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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garments, following the Greek custom of men playing the roles of women. Later, slave women were brought in to play minor female characters and in comedy as well.]]
A [[Theatre|theatrical]] culture flourished in [[ancient Greece]] from 700 BC. At its centre was the [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Classical Athens|Athens]], which became a significant cultural, political, and religious place during this period, and the theatre was [[institution]]alised there as part of a [[festival]] called the [[Dionysia]], which honoured the god [[Dionysus]]. [[Greek tragedy|Tragedy]] (late 500 BC), [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] (490 BC), and the [[satyr play]] were the three [[drama]]tic [[genre]]s emerged there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its [[theme (arts)|theme]]s, [[stock character]]s, and plot elements.
==Etymology==
The word {{lang-grc|τραγῳδία|tragoidia|label=none}}, from which the word "[[tragedy]]" is derived, is a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] of two [[Greek language|Greek]] words: {{lang-grc|τράγος|tragos|label=none}} or "goat" and {{lang-grc|ᾠδή|[[ode]]|label=none}} meaning "song", from {{lang-grc|ἀείδειν|aeidein|to sing|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |title=Merriam-Webster definition of tragedy |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=22 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122034307/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |url-status=live }}</ref>
This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>
==Origins==
{{further|Greek tragedy|Dionysia}}
[[File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg|thumb|View of [[Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus|the ancient theatre]] at [[Epidaurus]], considered by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] the finest in Greece.<ref>Lawrence, 283</ref>]]
The Greeks valued the power of the spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks, the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language." [[Socrates]] himself believed that once something has been written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Oral Interpretation|last1=Bahn|first1=Eugene|last2=Bahn|first2=Margaret L.|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Burgess Publishing Company|year=1970|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=3}}</ref>
[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Inventor of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman [[Solon]], for example, is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of [[Homer]]'s epics by [[rhapsode]]s were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC.<ref name="Brockett">{{harvp|Brockett|1999|pp=16–17}}</ref> Thus, Thespis's true contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name has been given a longer life in English as a common term for performer—i.e., a "thespian."
The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] (or Great Dionysia). This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by [[Cleisthenes]]). The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, the names of three competitors besides Thespis are known: Choerilus, Pratinas, and [[Phrynichus (tragic poet)|Phrynichus]]. Each is credited with different innovations in the field.
Some information is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age]] such as the ''Danaids'', ''Phoenician Women'' and ''Alcestis''. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his ''Fall of Miletus'', produced in 493–2, chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled ''The Fall of Miletus'' and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |title=Herodotus, ''Histories'', 6.21 trans. A.D. Godley |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129081114/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126 |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers).<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|1999|p=17}}</ref>
Until the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]], all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once; what is primarily extant today are the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period).
==New inventions during the classical period==
[[File:Athen Akropolis (18512008726).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Theatre of Dionysus]]]]
After the [[Achaemenid destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The center-piece of the annual [[Dionysia]], which took place once in winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the [[Theatre of Dionysus]]. Each submitted three tragedies, plus a [[satyr play]] (a comic, [[burlesque]] version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=21}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] claimed that [[Aeschylus]] added the second actor ([[deuteragonist]]), and that [[Sophocles]] introduced the third ([[tritagonist]]). Apparently, the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=24}}</ref>
[[Greek Tragedy|Tragedy]] and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.
==Hellenistic period==
[[File:Relief with Menander and New Comedy Masks - Princeton Art Museum.jpg|thumb|Roman, [[Roman Republic|Republican]] or [[Roman Empire|Early Imperial]] Relief of a seated poet ([[Menander]]) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century BC. – early 1st century AD, [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]
The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the [[Peloponnesian War]] against [[Sparta]]. From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the [[Hellenistic period]] (the period following [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests in the fourth century BC).
The primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but [[Greek comedy#New Comedy|New Comedy]], comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is [[Menander]]. One of New Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]].
==Architecture==
[[File:Acropolis amphitheatre of Pergamon (2020).jpg|thumb|left|Theatre of [[Pergamon]], one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC]]
Most ancient Greek cities lay on or near hills, so seating was generally built into the slope of a hill, producing a natural viewing area known as the {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} (literally "seeing place"). In cities without suitable hills, banks of earth were piled up.<ref name=Lawrence>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=A. W. |last2=Tomlinson |first2=R. A. |title=Greek Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/greekarchitectur00lawr |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press Pelican History of Art |isbn=0-300-06491-8 |edition=5th}}</ref> At the foot of the hill was a flattened, generally circular performance space with an average diameter of {{convert|78|ft}},{{citation needed|reason=Unable to verify average diameter|date=July 2019}} known as the {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}} (literally "dancing place"),<ref name=Lawrence/> where a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] of typically 12 to 15 people<ref>{{harvp|Jansen|2000}}</ref> performed plays in verse accompanied by music. There were often tall, arched entrances called {{transliteration|grc|[[parodos|parodoi]]}} or {{transliteration|grc|[[eisodos|eisodoi]]}}, through which actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra. In some theatres, behind the orchestra, was a backdrop or scenic wall known as the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.
The term {{transliteration|grc|theatre}} eventually came to mean the whole area of {{transliteration|grc|theatron}}, {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}}, and {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.
===''Theatron''===
[[File:Ancient Greek theatre in Delos 01.jpg|thumb|Ancient Greek theatre in [[Delos]]]]
The {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} was the seating area, built into a hill to create a natural viewing space. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BC, the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the {{transliteration|grc|prohedria}} and reserved for priests and a few of the most respected citizens. The {{transliteration|grc|diazoma}} separated the upper and lower seating areas.
==={{transliteration|hrc|Skené}}===
After 465 BC, playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, called the {{transliteration|grc|[[Skene (theatre)|skené]]}} (from which the word ''[[Scene (drama)|scene]]'' derives), that hung or stood behind the orchestra and also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. After 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}}, became a common supplement to {{transliteration|grc|skené}}. The {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was the {{transliteration|grc|proskenion}} ("in front of the scene"), which is similar to the modern day [[proscenium]]. The upper story was called the {{transliteration|grc|episkenion}}. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the {{transliteration|grc|logeion}}. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the {{transliteration|grc|skené}} was two stories high.
The death of a character was always heard behind the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}, for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience.{{Citation needed|date=January 2013}} Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience.<ref>{{harvp|Pathmanathan|1965}}</ref>
A temple nearby, especially on the right side of the scene, is almost always part of the Greek theatre complex. This could justify, as a transposition, the recurrence of the [[pediment]] with the later solidified stone scene.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brnić | first = Ivica | title = Nahe Ferne: Sakrale Aspekte im Prisma der Profanbauten von Tadao Ando, Louis I. Kahn und Peter Zumthor | publisher = Park Books | location = Zurich | year = 2019 | pages= 78–79 | isbn = 978-3-03860-121-0 }}</ref>
===Orchestra===
[[File:Delphi Composite.jpg|thumb|The Ancient Theatre of [[Delphi]]]]
The orchestra was a circular piece of ground at the bottom of the theatron where the [[Greek chorus|chorus]] and actors performed; the word means "dancing space", as the chorus also danced in early periods.<ref>Lawrence, 280-281</ref> Originally unraised, Greek theatre would later incorporate a raised stage for easier viewing. This practice would become common after the advent of "New Comedy," which incorporated dramatic portrayal of individual characters. The ''[[coryphaeus]]'' was the head chorus member, who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play. Plays often began in the morning and lasted into the evening.
===Acoustics===
The theatres were built on a large scale to accommodate a large number of performers on stage and in the audience—up to fourteen thousand{{which|date=July 2019}}. Physics and mathematics played a significant role in the construction of these theatres, as their designers had to be able to create [[acoustics]] in them such that the actors' voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greek's understanding of acoustics compares very favorably with the current state of the art{{dubious|date=June 2019}}.
===Scenic elements===
There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:
* ''[[mechane]]'', a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, ''[[deus ex machina]]'')
* ''[[Ekkyklema|ekkyklêma]]'', a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the audience
* ''[[Pinax|pinakes]]'', pictures hung to create scenery
* ''thyromata'', more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from the ground)
==Masks==
===Masks===
[[File:Tragic comic masks - roman mosaic.jpg|thumb|Tragic Comic Masks [[Hadrian's Villa]] mosaic]]
The Ancient Greek term for a [[mask]] is ''prosopon'' (lit., "face"),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |title=Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago |access-date=15 February 2012 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529154258/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and was a significant element in the worship of [[Dionysus]] at [[Athens]] likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Many masks worshipped the higher power, the gods, making masks also very important for religion. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the ''Pronomos'' vase,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |title=Tufts.edu |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210132326/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |url-status=live }}</ref> which depicts actors preparing for a [[satyr play]].<ref name="Vervain 2004. p.255">{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=255}}</ref> No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated at the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of [[Aeschylus]] and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Varakis|2004}}</ref>
Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character.
