Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1660 to 1685}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Charles II
| image = King Charles II by John Michael Wright or studio.jpg
| caption = Charles in [[Garter robes]], {{circa|1660–1665}}
| alt = Charles is of thin build and has chest-length curly black hair
| succession = [[King of England]], [[List of Scottish monarchs|Scotland]] and [[List of Irish monarchs|Ireland]]
| moretext = ([[Style of the British sovereign#Styles of English and Scottish sovereigns|more...]])
| reign = 29 May 1660{{efn|name=reign|The traditional date of the Restoration marking the first assembly of King and Parliament together since the abolition of the English monarchy in 1649. The English Parliament recognised Charles as king by unanimous vote on 2 May 1660, and he was proclaimed king in London on 8 May, although royalists had recognised him as such since the execution of his father on 30 January 1649. During Charles's reign all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if his reign began at his father's death.}} –<br />6 February 1685
| predecessor = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]
| successor = [[James II of England|James II & VII]]
| coronation = 23 April 1661
| cor-type = <!-- Britain -->
| succession1 = [[King of Scotland]]
| reign1 = 30 January 1649 –<br /> 3 September 1651{{efn|From the death of his father to his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]]}}
| predecessor1 = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]
| successor1 = ''Military government''
| coronation1 = 1 January 1651
| cor-type1 = [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|Coronation]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Catherine of Braganza]]|1662}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]]
* [[Charlotte Paston, Countess of Yarmouth]]
* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth]]
* [[Catherine FitzCharles]]
* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland]]
* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton]]
* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield]]
* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland]]
* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans]]
* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond]]
* [[Lady Mary Tudor]]}}
| issue-link = #Issue
| issue-type = Illegitimate children
| house = [[House of Stuart|Stuart]]
| father = [[Charles I of England]]
| mother = [[Henrietta Maria of France]]
| birth_date = 29 May 1630<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 8 June 1630)
| birth_place = [[St James's Palace]], Westminster, England
| death_date = 6 February 1685 (aged 54)<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 16 February 1685)
| death_place = [[Whitehall Palace]], Westminster, England
| burial_date = 14 February 1685
| burial_place = [[Westminster Abbey]], England
| signature = CharlesIISig.svg
}}
'''Charles II''' (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685){{efn|All dates in this article unless otherwise noted are given in the [[Julian calendar]] with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see [[Old Style and New Style dates]]).}} was [[King of Scotland]] from 1649 until 1651 and King of [[King of England|England]], Scotland, and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]] from the [[Stuart Restoration|1660 Restoration]] of the monarchy until his death in 1685.
Charles II was the eldest surviving child of [[Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland]] and [[Henrietta Maria of France]]. After [[Charles I's execution]] at [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]] on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the [[English Civil War]], the [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as the [[English Interregnum]] or the [[English Commonwealth]], with a government led by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651, and Charles [[Escape of Charles II|fled to mainland Europe]]. Cromwell became [[Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the [[Dutch Republic]] and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the [[Stuart Restoration|restoration of the monarchy]] in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649.
[[Cavalier Parliament|Charles's English parliament]] enacted the [[Clarendon Code]], to shore up the position of the [[Established Church|re-established]] [[Church of England]]. Charles acquiesced to these new laws even though he favoured a policy of [[religious tolerance]]. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. In 1670, he entered into the [[Treaty of Dover]], an alliance with his cousin, King [[Louis XIV of France]]. Louis agreed to aid him in the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to [[Catholicism]] at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce [[religious freedom]] for Catholics and Protestant [[dissenter]]s with his [[1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], but the [[English Parliament]] forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, [[Titus Oates]]'s fabrication of a supposed [[Popish Plot]] sparked the [[Exclusion Crisis]] when it was revealed that Charles's brother and [[heir presumptive]], [[James, Duke of York]], had become a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion [[British Whig Party|Whig]] and anti-exclusion [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] parties. Charles sided with the Tories and, after the discovery of the [[Rye House Plot]] to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685.
Following his restoration, Charles became known for his affability and friendliness, and for allowing his subjects easy access to his person. However, he also showed an almost impenetrable reserve, especially concerning his political agendas. His court gained a reputation for moral laxity.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=361–363}} Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] produced no surviving children, but the king acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James.
