publisher=University of Rochester Press|isbn=978-1580464918}} * {{Citation|last=Pocock|first=J.G.A.|title=The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition|publisher=Princeton|year=1975}} new ed. 2003, a highly influential study of ''Discourses'' and its vast influence; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0691114722 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318183144/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0691114722 |date=18 March 2021 }}; also [https://www.questia.com/read/100774068?title=The%20Machiavellian%20Moment%3a%20Florentine%20Political%20Thought%20and%20the%20Atlantic%20Republican%20Tradition online 1975 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007145157/http://www.questia.com/read/100774068?title=The%20Machiavellian%20Moment%3A%20Florentine%20Political%20Thought%20and%20the%20Atlantic%20Republican%20Tradition |date=7 October 2010 }} * Pocock, J. G. A. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology.: ''Journal of Modern History'' 1981 53(1): 49–72. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877064 Fulltext: in Jstor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911191259/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1877064 |date=11 September 2018 }}. * {{Citation|last=Rahe|first=Paul|title=Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution|year=1992}} [https://www.questia.com/library/book/republics-ancient-and-modern-classical-republicanism-and-the-american-revolution-vol-2-by-paul-a-rahe.jsp online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923182527/http://www.questia.com/library/book/republics-ancient-and-modern-classical-republicanism-and-the-american-revolution-vol-2-by-paul-a-rahe.jsp |date=23 September 2009 }} * {{Citation|last=Rahe|first=Paul A.|title=Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521851879}} Excerpt, reviews and Text search shows Machiavelli's ''Discourses'' had a major impact on shaping conservative thought. * Ruggiero, Guido. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qebSKGxkrWEC ''Machiavelli in Love: Sex, Self and Society in Renaissance Italy''] (2007) * {{Citation|first=David|last=Schaefer|year=1990|publisher=Cornell University Press|title=The Political Philosophy of Montaigne}}. * {{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=John T. |last2=Sullivan |first2=Vickie B. |title=Patricide and the Plot of the Prince: Cesare Borgia and Machiavelli's Italy |journal=The American Political Science Review |date=1994 |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=887–900 |doi=10.2307/2082714 |issn=0003-0554|jstor=2082714|s2cid=144798597 }} * Skinner, Quentin. ''The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, v. I, The Renaissance,'' (1978) * {{Citation|last= Soll|first=Jacob|title=Publishing The Prince: History, Reading and the Birth of Political Criticism|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2005}} * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ''Niccolò Machiavelli'' (2005) * {{Citation|chapter=Niccolò Machiavelli|title=History of Political Philosophy|edition=3rd|editor1-last=Strauss|editor1-first=Leo|editor2-last=Cropsey|editor2-first=Joseph|last=Strauss|first=Leo|year=1987|publisher=University of Chicago Press}} * {{Citation|last=Strauss|first=Leo|author-link = Leo Strauss|title=Thoughts on Machiavelli|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1958|isbn=978-0226777023}} * {{Citation|editor-last= Sullivan|editor-first=Vickie B.|title=The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli: Essays on the Literary Works|publisher=Yale U. Press|year=2000}} * {{Citation|last= Sullivan|first=Vickie B.|title=Machiavelli's Three Romes: Religion, Human Liberty, and Politics Reformed|publisher=Northern Illinois University Press|year=1996}} * von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007. * {{Citation|first=C. Bradley |last=Thompson|title=John Adams's Machiavellian Moment| journal=The Review of Politics|volume=57|issue=3|year=1995|pages=389–417|doi=10.1017/S0034670500019689|s2cid=154074090 }}. Also in {{Harvtxt|Rahe|2006}}. * {{Citation|last=Whelan|first=Frederick G.|title=Hume and Machiavelli: Political Realism and Liberal Thought|location=Lexington|year=2004}} * {{cite book |last1=Wight |first1=Martin |author-link1=Martin Wight |editor1-last=Wight |editor1-first=Gabriele |editor2-last= Porter |editor2-first=Brian |title=Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant, and Mazzini |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0199273676 |url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199273676.do |language=en}} * Zuckert, Catherine, (2017) [https://books.google.com/books?id=yZUtDwAAQBAJ&q=catherine+zuckert "Machiavelli's Politics"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055737/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Machiavelli_s_Politics/yZUtDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=catherine+zuckert&printsec=frontcover |date=18 November 2022 }} {{refend}} ===Italian studies=== {{refbegin|30em}} * Barbuto, Marcelo (2005), "Questa oblivione delle cose. Reflexiones sobre la cosmología de Maquiavelo (1469–1527)," ''Revista Daimon'', 34, Universidad de Murcia, pp.