===Mask details ===
[[File:3304 - Athens - Stoà of Attalus Museum - Theatre mask - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 9 2009.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth and an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance. They are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role.<ref>{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=256}}</ref> Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
The mask-makers were called ''skeuopoios'' or "maker of the props", thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair.<ref>{{harvp|Brooke|1962|p=76}}</ref> Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth being seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s.<ref name="Vervain 2004. p.255"/> Greek mask-maker Thanos Vovolis suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.<ref name="Vovolis">{{harvp|Vovolis|Zamboulakis|2007}}</ref>
===Mask functions===
In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|Ball|2000|p=70}}</ref> Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as the [[Erinyes|Furies]] in [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia|Eumenides]]'' and [[Pentheus]] and [[Cadmus]] in [[Euripides]]' ''[[The Bacchae]]''. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2 to 3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to play female characters.
The modern method to interpret a role by switching between a few simple characters goes back to changing masks in the theatre of ancient Greece.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Tangian |first=Andranik |year=1997
|title= Performance interpretation by segmentation and its notation
|journal= Contemporary Theatre Review |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=79–97
|doi = 10.1080/10486809708568438 }}</ref>
===Other costume details===
[[File:Soccus - comic actor in slip-on shoes - Image from page 1067 of "A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities.." (1849) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The ''soccus'']]
The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called ''cothurnus'' ([[buskin]]), that elevated them above the other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin-soled shoe called a ''[[soccus]]'' or sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes called "[[sock and buskin]]."
Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests (''posterneda'') to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show's after party.
Costuming would give off a sense of character, as in gender, age, social status, and class. For example, characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing, although everyone was dressed fairly nicely. Contrary to popular belief, they did not dress in only rags and sandals, as they wanted to impress. Some examples of Greek theatre costuming include long robes called [[chiton (garment)|chiton]] that reached the floor for actors playing gods, heroes, and old men. Actors playing goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purple and gold. Actors playing queens and princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels, and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes. Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in the audience.{{cn|date=August 2023}}
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=21em}}
* [[List of ancient Greek playwrights]]
* [[List of ancient Greek theatres]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[Representation of women in Athenian tragedy]]
* ''[[Agon|Agôn]]''
* [[Antistrophe]]
* [[Archon]]
* [[Aulos]]
* [[Choregos|Chorêgos]]
* [[Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama]]
* [[Didascaliae]]
* [[Theatre director|Didaskalos]]
* ''[[Eisodos]]''
* ''[[Ekkyklema|Ekkyklêma]]''
* [[Episode]]
* [[Epode]]
* ''[[Kommos (theatre)|Kommós]]''
* ''[[Mechane|Mêchanê]]''
* [[Monody]]
* [[Ode]]
* [[Onomasti komodein|Onomastì komodèin]]
* ''[[Parabasis]]''
* [[Phlyax play]]
* ''[[Sparagmos]]''
* ''[[Stasimon|Stásimon]]''
* [[Stichomythia]]
* [[Strophe|Strophê]]
* [[Thalia (Muse)]]
* [[Theatre of ancient Rome]]
* [[Theorica|Theoric fund]]
* [[Roman theatre (structure)]]
* [[List of films based on Greek drama]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|21em}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Brockett |first=Oscar G. |year=1999 |title=History of the Theatre |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |edition=8th |isbn=9780205290260 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Brockett |first1=Oscar G. |first2=Robert |last2=Ball |year=2000 |title=The Essential Theatre |edition=7th |publisher=Harcourt Brace |location=Orlando, FL }}
*{{cite book |last=Brooke |first=Iris |year=1962 |title=Costume in Greek Classical Drama |publisher=Methuen |location=London }}
*{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Jan |year=2000 |title=Lebensqualität im Theater des demokratischen Athen: Kult, Politik und Alte Komödie |language=de |trans-title=Quality of life in the theatre of Democratic Athens: cults, politics and ancient comedy |url=http://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf |publisher=GRIN |location=Munich, Germany |isbn=9783638291873 |access-date=5 October 2007 |archive-date=21 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121045726/http://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Kuritz |first=Paul |year=1988 |title=The Making of Theatre History |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=9780135478615 }}
*[[A. W. Lawrence|Lawrence, A. W.]], ''Greek Architecture'', 1957, Penguin, Pelican history of art
*{{cite journal |last=Pathmanathan |first=R. Sri |year=1965 |title=Death in Greek tragedy |journal=[[Greece and Rome]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2–14 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500014704 |jstor=642398 |s2cid=162902790 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ridgeway |first=William |author-link=William Ridgeway |year=1910 |title=Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians |url=https://archive.org/details/OriginOfTragedy }}
*{{cite journal |last=Varakis |first=Angie |year=2004 |title=Research on the Ancient Mask |journal=Didaskalia |volume=6 |issue=1 |url=http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol6no1/varakis.html }}
*{{cite book |last1=Vervain |first1=Chris |first2=David |last2=Wiles |year=2004 |title=The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance |series=New Theatre Quarterly |volume=67 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Vovolis |first1=Thanos |first2=Giorgos |last2=Zamboulakis |year=2007 |title=The acoustical mask of Greek tragedy |journal=Didaskalia |volume=7 |issue=1 |url=http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html }}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading== <!--PLEASE MENTION AT LEAST Name+Title+Town+Year!!!! -->
*Bosher, Kathryn G. 2021. ''Greek Theater in Ancient Sicily''. Cambridge University Press.
*Buckham, Philip Wentworth, [[iarchive:bub gb IjAZAAAAYAAJ|<!-- quote=The Theatre of the Greeks. --> ''Theatre of the Greeks'']], London 1827.
*Davidson, J.A., ''Literature and Literacy in Ancient Greece, Part 1'', [[Phoenix (classics journal)|Phoenix]], 16, 1962, pp. 141–56.
*Davidson, J.A., ''Peisistratus and Homer'', ''TAPA'', 86, 1955, pp. 1–21.
*{{cite book | editor-last = Easterling | editor-first = P.E. | author-link = P. E. Easterling | title = The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy | location = Cambridge, U.K. | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| year = 1997 | isbn = 0-521-41245-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy4iSjY2VTYC}}
*Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith (eds.), [http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651409 ''Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession''], Cambridge University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-521-65140-9}}
*Else, Gerald F.
**''Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument'', Cambridge, Massachusetts 1967.
**''The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy'', Cambridge, Massachusetts 1965.
**''The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ'', Hermes 85, 1957, pp. 17–46.
* Flickinger, Roy Caston, [https://archive.org/details/greektheaterand03flicgoog ''The Greek theater and its drama''], Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918
*Foley, Helene, ''Female Acts in Greek Tragedy'', Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001.
*Freund, Philip, ''The Birth of Theatre'', London: Peter Owen, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7206-1170-9}}
*[[Arthur Elam Haigh|Haigh, A. E.]], ''The Attic Theatre'', 1907.
*Harsh, Philip Whaley, ''A handbook of Classical Drama'', Stanford University, California, [[Stanford University Press]]; London, H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1944.
*Lesky, A. ''Greek Tragedy'', trans. H.A., Frankfurt, London and New York 1965.
*Ley, Graham. ''A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theatre.'' [[University of Chicago]], Chicago: 2006
*Ley, Graham. ''Acting Greek Tragedy.'' [[University of Exeter Press]], Exeter: 2015
*Loscalzo, Donato, ''Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia antica'', Roma 2008
*McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael (editors), ''The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre'', Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-521-83456-2}}
*McClure, Laura. ''Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in Athenian Drama'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
*[[Richard Green Moulton|Moulton, Richard Green]], ''The ancient classical drama; a study in literary evolution intended for readers in English and in the original'', Oxford, [[The Clarendon Press]], 1890.
* Padilla, Mark William (editor), [https://books.google.com/books?id=-0JVScga2oYC&q=rites+of+passage+in+ancient+greece "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society"], [[Bucknell University]] Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8387-5418-X}}
*Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
**''Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy '', Oxford 1927.
**''The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens'', Oxford 1946.
**''The Dramatic Festivals of Athens'', Oxford 1953.
*{{cite book|title=Greek Tragedy|author=Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin|location=Malden, MA|publisher= [[Blackwell Publishers]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4051-2160-6}}
*Riu, Xavier, ''Dionysism and Comedy'', 1999. [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html review]
*Ross, Stewart. ''Greek Theatre.'' Wayland Press, Hove: 1996
* Rozik, Eli, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aGG40fhg6usC ''The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin''], Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-87745-817-0}}
*[[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|Schlegel, August Wilhelm]], [[:gutenberg:7148|''Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature'']], Geneva 1809.
*Sommerstein, Alan H., [https://books.google.com/books?id=GDtcVHeBO_4C&q=greek+drama+and+dramatists ''Greek Drama and Dramatists''], Routledge, 2002.
*Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, ''Tragedy and Athenian Religion'', Oxford:University Press 2003.
*Tsitsiridis, Stavros, "Greek Mime in the Roman Empire (P.Oxy. 413: ''Charition'' and ''Moicheutria''", [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413213858/http://www.logeion.upatras.gr/index.php/component/content/article?id=83 ''Logeion'' 1 (2011) 184-232].
*Wiles, David. ''Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2000
*Wiles, David. ''The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance'', Cambridge, 1991.
*Wiles, David. ''Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy: from ancient festival to modern experimentation'', Cambridge, 1997.
*Wise, Jennifer, ''Dionysus Writes: The Invention of Theatre in Ancient Greece'', Ithaca 1998. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020515125809/http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/writers34.html review]
*Zimmerman, B., ''Greek Tragedy: An Introduction'', trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.
==External links==
{{Wikisource portal|Ancient Greek drama|Theatre of ancient Greece}}
{{Commons category|Ancient Greek theatre}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Theatre of ancient Greece
|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/greek.html Ancient Greek theatre history and articles]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060528183243/http://www.iolani.org/usacad_eng_eng10dterms_cw9404.htm Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre]
*[http://www.greektheatre.gr/ Ancient Greek Theatre]
*[http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/home.htm The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture] – Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, [[Whitman College]]
*[http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/glossary/glossary.htm Greek and Roman theatre glossary]
*[http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/theater/ancient_greek_theater.shtm Illustrated Greek Theater] – Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, [[Hampden–Sydney College]], Virginia
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110401172120/http://www.actorama.com/monologues/ancient-greek-plays.html Searchable database of monologues for actors from Ancient Greek Theatre]
*[http://www.logeion.upatras.gr Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free access which publishes original scholarly articles including its reception in modern theatre, literature, cinema and the other art forms and media, as well as its relation to the theatre of other periods and geographical regions.]
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{History of theatre}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek theatre| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights| ]]
[[Category:Cult of Dionysus]]
[[Category:Masks in theatre]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Greek theatre}}
{{Redirect|Greek theatre}} If you are reading this never use wikepedia again and this is the reason, anyone can edit it so you can never know if this information is true. If you choose to ignore this i have changed the information so it is not correct, sincerely Evan Ankipitan 7A Dartford Grammar Scchool.
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garmentskibidy toilet will be mineent [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>
==Origins==
{{further|Greek tragedy|Dionysia}}
[[File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg|thumb|View of [[Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus|the ancient theatre]] at [[Epidaurus]], considered by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] the finest in Greece.<ref>Lawrence, 283</ref>]]
The Greeks valued the power of the spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks, the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language." [[Socrates]] himself believed that once something has been written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Oral Interpretation|last1=Bahn|first1=Eugene|last2=Bahn|first2=Margaret L.|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Burgess Publishing Company|year=1970|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=3}}</ref>
[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a nphio gyta toilet on my mindt|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth and an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance. They are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role.<ref>{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=256}}</ref> Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
The mask-makers were called ''skeuopoios'' or "maker of the props", thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair.<ref>{{harvp|Brooke|1962|p=76}}</ref> Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth being seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s.<ref name="Vervain 2004. p.255"/> Greek mask-maker Thanos Vovolis suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.<ref name="Vovolis">{{harvp|Vovolis|Zamboulakis|2007}}</ref>
===Mask functions===
In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvpellor structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show's after party.
Costuming would give off a sense of character, as in gender, age, social status, and class. For example, characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing, although everyone was dressed fairly nicely. Contrary to popular belief, they did not dress in only rags and sandals, as they wanted to impress. Some examples of Greek theatre costuming include long robes called [[chiton (garment)|chiton]] that reached the floor for actors playing gods, heroes, and old men. Actors playing goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purple and gold. Actors playing queens and princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels, and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes. Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in the audience.{{cn|date=August 2023}}
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=21em}}
* [[List of ancient Greek playwrights]]
* [[List of ancient Greek theatres]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[Representation of women in Athenian tragedy]]
* ''[[Agon|Agôn]]''
* [[Antistrophe]]
* [[Archon]]
* [[Aulos]]
* [[Choregos|Chorêgos]]
* [[Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama]]
* [[Didascaliae]]
* [[Theatre director|Didaskalos]]
* ''[[Eisodos]]''
* ''[[Ekkyklema|Ekkyklêma]]''
* [[Episode]]
* [[Epode]]
* ''[[Kommos (theatre)|Kommós]]''
* ''[[Mechane|Mêchanê]]''
* [[Monody]]
* [[Ode]]
* [[Onomasti komodein|Onomastì komodèin]]
* ''[[Parabasis]]''
* [[Phlyax play]]
* ''[[Sparagmos]]''
* ''[[Stasimon|Stásimon]]''
* [[Stichomythia]]
* [[Strophe|Strophê]]
* [[Thalia (Muse)]]
* [[Theatre of ancient Rome]]
* [[Theorica|Theoric fund]]
* [[Roman theatre (structure)]]
* [[List of films based on Greek drama]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|21em}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Brockett |first=Oscar G. |year=1999 |title=History of the Theatre |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |edition=8th |isbn=9780205290260 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Brockett |first1=Oscar G. |first2=Robert |last2=Ball |year=2000 |title=The Essential Theatre |edition=7th |publisher=Harcourt Brace |location=Orlando, FL }}
*{{cite book |last=Brooke |first=Iris |year=1962 |title=Costume in Greek Classical Drama |publisher=Methuen |location=London }}
*{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Jan |year=2000 |title=Lebensqualität im Theater des demokratischen Athen: Kult, Politik und Alte Komödie |language=de |trans-title=Quality of life in the theatre of Democratic Athens: cults, politics and ancient comedy |url=http://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf |publisher=GRIN |location=Munich, Germany |isbn=9783638291873 |access-date=5 October 2007 |archive-date=21 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121045726/http://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Kuritz |first=Paul |year=1988 |title=The Making of Theatre History |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=9780135478615 }}
*[[A. W. Lawrence|Lawrence, A. W.]], ''Greek Architecture'', 1957, Penguin, Pelican history of art
*{{cite journal |last=Pathmanathan |first=R. Sri |year=1965 |title=Death in Greek tragedy |journal=[[Greece and Rome]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2–14 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500014704 |jstor=642398 |s2cid=162902790 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ridgeway |first=William |author-link=William Ridgeway |year=1910 |title=Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians |url=https://archive.org/details/OriginOfTragedy }}
*{{cite journal |last=Varakis |first=Angie |year=2004 |title=Research on the Ancient Mask |journal=Didaskalia |volume=6 |issue=1 |url=http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol6no1/varakis.html }}
*{{cite book |last1=Vervain |first1=Chris |first2=David |last2=Wiles |year=2004 |title=The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance |series=New Theatre Quarterly |volume=67 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Vovolis |first1=Thanos |first2=Giorgos |last2=Zamboulakis |year=2007 |title=The acoustical mask of Greek tragedy |journal=Didaskalia |volume=7 |issue=1 |url=http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html }}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading== <!--PLEASE MENTION AT LEAST Name+Title+Town+Year!!!! -->
*Bosher, Kathryn G. 2021. ''Greek Theater in Ancient Sicily''. Cambridge University Press.
*Buckham, Philip Wentworth, [[iarchive:bub gb IjAZAAAAYAAJ|<!-- quote=The Theatre of the Greeks. --> ''Theatre of the Greeks'']], London 1827.
*Davidson, J.A., ''Literature and Literacy in Ancient Greece, Part 1'', [[Phoenix (classics journal)|Phoenix]], 16, 1962, pp. 141–56.
*Davidson, J.A., ''Peisistratus and Homer'', ''TAPA'', 86, 1955, pp. 1–21.
*{{cite book | editor-last = Easterling | editor-first = P.E. | author-link = P. E. Easterling | title = The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy | location = Cambridge, U.K. | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| year = 1997 | isbn = 0-521-41245-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy4iSjY2VTYC}}
*Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith (eds.), [http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651409 ''Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession''], Cambridge University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-521-65140-9}}
*Else, Gerald F.
**''Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument'', Cambridge, Massachusetts 1967.
**''The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy'', Cambridge, Massachusetts 1965.
**''The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ'', Hermes 85, 1957, pp. 17–46.
* Flickinger, Roy Caston, [https://archive.org/details/greektheaterand03flicgoog ''The Greek theater and its drama''], Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918
*Foley, Helene, ''Female Acts in Greek Tragedy'', Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001.
*Freund, Philip, ''The Birth of Theatre'', London: Peter Owen, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7206-1170-9}}
*[[Arthur Elam Haigh|Haigh, A. E.]], ''The Attic Theatre'', 1907.
*Harsh, Philip Whaley, ''A handbook of Classical Drama'', Stanford University, California, [[Stanford University Press]]; London, H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1944.
*Lesky, A. ''Greek Tragedy'', trans. H.A., Frankfurt, London and New York 1965.