&nbsp;34–52. * Barbuto, Marcelo (2008), "Discorsi, I, XII, 12–14. La Chiesa romana di fronte alla republica cristiana", ''Filosofia Politica'', 1, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp.&nbsp;99–116. * Celli, Carlo ( 2009), ''Il carnevale di Machiavelli'', Firenze, L.S. Olschki. * [[William J. Connell (historian)|Connell, William J.]] (2015), ''Machiavelli nel Rinascimento italiano'', Milano, Franco Angeli. * Giuseppe Leone, "Silone e Machiavelli. Una scuola...che non crea prìncipi", pref. di Vittoriano Esposito, Centro Studi Ignazio Silone, Pescina, 2003. * Martelli, Mario (2004), "La Mandragola e il suo prologo", ''Interpres'', XXIII, pp.&nbsp;106–142. * Martelli, Mario (2003), "Per la definizione della nozione di principe civile", ''Interpres'', XXII. * Martelli, Mario (2001), "I dettagli della filologia", ''Interpres'' XX, pp.&nbsp;212–271. * Martelli, Mario (1999a), "Note su Machiavelli", ''Interpres'' XVIII, pp.&nbsp;91–145. * Martelli, Mario (1999b), ''Saggio sul Principe'', Salerno Editrice, Roma. * Martelli, Mario (1999c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola: valutazione politica e valutazione religiosa", Girolamo Savonarola. L´uomo e il frate". Atti del xxxv Convegno storico internazionale (Todi, II-14 ottobre 1998), CISAM, Spoleto, pp.&nbsp;139–153. * Martelli, Mario (1998a), ''Machiavelli e gli storici antichi, osservazioni su alcuni luoghi dei discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio'', Quaderni di Filologia e critica, 13, Salerno Editrice, Roma. * Martelli, Mario (1998b), "Machiavelli politico amante poeta", ''Interpres'' XVII, pp.&nbsp;211–256. * Martelli, Mario (1998c), "Machiavelli e Savonarola", ''Savonarola. Democrazia, tirannide, profezia'', a cura di G.C. Garfagnini, Florencia, Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzo, pp.&nbsp;67–89. * Martelli, Mario and Bausi, Francesco (1997), "Politica, storia e letteratura: Machiavelli e Guicciardini", ''Storia della letteratura italiana'', E. Malato (ed.), vol. IV. Il primo Cinquecento, Salerno Editrice, Roma, pp.&nbsp;251–320. * Martelli, Mario (1985–1986), "Schede sulla cultura di Machiavelli", ''Interpres'' VI, pp.&nbsp;283–330. * Martelli, Mario (1982) "La logica provvidenzialistica e il capitolo XXVI del Principe", ''Interpres'' IV, pp.&nbsp;262–384. * Martelli, Mario (1974), "L´altro Niccolò di Bernardo Machiavelli", ''Rinascimento'', XIV, pp.&nbsp;39–100. * Sasso, Gennaro (1993), ''Machiavelli: storia del suo pensiero politico'', II vol., Bologna, Il Mulino, * Sasso, Gennaro (1987–1997) ''Machiavelli e gli antichi e altri saggi'', 4 vols., Milano, R. Ricciardi {{refend}} ===Editions=== {{refbegin}} '''Collections''' * Gilbert, Allan H. ed. ''Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others,'' (3 vol. 1965), the standard scholarly edition * Bondanella, Peter, and Mark Musa, eds. ''The Portable Machiavelli'' (1979) * Penman, Bruce. ''The Prince and Other Political Writings,'' (1981) * {{Citation |editor-last=Wootton |editor-first=David |title=Selected political writings of Niccolò Machiavelli |location=Indianapolis |publisher=Hackett Pubs. |year=1994}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/087220247X excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316084453/https://www.amazon.com/dp/087220247X |date=16 March 2021 }} '''The Prince''' * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince with Related Documents |year=2016 |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |location=Boston |isbn=978-1319048921 |edition=2nd |url=http://www.macmillanlearning.com/Catalog/product/prince-secondedition-connell}}. Translated by [[William J. Connell (historian)|William J. Connell]] * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |publisher=Adagio Press |location=US |year=2015 |isbn=978-0996767705}}. Edited by W. Garner. Translated by Luigi Ricci. [https://www.amazon.com/Prince-Niccolo-Machiavelli/dp/0996767703 Excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118055737/https://www.amazon.com/Prince-Niccolo-Machiavelli/dp/0996767703 |date=18 November 2022 }} * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |publisher=Penguin |location=London |year=1961 |isbn=978-0140449150}}. Translated by [[George Bull (journalist)|George Bull]] * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |publisher=Penguin |location=London |year=2009 |isbn=978-1846140440}}. Translated by [[Tim Parks]] * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |location=New York |year=1992 |isbn=0393962202}}. Translated by [[Robert M. Adams (literary scholar)|Robert M. Adams]] (Norton Critical Edition, 2nd ed., with "Backgrounds, Interpretations, Marginalia"). * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |year=2006 |title=El Principe/The Prince: Comentado Por Napoleon Bonaparte / Commentaries by Napoleon Buonaparte |publisher=Mestas Ediciones}}. Translated into Spanish by Marina Massa-Carrara * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1985}}. Translated by Harvey Mansfield * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=The Prince |year=1995 |publisher=Everyman}}. Translated and Edited by Stephen J. Milner. Introduction, Notes and other critical apparatus by J.M. Dent. * ''The Prince'' ed. by Peter Bondanella (1998) 101 pp [https://www.questia.com/read/97573377?title=The%20Prince online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425072104/http://www.questia.com/read/97573377?title=The%20Prince |date=25 April 2010 }} * ''The Prince'' ed. by Rufus Goodwin and Benjamin Martinez (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0937832383 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317074201/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0937832383 |date=17 March 2021 }} * ''The Prince'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0979415403 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310164023/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0979415403 |date=10 March 2021 }} * Machiavelli, Niccolò. ''The Prince,'' (1908 edition tr by W. K. Marriott) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1232 Gutenberg edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924041033/http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1232 |date=24 September 2009 }} * {{Citation |last=Marriott |first=W. K. |title=The Prince |publisher=Red and Black Publishers |year=2008}} {{ISBN|978-1934941003}} * ''Il principe'' (2006) ed. by Mario Martelli and Nicoletta Marcelli, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli, Salerno Editrice, Roma. '''The Discourses on Livy''' * ''Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio'' (2001), ed. by Francesco Bausi, Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli, II vol. Salerno Editrice, Roma. * ''The Discourses,'' [http://www.constitution.org/mac/disclivy_.htm online 1772 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815054146/http://constitution.org/mac/disclivy_.htm |date=15 August 2012 }} * ''The Discourses,'' tr. with introduction and notes by L. J. Walker (2 vol 1950). * Machiavelli, Niccolò (1531). ''[[Discourses on Livy|The Discourses]]''. Translated by Leslie J. Walker, S.J, revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). London: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-044428-9}} * ''The Discourses,'' edited with an introduction by Bernard Crick (1970). '''The Art of War''' * ''The Seven Books on the Art of War'' [http://www.constitution.org/mac/artofwar_.htm online 1772 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716191533/http://www.constitution.org/mac/artofwar_.htm |date=16 July 2012 }} * ''The Art of War'', University of Chicago Press, edited with new translation and commentary by [[Christopher Lynch (political scientist & historian)|Christopher Lynch]] (2003) * ''The Art of War'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=xR0JAAAAQAAJ&q=machiavelli+%22art+of+war%22+translated&pg=PA13 online 1775 edition] * ''The Art of War'', Niccolò Machiavelli. Da Capo press edition, 2001, with introduction by Neal Wood. '''Florentine Histories''' * ''History of Florence'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2464/2464-h/2464-h.htm online 1901 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920223244/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2464/2464-h/2464-h.htm |date=20 September 2008 }} * ''Reform of Florence'' [http://www.constitution.org/mac/florence.htm online 1772 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815053458/http://constitution.org/mac/florence.htm |date=15 August 2012 }} * {{Citation |title=Florentine Histories |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |year=1988 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. Translation by Laura F. Banfield and Harvey Mansfield, Jr. '''Correspondence''' * ''Epistolario privado. Las cartas que nos desvelan el pensamiento y la