*Ley, Graham. ''A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theatre.'' [[University of Chicago]], Chicago: 2006
*Ley, Graham. ''Acting Greek Tragedy.'' [[University of Exeter Press]], Exeter: 2015
*Loscalzo, Donato, ''Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia antica'', Roma 2008
*McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael (editors), ''The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre'', Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-521-83456-2}}
*McClure, Laura. ''Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in Athenian Drama'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
*[[Richard Green Moulton|Moulton, Richard Green]], ''The ancient classical drama; a study in literary evolution intended for readers in English and in the original'', Oxford, [[The Clarendon Press]], 1890.
* Padilla, Mark William (editor), [https://books.google.com/books?id=-0JVScga2oYC&q=rites+of+passage+in+ancient+greece "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society"], [[Bucknell University]] Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8387-5418-X}}
*Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
**''Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy '', Oxford 1927.
**''The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens'', Oxford 1946.
**''The Dramatic Festivals of Athens'', Oxford 1953.
*{{cite book|title=Greek Tragedy|author=Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin|location=Malden, MA|publisher= [[Blackwell Publishers]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4051-2160-6}}
*Riu, Xavier, ''Dionysism and Comedy'', 1999. [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html review]
*Ross, Stewart. ''Greek Theatre.'' Wayland Press, Hove: 1996
* Rozik, Eli, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aGG40fhg6usC ''The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin''], Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-87745-817-0}}
*[[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|Schlegel, August Wilhelm]], [[:gutenberg:7148|''Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature'']], Geneva 1809.
*Sommerstein, Alan H., [https://books.google.com/books?id=GDtcVHeBO_4C&q=greek+drama+and+dramatists ''Greek Drama and Dramatists''], Routledge, 2002.
*Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, ''Tragedy and Athenian Religion'', Oxford:University Press 2003.
*Tsitsiridis, Stavros, "Greek Mime in the Roman Empire (P.Oxy. 413: ''Charition'' and ''Moicheutria''", [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413213858/http://www.logeion.upatras.gr/index.php/component/content/article?id=83 ''Logeion'' 1 (2011) 184-232].
*Wiles, David. ''Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2000
*Wiles, David. ''The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance'', Cambridge, 1991.
*Wiles, David. ''Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy: from ancient festival to modern experimentation'', Cambridge, 1997.
*Wise, Jennifer, ''Dionysus Writes: The Invention of Theatre in Ancient Greece'', Ithaca 1998. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020515125809/http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/writers34.html review]
*Zimmerman, B., ''Greek Tragedy: An Introduction'', trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.
==External links==
{{Wikisource portal|Ancient Greek drama|Theatre of ancient Greece}}
{{Commons category|Ancient Greek theatre}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Theatre of ancient Greece
|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/greek.html Ancient Greek theatre history and articles]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060528183243/http://www.iolani.org/usacad_eng_eng10dterms_cw9404.htm Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre]
*[http://www.greektheatre.gr/ Ancient Greek Theatre]
*[http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/home.htm The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture] – Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, [[Whitman College]]
*[http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/glossary/glossary.htm Greek and Roman theatre glossary]
*[http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/theater/ancient_greek_theater.shtm Illustrated Greek Theater] – Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, [[Hampden–Sydney College]], Virginia
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110401172120/http://www.actorama.com/monologues/ancient-greek-plays.html Searchable database of monologues for actors from Ancient Greek Theatre]
*[http://www.logeion.upatras.gr Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free access which publishes original scholarly articles including its reception in modern theatre, literature, cinema and the other art forms and media, as well as its relation to the theatre of other periods and geographical regions.]
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{History of theatre}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek theatre| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights| ]]
[[Category:Cult of Dionysus]]
[[Category:Masks in theatre]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,12 +1,6 @@
{{Short description|Greek theatre}}
-{{Redirect|Greek theatre}}
+{{Redirect|Greek theatre}} If you are reading this never use wikepedia again and this is the reason, anyone can edit it so you can never know if this information is true. If you choose to ignore this i have changed the information so it is not correct, sincerely Evan Ankipitan 7A Dartford Grammar Scchool.
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
-[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garments, following the Greek custom of men playing the roles of women. Later, slave women were brought in to play minor female characters and in comedy as well.]]
-A [[Theatre|theatrical]] culture flourished in [[ancient Greece]] from 700 BC. At its centre was the [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Classical Athens|Athens]], which became a significant cultural, political, and religious place during this period, and the theatre was [[institution]]alised there as part of a [[festival]] called the [[Dionysia]], which honoured the god [[Dionysus]]. [[Greek tragedy|Tragedy]] (late 500 BC), [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] (490 BC), and the [[satyr play]] were the three [[drama]]tic [[genre]]s emerged there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its [[theme (arts)|theme]]s, [[stock character]]s, and plot elements.
-
-==Etymology==
-The word {{lang-grc|τραγῳδία|tragoidia|label=none}}, from which the word "[[tragedy]]" is derived, is a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] of two [[Greek language|Greek]] words: {{lang-grc|τράγος|tragos|label=none}} or "goat" and {{lang-grc|ᾠδή|[[ode]]|label=none}} meaning "song", from {{lang-grc|ἀείδειν|aeidein|to sing|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |title=Merriam-Webster definition of tragedy |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=22 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122034307/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |url-status=live }}</ref>
-
-This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>
+[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garmentskibidy toilet will be mineent [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>
==Origins==
@@ -16,68 +10,5 @@
The Greeks valued the power of the spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks, the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language." [[Socrates]] himself believed that once something has been written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Oral Interpretation|last1=Bahn|first1=Eugene|last2=Bahn|first2=Margaret L.|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Burgess Publishing Company|year=1970|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=3}}</ref>
-[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Inventor of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman [[Solon]], for example, is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of [[Homer]]'s epics by [[rhapsode]]s were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC.<ref name="Brockett">{{harvp|Brockett|1999|pp=16–17}}</ref> Thus, Thespis's true contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name has been given a longer life in English as a common term for performer—i.e., a "thespian."
-
-The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] (or Great Dionysia). This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by [[Cleisthenes]]). The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, the names of three competitors besides Thespis are known: Choerilus, Pratinas, and [[Phrynichus (tragic poet)|Phrynichus]]. Each is credited with different innovations in the field.
-
-Some information is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age]] such as the ''Danaids'', ''Phoenician Women'' and ''Alcestis''. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his ''Fall of Miletus'', produced in 493–2, chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled ''The Fall of Miletus'' and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |title=Herodotus, ''Histories'', 6.21 trans. A.D. Godley |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129081114/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126 |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers).<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|1999|p=17}}</ref>
-
-Until the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]], all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once; what is primarily extant today are the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period).
-
-==New inventions during the classical period==
-[[File:Athen Akropolis (18512008726).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Theatre of Dionysus]]]]
-After the [[Achaemenid destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The center-piece of the annual [[Dionysia]], which took place once in winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the [[Theatre of Dionysus]]. Each submitted three tragedies, plus a [[satyr play]] (a comic, [[burlesque]] version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=21}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] claimed that [[Aeschylus]] added the second actor ([[deuteragonist]]), and that [[Sophocles]] introduced the third ([[tritagonist]]). Apparently, the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=24}}</ref>
-
-[[Greek Tragedy|Tragedy]] and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.
-
-==Hellenistic period==
-[[File:Relief with Menander and New Comedy Masks - Princeton Art Museum.jpg|thumb|Roman, [[Roman Republic|Republican]] or [[Roman Empire|Early Imperial]] Relief of a seated poet ([[Menander]]) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century BC. – early 1st century AD, [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]
-
-The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the [[Peloponnesian War]] against [[Sparta]]. From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the [[Hellenistic period]] (the period following [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests in the fourth century BC).
-
-The primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but [[Greek comedy#New Comedy|New Comedy]], comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is [[Menander]]. One of New Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]].
-
-==Architecture==
-[[File:Acropolis amphitheatre of Pergamon (2020).jpg|thumb|left|Theatre of [[Pergamon]], one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC]]
-Most ancient Greek cities lay on or near hills, so seating was generally built into the slope of a hill, producing a natural viewing area known as the {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} (literally "seeing place"). In cities without suitable hills, banks of earth were piled up.<ref name=Lawrence>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=A. W. |last2=Tomlinson |first2=R. A. |title=Greek Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/greekarchitectur00lawr |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press Pelican History of Art |isbn=0-300-06491-8 |edition=5th}}</ref> At the foot of the hill was a flattened, generally circular performance space with an average diameter of {{convert|78|ft}},{{citation needed|reason=Unable to verify average diameter|date=July 2019}} known as the {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}} (literally "dancing place"),<ref name=Lawrence/> where a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] of typically 12 to 15 people<ref>{{harvp|Jansen|2000}}</ref> performed plays in verse accompanied by music. There were often tall, arched entrances called {{transliteration|grc|[[parodos|parodoi]]}} or {{transliteration|grc|[[eisodos|eisodoi]]}}, through which actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra. In some theatres, behind the orchestra, was a backdrop or scenic wall known as the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.
-
-The term {{transliteration|grc|theatre}} eventually came to mean the whole area of {{transliteration|grc|theatron}}, {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}}, and {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.
-
-===''Theatron''===
-[[File:Ancient Greek theatre in Delos 01.jpg|thumb|Ancient Greek theatre in [[Delos]]]]
-The {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} was the seating area, built into a hill to create a natural viewing space. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BC, the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the {{transliteration|grc|prohedria}} and reserved for priests and a few of the most respected citizens. The {{transliteration|grc|diazoma}} separated the upper and lower seating areas.
-
-==={{transliteration|hrc|Skené}}===
-After 465 BC, playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, called the {{transliteration|grc|[[Skene (theatre)|skené]]}} (from which the word ''[[Scene (drama)|scene]]'' derives), that hung or stood behind the orchestra and also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. After 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}}, became a common supplement to {{transliteration|grc|skené}}. The {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was the {{transliteration|grc|proskenion}} ("in front of the scene"), which is similar to the modern day [[proscenium]]. The upper story was called the {{transliteration|grc|episkenion}}. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the {{transliteration|grc|logeion}}. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the {{transliteration|grc|skené}} was two stories high.
-
-The death of a character was always heard behind the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}, for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience.{{Citation needed|date=January 2013}} Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience.<ref>{{harvp|Pathmanathan|1965}}</ref>
-
-A temple nearby, especially on the right side of the scene, is almost always part of the Greek theatre complex. This could justify, as a transposition, the recurrence of the [[pediment]] with the later solidified stone scene.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brnić | first = Ivica | title = Nahe Ferne: Sakrale Aspekte im Prisma der Profanbauten von Tadao Ando, Louis I. Kahn und Peter Zumthor | publisher = Park Books | location = Zurich | year = 2019 | pages= 78–79 | isbn = 978-3-03860-121-0 }}</ref>
-
-===Orchestra===
-[[File:Delphi Composite.jpg|thumb|The Ancient Theatre of [[Delphi]]]]
-The orchestra was a circular piece of ground at the bottom of the theatron where the [[Greek chorus|chorus]] and actors performed; the word means "dancing space", as the chorus also danced in early periods.<ref>Lawrence, 280-281</ref> Originally unraised, Greek theatre would later incorporate a raised stage for easier viewing. This practice would become common after the advent of "New Comedy," which incorporated dramatic portrayal of individual characters. The ''[[coryphaeus]]'' was the head chorus member, who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play. Plays often began in the morning and lasted into the evening.
-
-===Acoustics===
-The theatres were built on a large scale to accommodate a large number of performers on stage and in the audience—up to fourteen thousand{{which|date=July 2019}}. Physics and mathematics played a significant role in the construction of these theatres, as their designers had to be able to create [[acoustics]] in them such that the actors' voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greek's understanding of acoustics compares very favorably with the current state of the art{{dubious|date=June 2019}}.
-
-===Scenic elements===
-There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:
-
-* ''[[mechane]]'', a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, ''[[deus ex machina]]'')
-* ''[[Ekkyklema|ekkyklêma]]'', a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the audience
-* ''[[Pinax|pinakes]]'', pictures hung to create scenery
-* ''thyromata'', more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from the ground)
-
-==Masks==
-
-===Masks===
-[[File:Tragic comic masks - roman mosaic.jpg|thumb|Tragic Comic Masks [[Hadrian's Villa]] mosaic]]
-
-The Ancient Greek term for a [[mask]] is ''prosopon'' (lit., "face"),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |title=Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago |access-date=15 February 2012 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529154258/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and was a significant element in the worship of [[Dionysus]] at [[Athens]] likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Many masks worshipped the higher power, the gods, making masks also very important for religion. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the ''Pronomos'' vase,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |title=Tufts.edu |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210132326/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |url-status=live }}</ref> which depicts actors preparing for a [[satyr play]].<ref name="Vervain 2004. p.255">{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=255}}</ref> No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated at the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of [[Aeschylus]] and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Varakis|2004}}</ref>
-
-Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character.
-
-===Mask details ===
-[[File:3304 - Athens - Stoà of Attalus Museum - Theatre mask - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 9 2009.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]
+[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a nphio gyta toilet on my mindt|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth and an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance. They are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role.<ref>{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=256}}</ref> Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
@@ -86,17 +17,5 @@
===Mask functions===
-In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|Ball|2000|p=70}}</ref> Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as the [[Erinyes|Furies]] in [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia|Eumenides]]'' and [[Pentheus]] and [[Cadmus]] in [[Euripides]]' ''[[The Bacchae]]''. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2 to 3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to play female characters.
-
-The modern method to interpret a role by switching between a few simple characters goes back to changing masks in the theatre of ancient Greece.<ref>{{Cite journal
-|last=Tangian |first=Andranik |year=1997
-|title= Performance interpretation by segmentation and its notation
-|journal= Contemporary Theatre Review |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=79–97
-|doi = 10.1080/10486809708568438 }}</ref>
-
-===Other costume details===
-[[File:Soccus - comic actor in slip-on shoes - Image from page 1067 of "A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities.." (1849) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The ''soccus'']]
-The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called ''cothurnus'' ([[buskin]]), that elevated them above the other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin-soled shoe called a ''[[soccus]]'' or sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes called "[[sock and buskin]]."
-
-Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests (''posterneda'') to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
+In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvpellor structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show's after party.
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0 => '{{Redirect|Greek theatre}} If you are reading this never use wikepedia again and this is the reason, anyone can edit it so you can never know if this information is true. If you choose to ignore this i have changed the information so it is not correct, sincerely Evan Ankipitan 7A Dartford Grammar Scchool.',
1 => '[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garmentskibidy toilet will be mineent [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>',
2 => '[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a nphio gyta toilet on my mindt|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]',
3 => 'In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvpellor structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{Redirect|Greek theatre}}',
1 => '[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garments, following the Greek custom of men playing the roles of women. Later, slave women were brought in to play minor female characters and in comedy as well.]]',
2 => 'A [[Theatre|theatrical]] culture flourished in [[ancient Greece]] from 700 BC. At its centre was the [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Classical Athens|Athens]], which became a significant cultural, political, and religious place during this period, and the theatre was [[institution]]alised there as part of a [[festival]] called the [[Dionysia]], which honoured the god [[Dionysus]]. [[Greek tragedy|Tragedy]] (late 500 BC), [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] (490 BC), and the [[satyr play]] were the three [[drama]]tic [[genre]]s emerged there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its [[theme (arts)|theme]]s, [[stock character]]s, and plot elements.',
3 => '',
4 => '==Etymology==',
5 => 'The word {{lang-grc|τραγῳδία|tragoidia|label=none}}, from which the word "[[tragedy]]" is derived, is a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] of two [[Greek language|Greek]] words: {{lang-grc|τράγος|tragos|label=none}} or "goat" and {{lang-grc|ᾠδή|[[ode]]|label=none}} meaning "song", from {{lang-grc|ἀείδειν|aeidein|to sing|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |title=Merriam-Webster definition of tragedy |access-date=22 January 2007 |archive-date=22 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122034307/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/tragedy |url-status=live }}</ref>',
6 => '',
7 => 'This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient [[Cult of Dionysus|Dionysian cults]]. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these [[Fertility rite|fertility rituals]] became the basis for tragedy and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]].<ref name="Redgeway">{{harvp|Ridgeway|1910|p=83}}</ref>',
8 => '[[Greek tragedy]], as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when [[Thespis]] was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the {{transliteration|grc|exarchon}}, or leader,<ref>Aristotle, '[[Poetics]]'</ref> of the [[dithyramb]]s performed in and around Attica, especially at the [[Dionysia#Rural Dionysia|Rural Dionysia]]. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet [[Arion]], it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Inventor of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman [[Solon]], for example, is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of [[Homer]]'s epics by [[rhapsode]]s were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC.<ref name="Brockett">{{harvp|Brockett|1999|pp=16–17}}</ref> Thus, Thespis's true contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name has been given a longer life in English as a common term for performer—i.e., a "thespian."',
9 => '',
10 => 'The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] (or Great Dionysia). This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by [[Cleisthenes]]). The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, the names of three competitors besides Thespis are known: Choerilus, Pratinas, and [[Phrynichus (tragic poet)|Phrynichus]]. Each is credited with different innovations in the field.',
11 => '',
12 => 'Some information is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age]] such as the ''Danaids'', ''Phoenician Women'' and ''Alcestis''. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his ''Fall of Miletus'', produced in 493–2, chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled ''The Fall of Miletus'' and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |title=Herodotus, ''Histories'', 6.21 trans. A.D. Godley |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129081114/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.21&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126 |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers).<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|1999|p=17}}</ref>',