personalidad de uno de los intelectuales más importantes del Renacimiento'', Juan Manuel Forte (edición y traducción), Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros, 2007, 435 págs, {{ISBN|978-8497346610}} * ''The Private Correspondence of Niccolò Machiavelli,'' ed. by Orestes Ferrara; (1929) [https://www.questia.com/read/77267435?title=The%20Private%20Correspondence%20of%20Nicolo%20Machiavelli online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623124540/http://www.questia.com/read/77267435?title=The%20Private%20Correspondence%20of%20Nicolo%20Machiavelli |date=23 June 2009 }} * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence |year=1996 |publisher=Northern Illinois University Press}}. Translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices. * Also see {{Harvtxt|Najemy|1993}}. '''Poetry and comedy''' * {{Citation |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolò |title=Comedies of Machiavelli |year=1985 |publisher=University Press of New England}} Bilingual edition of ''The Woman from Andros'', ''[[The Mandrake]]'', and ''[[Clizia]]'', edited by David Sices and James B. Atkinson. * Hoeges, Dirk. ''Niccolò Machiavelli. Dichter-Poeta. Mit sämtlichen Gedichten, deutsch/italienisch. Con tutte le poesie, tedesco/italiano'', Reihe: Dialoghi/Dialogues: Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, Band 10, Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt/M. u.a. 2006, {{ISBN|3631546696}}. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=Niccolò Machiavelli |b=no |n=no |q=Niccolò Machiavelli |s=Author:Niccolò Machiavelli |v=no |species=no}} * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/niccolo-machiavelli}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=563}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Niccolò Machiavelli}} * {{Librivox author |id=885}} * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Machiavelli, Niccolò |volume=17 |pages=233–237 |short=x}} * [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli | Biography | Encyclopedia Britannica] * [https://www.iep.utm.edu/machiave/ Machiavelli, Niccolò] – ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.'' * {{cite Collier's New Encyclopedia|wstitle=Macchiavelli |volume=6 |page=53 |short=x}} * [https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli, ''History.com''] * [[William Everdell|William R. Everdell's]] article "[http://dhm.pdp6.org/archives/wre-republics.html From State to Free-State: The Meaning of the Word Republic from Jean Bodin to John Adams]" with extensive discussion of Machiavelli * [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/Aut242.HTM Works by Niccolò Machiavelli]: text, concordances and frequency list ** [http://digilander.libero.it/il_machiavelli/index.html Works of Machiavelli]: Italian and English text * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p004y26p/In_Our_Time_Machiavelli_and_the_Italian_City_States Machiavelli and the Italian City on the BBC's In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg]; with Quentin Skinner, Regius Professor of History at the University of Cambridge; Evelyn Welch, Professor of Renaissance Studies at Queen Mary, University of London; Lisa Jardine, Director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters at Queen Mary, University of London * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071017213716/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/m/machiavelli/niccolo/ University of Adelaide's full texts of Machiavelli's works] {{Niccolò Machiavelli}} {{Political philosophy}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Machiavelli, Niccolo}} [[Category:Niccolò Machiavelli| ]]<!--eponymous cat. always 1st--> [[Category:Italian political philosophers]] [[Category:Italian Renaissance writers]] [[Category:Liberal theorists]] [[Category:1469 births]] [[Category:1527 deaths]] [[Category:Burials at Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence]] [[Category:Consequentialists]] [[Category:Italian dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:15th-century Italian philosophers]] [[Category:16th-century Italian philosophers]] [[Category:Italian political writers]] [[Category:Italian military writers]] [[Category:Military theorists]] [[Category:15th-century people from the Republic of Florence]] [[Category:16th-century people from the Republic of Florence]] [[Category:Philosophers of war]] [[Category:Political realists]] [[Category:Politicians from Florence]] [[Category:16th-century dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:16th-century male writers]] [[Category:Writers from Florence]] [[Category:15th-century Italian historians]] [[Category:16th-century Italian historians]]'