13 => '',
14 => 'Until the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]], all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once; what is primarily extant today are the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period).',
15 => '',
16 => '==New inventions during the classical period==',
17 => '[[File:Athen Akropolis (18512008726).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Theatre of Dionysus]]]]',
18 => 'After the [[Achaemenid destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The center-piece of the annual [[Dionysia]], which took place once in winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the [[Theatre of Dionysus]]. Each submitted three tragedies, plus a [[satyr play]] (a comic, [[burlesque]] version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=21}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] claimed that [[Aeschylus]] added the second actor ([[deuteragonist]]), and that [[Sophocles]] introduced the third ([[tritagonist]]). Apparently, the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Kuritz|1988|p=24}}</ref>',
19 => '',
20 => '[[Greek Tragedy|Tragedy]] and [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedy]] were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.',
21 => '',
22 => '==Hellenistic period==',
23 => '[[File:Relief with Menander and New Comedy Masks - Princeton Art Museum.jpg|thumb|Roman, [[Roman Republic|Republican]] or [[Roman Empire|Early Imperial]] Relief of a seated poet ([[Menander]]) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century BC. – early 1st century AD, [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]',
24 => '',
25 => 'The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the [[Peloponnesian War]] against [[Sparta]]. From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the [[Hellenistic period]] (the period following [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests in the fourth century BC).',
26 => '',
27 => 'The primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but [[Greek comedy#New Comedy|New Comedy]], comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is [[Menander]]. One of New Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]].',
28 => '',
29 => '==Architecture==',
30 => '[[File:Acropolis amphitheatre of Pergamon (2020).jpg|thumb|left|Theatre of [[Pergamon]], one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC]]',
31 => 'Most ancient Greek cities lay on or near hills, so seating was generally built into the slope of a hill, producing a natural viewing area known as the {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} (literally "seeing place"). In cities without suitable hills, banks of earth were piled up.<ref name=Lawrence>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=A. W. |last2=Tomlinson |first2=R. A. |title=Greek Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/greekarchitectur00lawr |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press Pelican History of Art |isbn=0-300-06491-8 |edition=5th}}</ref> At the foot of the hill was a flattened, generally circular performance space with an average diameter of {{convert|78|ft}},{{citation needed|reason=Unable to verify average diameter|date=July 2019}} known as the {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}} (literally "dancing place"),<ref name=Lawrence/> where a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] of typically 12 to 15 people<ref>{{harvp|Jansen|2000}}</ref> performed plays in verse accompanied by music. There were often tall, arched entrances called {{transliteration|grc|[[parodos|parodoi]]}} or {{transliteration|grc|[[eisodos|eisodoi]]}}, through which actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra. In some theatres, behind the orchestra, was a backdrop or scenic wall known as the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.',
32 => '',
33 => 'The term {{transliteration|grc|theatre}} eventually came to mean the whole area of {{transliteration|grc|theatron}}, {{transliteration|grc|orchestra}}, and {{transliteration|grc|skené}}.',
34 => '',
35 => '===''Theatron''===',
36 => '[[File:Ancient Greek theatre in Delos 01.jpg|thumb|Ancient Greek theatre in [[Delos]]]]',
37 => 'The {{transliteration|grc|theatron}} was the seating area, built into a hill to create a natural viewing space. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BC, the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the {{transliteration|grc|prohedria}} and reserved for priests and a few of the most respected citizens. The {{transliteration|grc|diazoma}} separated the upper and lower seating areas.',
38 => '',
39 => '==={{transliteration|hrc|Skené}}===',
40 => 'After 465 BC, playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, called the {{transliteration|grc|[[Skene (theatre)|skené]]}} (from which the word ''[[Scene (drama)|scene]]'' derives), that hung or stood behind the orchestra and also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. After 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}}, became a common supplement to {{transliteration|grc|skené}}. The {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the {{transliteration|grc|paraskenia}} was the {{transliteration|grc|proskenion}} ("in front of the scene"), which is similar to the modern day [[proscenium]]. The upper story was called the {{transliteration|grc|episkenion}}. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the {{transliteration|grc|logeion}}. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the {{transliteration|grc|skené}} was two stories high.',
41 => '',
42 => 'The death of a character was always heard behind the {{transliteration|grc|skené}}, for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience.{{Citation needed|date=January 2013}} Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience.<ref>{{harvp|Pathmanathan|1965}}</ref>',
43 => '',
44 => 'A temple nearby, especially on the right side of the scene, is almost always part of the Greek theatre complex. This could justify, as a transposition, the recurrence of the [[pediment]] with the later solidified stone scene.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brnić | first = Ivica | title = Nahe Ferne: Sakrale Aspekte im Prisma der Profanbauten von Tadao Ando, Louis I. Kahn und Peter Zumthor | publisher = Park Books | location = Zurich | year = 2019 | pages= 78–79 | isbn = 978-3-03860-121-0 }}</ref>',
45 => '',
46 => '===Orchestra===',
47 => '[[File:Delphi Composite.jpg|thumb|The Ancient Theatre of [[Delphi]]]]',
48 => 'The orchestra was a circular piece of ground at the bottom of the theatron where the [[Greek chorus|chorus]] and actors performed; the word means "dancing space", as the chorus also danced in early periods.<ref>Lawrence, 280-281</ref> Originally unraised, Greek theatre would later incorporate a raised stage for easier viewing. This practice would become common after the advent of "New Comedy," which incorporated dramatic portrayal of individual characters. The ''[[coryphaeus]]'' was the head chorus member, who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play. Plays often began in the morning and lasted into the evening.',
49 => '',
50 => '===Acoustics===',
51 => 'The theatres were built on a large scale to accommodate a large number of performers on stage and in the audience—up to fourteen thousand{{which|date=July 2019}}. Physics and mathematics played a significant role in the construction of these theatres, as their designers had to be able to create [[acoustics]] in them such that the actors' voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greek's understanding of acoustics compares very favorably with the current state of the art{{dubious|date=June 2019}}.',
52 => '',
53 => '===Scenic elements===',
54 => 'There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:',
55 => '',
56 => '* ''[[mechane]]'', a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, ''[[deus ex machina]]'')',
57 => '* ''[[Ekkyklema|ekkyklêma]]'', a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the audience',
58 => '* ''[[Pinax|pinakes]]'', pictures hung to create scenery',
59 => '* ''thyromata'', more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from the ground)',
60 => '',
61 => '==Masks==',
62 => '',
63 => '===Masks===',
64 => '[[File:Tragic comic masks - roman mosaic.jpg|thumb|Tragic Comic Masks [[Hadrian's Villa]] mosaic]]',
65 => '',
66 => 'The Ancient Greek term for a [[mask]] is ''prosopon'' (lit., "face"),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |title=Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago |access-date=15 February 2012 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529154258/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.62:2:190.LSJ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and was a significant element in the worship of [[Dionysus]] at [[Athens]] likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Many masks worshipped the higher power, the gods, making masks also very important for religion. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the ''Pronomos'' vase,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |title=Tufts.edu |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210132326/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1993.01.0669 |url-status=live }}</ref> which depicts actors preparing for a [[satyr play]].<ref name="Vervain 2004. p.255">{{harvp|Vervain|Wiles|2004|p=255}}</ref> No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated at the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of [[Aeschylus]] and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.<ref>{{harvp|Varakis|2004}}</ref>',
67 => '',
68 => 'Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character.',
69 => '',
70 => '===Mask details ===',
71 => '[[File:3304 - Athens - Stoà of Attalus Museum - Theatre mask - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 9 2009.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, [[Stoa of Attalos]]]]',
72 => 'In a large open-air theatre, like the [[Theatre of Dionysus]] in [[Athens]], the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<ref name="Vovolis"/> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., [[Oedipus]], after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvp|Brockett|Ball|2000|p=70}}</ref> Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as the [[Erinyes|Furies]] in [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia|Eumenides]]'' and [[Pentheus]] and [[Cadmus]] in [[Euripides]]' ''[[The Bacchae]]''. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2 to 3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to play female characters.',
73 => '',
74 => 'The modern method to interpret a role by switching between a few simple characters goes back to changing masks in the theatre of ancient Greece.<ref>{{Cite journal',
75 => '|last=Tangian |first=Andranik |year=1997',
76 => '|title= Performance interpretation by segmentation and its notation',
77 => '|journal= Contemporary Theatre Review |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=79–97',
78 => '|doi = 10.1080/10486809708568438 }}</ref>',
79 => '',
80 => '===Other costume details===',
81 => '[[File:Soccus - comic actor in slip-on shoes - Image from page 1067 of "A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities.." (1849) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|The ''soccus'']]',
82 => 'The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called ''cothurnus'' ([[buskin]]), that elevated them above the other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin-soled shoe called a ''[[soccus]]'' or sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes called "[[sock and buskin]]."',
83 => '',
84 => 'Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests (''posterneda'') to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs (''progastreda'') to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Greek theatre</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Greek theatre" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_theatre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Greek theatre (disambiguation)">Greek theatre (disambiguation)</a>.</div><p> If you are reading this never use wikepedia again and this is the reason, anyone can edit it so you can never know if this information is true. If you choose to ignore this i have changed the information so it is not correct, sincerely Evan Ankipitan 7A Dartford Grammar Scchool.
</p><p>
[[File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of a Greek actor, 150–100 BC. The half-mask over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female garmentskibidy toilet will be mineent <a href="/info/en/?search=Cult_of_Dionysus" title="Cult of Dionysus">Dionysian cults</a>. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these <a href="/info/en/?search=Fertility_rite" title="Fertility rite">fertility rituals</a> became the basis for tragedy and <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_comedy" title="Ancient Greek comedy">comedy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Redgeway_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redgeway-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Origins"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Origins</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Mask_functions"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mask functions</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Origins">Origins</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">Greek tragedy</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Dionysia" title="Dionysia">Dionysia</a></div>
<p>[[File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg|thumb|View of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Theatre_of_Epidaurus" title="Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus">the ancient theatre</a> at <a href="/info/en/?search=Epidaurus" title="Epidaurus">Epidaurus</a>, considered by <a href="/info/en/?search=Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a> the finest in Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>]]
</p><p>The Greeks valued the power of the spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks, the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language." <a href="/info/en/?search=Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> himself believed that once something has been written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">Greek tragedy</a>, as it is presently known, was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when <a href="/info/en/?search=Thespis" title="Thespis">Thespis</a> was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">exarchon</i></span>, or leader,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyrambs</a> performed in and around Attica, especially at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Dionysia#Rural_Dionysia" title="Dionysia">Rural Dionysia</a>. By Thespis' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet <a href="/info/en/?search=Arion" title="Arion">Arion</a>, it had become a nphio gyta toilet on my mindt|upright|Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, <a href="/info/en/?search=Stoa_of_Attalos" title="Stoa of Attalos">Stoa of Attalos</a>]]
</p><p>Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth and an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance. They are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
</p><p>The mask-makers were called <i>skeuopoios</i> or "maker of the props", thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth being seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Vervain_2004._p.255_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vervain_2004._p.255-7">[7]</a></sup> Greek mask-maker Thanos Vovolis suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.<sup id="cite_ref-Vovolis_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vovolis-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mask_functions">Mask functions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mask functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In a large open-air theatre, like the <a href="/info/en/?search=Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-Vovolis_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vovolis-8">[8]</a></sup> They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Oedipus" title="Oedipus">Oedipus</a>, after blinding himself.<ref>{{harvpellor structure on their stomachs (<i>progastreda</i>) to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
</p><p>Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show's after party.
</p><p>Costuming would give off a sense of character, as in gender, age, social status, and class. For example, characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing, although everyone was dressed fairly nicely. Contrary to popular belief, they did not dress in only rags and sandals, as they wanted to impress. Some examples of Greek theatre costuming include long robes called <a href="/info/en/?search=Chiton_(garment)" title="Chiton (garment)">chiton</a> that reached the floor for actors playing gods, heroes, and old men. Actors playing goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purple and gold. Actors playing queens and princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels, and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes. Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in the audience.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">List of ancient Greek playwrights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">List of ancient Greek theatres</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Representation_of_women_in_Athenian_tragedy" title="Representation of women in Athenian tragedy">Representation of women in Athenian tragedy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Agon" title="Agon">Agôn</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Antistrophe" title="Antistrophe">Antistrophe</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Archon" title="Archon">Archon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aulos" title="Aulos">Aulos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Choregos" title="Choregos">Chorêgos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chorus_of_the_elderly_in_classical_Greek_drama" title="Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama">Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Didascaliae" title="Didascaliae">Didascaliae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theatre_director" title="Theatre director">Didaskalos</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Eisodos" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisodos">Eisodos</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ekkyklema" title="Ekkyklema">Ekkyklêma</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Episode" title="Episode">Episode</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epode" title="Epode">Epode</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Kommos_(theatre)" title="Kommos (theatre)">Kommós</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Mechane" title="Mechane">Mêchanê</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Monody" title="Monody">Monody</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ode" title="Ode">Ode</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Onomasti_komodein" title="Onomasti komodein">Onomastì komodèin</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Parabasis" title="Parabasis">Parabasis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Phlyax_play" title="Phlyax play">Phlyax play</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sparagmos" title="Sparagmos">Sparagmos</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Stasimon" title="Stasimon">Stásimon</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stichomythia" title="Stichomythia">Stichomythia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Strophe" title="Strophe">Strophê</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thalia_(Muse)" title="Thalia (Muse)">Thalia (Muse)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre of ancient Rome</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theorica" title="Theorica">Theoric fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Roman theatre (structure)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_films_based_on_Greek_drama" title="List of films based on Greek drama">List of films based on Greek drama</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Redgeway-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Redgeway_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidgeway1910">Ridgeway (1910)</a>, p. 83</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence, 283</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBahnBahn1970" class="citation book cs1">Bahn, Eugene & Bahn, Margaret L. (1970). <i>A History of Oral Interpretation</i>. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing Company. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Oral+Interpretation&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Burgess+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Bahn&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.au=Bahn%2C+Margaret+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, '<a href="/info/en/?search=Poetics" title="Poetics">Poetics</a>'</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervainWiles2004">Vervain & Wiles (2004)</a>, p. 256</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrooke1962">Brooke (1962)</a>, p. 76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vervain_2004._p.255-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vervain_2004._p.255_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Vervain 2004. p.255</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Vovolis-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vovolis_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vovolis_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVovolisZamboulakis2007">Vovolis & Zamboulakis (2007)</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrockett1999" class="citation book cs1">Brockett, Oscar G. (1999). <i>History of the Theatre</i> (8th ed.). Allyn and Bacon. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780205290260" title="Special:BookSources/9780205290260"><bdi>9780205290260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Theatre&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780205290260&rft.aulast=Brockett&rft.aufirst=Oscar+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrockettBall2000" class="citation book cs1">Brockett, Oscar G.; Ball, Robert (2000). <i>The Essential Theatre</i> (7th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Theatre&rft.place=Orlando%2C+FL&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Brockett&rft.aufirst=Oscar+G.&rft.au=Ball%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrooke1962" class="citation book cs1">Brooke, Iris (1962). <i>Costume in Greek Classical Drama</i>. London: Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Costume+in+Greek+Classical+Drama&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Brooke&rft.aufirst=Iris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJansen2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jansen, Jan (2000). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081121045726/http://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf"><i>Lebensqualität im Theater des demokratischen Athen: Kult, Politik und Alte Komödie</i></a> [<i>Quality of life in the theatre of Democratic Athens: cults, politics and ancient comedy</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in German). Munich, Germany: GRIN. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9783638291873" title="Special:BookSources/9783638291873"><bdi>9783638291873</bdi></a>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://content.grin.com/data/7/27040.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 November 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebensqualit%C3%A4t+im+Theater+des+demokratischen+Athen%3A+Kult%2C+Politik+und+Alte+Kom%C3%B6die&rft.place=Munich%2C+Germany&rft.pub=GRIN&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9783638291873&rft.aulast=Jansen&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.grin.com%2Fdata%2F7%2F27040.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKuritz1988" class="citation book cs1">Kuritz, Paul (1988). <i>The Making of Theatre History</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780135478615" title="Special:BookSources/9780135478615"><bdi>9780135478615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Theatre+History&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780135478615&rft.aulast=Kuritz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=A._W._Lawrence" title="A. W. Lawrence">Lawrence, A. W.</a>, <i>Greek Architecture</i>, 1957, Penguin, Pelican history of art</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPathmanathan1965" class="citation journal cs1">Pathmanathan, R. Sri (1965). "Death in Greek tragedy". <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Greece_and_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Greece and Rome">Greece and Rome</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1): 2–14. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500014704">10.1017/S0017383500014704</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/642398">642398</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162902790">162902790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+and+Rome&rft.atitle=Death+in+Greek+tragedy&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-14&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162902790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F642398%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017383500014704&rft.aulast=Pathmanathan&rft.aufirst=R.+Sri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRidgeway1910" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=William_Ridgeway" title="William Ridgeway">Ridgeway, William</a> (1910). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/OriginOfTragedy"><i>Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Tragedy+with+Special+Reference+to+the+Greek+Tragedians&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Ridgeway&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FOriginOfTragedy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVarakis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Varakis, Angie (2004). <a class="external text" href="https://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol6no1/varakis.html">"Research on the Ancient Mask"</a>. <i>Didaskalia</i>. <b>6</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Didaskalia&rft.atitle=Research+on+the+Ancient+Mask&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Varakis&rft.aufirst=Angie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.didaskalia.net%2Fissues%2Fvol6no1%2Fvarakis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVervainWiles2004" class="citation book cs1">Vervain, Chris; Wiles, David (2004). <i>The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance</i>. New Theatre Quarterly. Vol. 67. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Masks+of+Greek+Tragedy+as+Point+of+Departure+for+Modern+Performance&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=New+Theatre+Quarterly&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Vervain&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Wiles%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVovolisZamboulakis2007" class="citation journal cs1">Vovolis, Thanos; Zamboulakis, Giorgos (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html">"The acoustical mask of Greek tragedy"</a>. <i>Didaskalia</i>. <b>7</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Didaskalia&rft.atitle=The+acoustical+mask+of+Greek+tragedy&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Vovolis&rft.aufirst=Thanos&rft.au=Zamboulakis%2C+Giorgos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.didaskalia.net%2Fissues%2Fvol7no1%2Fvovolis_zamboulakis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Bosher, Kathryn G. 2021. <i>Greek Theater in Ancient Sicily</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Buckham, Philip Wentworth, <a href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_IjAZAAAAYAAJ" class="extiw" title="iarchive:bub gb IjAZAAAAYAAJ"> <i>Theatre of the Greeks</i></a>, London 1827.</li>
<li>Davidson, J.A., <i>Literature and Literacy in Ancient Greece, Part 1</i>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Phoenix_(classics_journal)" title="Phoenix (classics journal)">Phoenix</a>, 16, 1962, pp. 141–56.</li>
<li>Davidson, J.A., <i>Peisistratus and Homer</i>, <i>TAPA</i>, 86, 1955, pp. 1–21.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEasterling1997" class="citation book cs1">Easterling, P.E., ed. (1997). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy4iSjY2VTYC"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy</i></a>. Cambridge, U.K.: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-521-41245-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-41245-5"><bdi>0-521-41245-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-41245-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFy4iSjY2VTYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith (eds.), <a class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651409"><i>Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-521-65140-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65140-9">0-521-65140-9</a></li>
<li>Else, Gerald F.
<ul><li><i>Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1967.</li>
<li><i>The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1965.</li>
<li><i>The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ</i>, Hermes 85, 1957, pp. 17–46.</li></ul></li>
<li>Flickinger, Roy Caston, <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greektheaterand03flicgoog"><i>The Greek theater and its drama</i></a>, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918</li>
<li>Foley, Helene, <i>Female Acts in Greek Tragedy</i>, Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001.</li>
<li>Freund, Philip, <i>The Birth of Theatre</i>, London: Peter Owen, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-7206-1170-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7206-1170-9">0-7206-1170-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arthur_Elam_Haigh" title="Arthur Elam Haigh">Haigh, A. E.</a>, <i>The Attic Theatre</i>, 1907.</li>
<li>Harsh, Philip Whaley, <i>A handbook of Classical Drama</i>, Stanford University, California, <a href="/info/en/?search=Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>; London, H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1944.</li>
<li>Lesky, A. <i>Greek Tragedy</i>, trans. H.A., Frankfurt, London and New York 1965.</li>
<li>Ley, Graham. <i>A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theatre.</i> <a href="/info/en/?search=University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, Chicago: 2006</li>
<li>Ley, Graham. <i>Acting Greek Tragedy.</i> <a href="/info/en/?search=University_of_Exeter_Press" title="University of Exeter Press">University of Exeter Press</a>, Exeter: 2015</li>
<li>Loscalzo, Donato, <i>Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia antica</i>, Roma 2008</li>
<li>McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael (editors), <i>The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre</i>, Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-521-83456-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-83456-2">0-521-83456-2</a></li>
<li>McClure, Laura. <i>Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in Athenian Drama</i>, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Richard_Green_Moulton" title="Richard Green Moulton">Moulton, Richard Green</a>, <i>The ancient classical drama; a study in literary evolution intended for readers in English and in the original</i>, Oxford, <a href="/info/en/?search=The_Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The Clarendon Press">The Clarendon Press</a>, 1890.</li>
<li>Padilla, Mark William (editor), <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-0JVScga2oYC&q=rites+of+passage+in+ancient+greece">"Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society"</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Bucknell_University" title="Bucknell University">Bucknell University</a> Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-8387-5418-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8387-5418-X">0-8387-5418-X</a></li>
<li>Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
<ul><li><i>Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy </i>, Oxford 1927.</li>
<li><i>The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens</i>, Oxford 1946.</li>
<li><i>The Dramatic Festivals of Athens</i>, Oxford 1953.</li></ul></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRabinowitz,_Nancy_Sorkin2008" class="citation book cs1">Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin (2008). <i>Greek Tragedy</i>. Malden, MA: <a href="/info/en/?search=Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2160-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2160-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-2160-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2160-6&rft.au=Rabinowitz%2C+Nancy+Sorkin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre+of+ancient+Greece" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Riu, Xavier, <i>Dionysism and Comedy</i>, 1999. <a class="external text" href="https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html">review</a></li>
<li>Ross, Stewart. <i>Greek Theatre.</i> Wayland Press, Hove: 1996</li>
<li>Rozik, Eli, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aGG40fhg6usC"><i>The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin</i></a>, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-87745-817-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87745-817-0">0-87745-817-0</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=August_Wilhelm_von_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="August Wilhelm von Schlegel">Schlegel, August Wilhelm</a>, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7148" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:7148"><i>Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature</i></a>, Geneva 1809.</li>
<li>Sommerstein, Alan H., <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GDtcVHeBO_4C&q=greek+drama+and+dramatists"><i>Greek Drama and Dramatists</i></a>, Routledge, 2002.</li>
<li>Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, <i>Tragedy and Athenian Religion</i>, Oxford:University Press 2003.</li>
<li>Tsitsiridis, Stavros, "Greek Mime in the Roman Empire (P.Oxy. 413: <i>Charition</i> and <i>Moicheutria</i>", <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140413213858/http://www.logeion.upatras.gr/index.php/component/content/article?id=83"><i>Logeion</i> 1 (2011) 184-232</a>.</li>
<li>Wiles, David. <i>Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction.</i> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2000</li>
<li>Wiles, David. <i>The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance</i>, Cambridge, 1991.</li>
<li>Wiles, David. <i>Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy: from ancient festival to modern experimentation</i>, Cambridge, 1997.</li>
<li>Wise, Jennifer, <i>Dionysus Writes: The Invention of Theatre in Ancient Greece</i>, Ithaca 1998. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020515125809/http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/writers34.html">review</a></li>
<li>Zimmerman, B., <i>Greek Tragedy: An Introduction</i>, trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Theatre_of_ancient_Greece&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Theatre of ancient Greece</b> <hr /></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Theatre+of+ancient+Greece&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Theatre+of+ancient+Greece">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Theatre+of+ancient+Greece&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
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</div>
<ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/greek.html">Ancient Greek theatre history and articles</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060528183243/http://www.iolani.org/usacad_eng_eng10dterms_cw9404.htm">Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.greektheatre.gr/">Ancient Greek Theatre</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/home.htm">The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture</a> – Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, <a href="/info/en/?search=Whitman_College" title="Whitman College">Whitman College</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/glossary/glossary.htm">Greek and Roman theatre glossary</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/theater/ancient_greek_theater.shtm">Illustrated Greek Theater</a> – Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, <a href="/info/en/?search=Hampden%E2%80%93Sydney_College" title="Hampden–Sydney College">Hampden–Sydney College</a>, Virginia</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110401172120/http://www.actorama.com/monologues/ancient-greek-plays.html">Searchable database of monologues for actors from Ancient Greek Theatre</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.logeion.upatras.gr">Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free access which publishes original scholarly articles including its reception in modern theatre, literature, cinema and the other art forms and media, as well as its relation to the theatre of other periods and geographical regions.</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="HistoryGeography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560 BC</span>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–389 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–366 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 595</span>–279 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">mythological figures</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greco-Buddhist_monasticism" title="Greco-Buddhist monasticism">Greco-Buddhist monasticism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland<br />Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Roses,_Girona" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a><br />basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Western_theatre" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:History_of_theatre" title="Template:History of theatre"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:History_of_theatre" title="Template talk:History of theatre"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_theatre" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of theatre"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Western_theatre" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Western_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Western theatre">History of Western theatre</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">Commedia dell'arte</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spanish_Golden_Age#Lope_de_Vega_and_Spanish_drama" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Augustan_drama" title="Augustan drama">Augustan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Melodrama" title="Melodrama">Melodrama</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th century</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Realism_(theatre)" title="Realism (theatre)">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Postmodern</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Timeline_of_twentieth-century_theatre" title="Timeline of twentieth-century theatre">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189072#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Théâtre (genre littéraire) grec"><a class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120199756">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Théâtre (genre littéraire) grec"><a class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120199756">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007540818705171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85057137">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1714760270' |