== Early life, civil war and exile ==
[[File:Charles II Prince of Wales Egmont.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Charles as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to [[Justus van Egmont]]|alt=Baby in white christening robe]]
Charles was born at [[St James's Palace]] on 29 May 1630, eldest surviving son of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], king of [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], and his wife [[Henrietta Maria]], sister of [[Louis XIII of France]]. Charles was their second child (the first being a son born about a year before, who had died within a day).{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} He was baptised on 27 June in the [[Chapel Royal]] by [[William Laud]], a future [[archbishop of Canterbury]], and during his infancy was supervised by the Protestant [[Edward Sackville, 4th Earl of Dorset#Family|Countess of Dorset]]. His godparents included his maternal uncle Louis XIII and maternal grandmother, [[Marie de' Medici]], the Dowager Queen of France, both of whom were Catholics.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp= 1–4}}.</ref> At birth, Charles automatically became [[Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Duke of Rothesay]], and the possessor of several other associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated [[Prince of Wales]], though he was never formally invested.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}
In August 1642, the long-running dispute between Charles I and [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] culminated in the outbreak of the [[First English Civil War]]. In October, Prince Charles and his younger brother [[James II of England|James]] were present at the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and spent the next two years based in the [[Cavalier|Royalist]] capital of [[Oxford]]. In January 1645, Charles was given his own Council and made titular head of Royalist forces in the [[West Country]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=6–7}}.</ref> By spring 1646, most of the region had been occupied by [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] forces and Charles went into exile to avoid capture. From [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], he went first to the [[Isles of Scilly]], then to [[Jersey]], and finally to France, where his mother was already living under the protection of his first cousin, the eight-year-old [[Louis XIV]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=6}}.</ref> Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646.
During the [[Second English Civil War]] in 1648, Charles moved to [[The Hague]], where his sister [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]] and his brother-in-law [[William II, Prince of Orange]], seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the Royalist cause than his mother's French relations.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=55–56}} Although part of the Parliamentarian fleet defected, it did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the Royalist [[Engager]] army led by the [[James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] before it was defeated at [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Preston]] by the [[New Model Army]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=57–60}}
[[File:William Dobson - Charles II, 1630 - 1685. King of Scots 1649 - 1685. King of England and Ireland 1660 - 1685 (When Prince of Wales, with a page) - Google Art Project.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|Portrait by [[William Dobson]], c. 1642 or 1643|alt=Charles as a boy with shoulder-length black hair and standing in a martial pose]]
At The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with [[Lucy Walter]], who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=65–66, 155}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref> Her son, [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts]] (afterwards [[Duke of Monmouth]] and [[Duke of Buccleuch]]), was one of Charles's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}} Despite his son's diplomatic efforts to save him, the [[execution of Charles I]] took place in January 1649, and England became a [[Commonwealth of England|republic]]. On 5 February, the [[Covenanter]] [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II as "King of Great Britain, France and Ireland" at the [[Mercat Cross, Edinburgh]],{{sfn|RPS|loc=1649/1/71}} but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he agreed to establish [[Presbyterianism]] as the [[state religion]] in all three of his kingdoms.
When negotiations with the Scots stalled, Charles authorised [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Lord Montrose]] to land in the [[Orkney Islands]] with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion, in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking. Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise, and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway. He was captured and executed. Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a [[Treaty of Breda (1650)|treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament]] at [[Breda]], and support the [[Solemn League and Covenant]], which authorised [[Presbyterian church governance]] across Britain. Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650, he formally agreed to the Covenant; his abandonment of [[Episcopy|Episcopal]] church governance, although winning him support in Scotland, left him unpopular in England. Charles himself soon came to despise the "villainy" and "hypocrisy" of the Covenanters.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=53}}.</ref> Charles was provided with a Scottish court, and the record of his [[Food and the Scottish royal household|food and household expenses]] at [[Falkland Palace]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] survives.<ref>David Stevenson, 'Minute Book of the Board of Green Cloth', ''Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, XV'' (Edinburgh, 2013), pp. 55–132.</ref>
[[File:Cast gold medal of Charles II Stuart.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Cast gold coronation medal of Charles II, dated 1651]]
Charles's Scottish coronation led to the [[Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)| Anglo-Scottish War]] of 1650 to 1652. On 3 September 1650, the Covenanters were defeated at [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] by a much smaller force commanded by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The Scots were divided between moderate Engagers and the more radical [[Kirk Party]], who even fought each other. Disillusioned by these divisions, Charles rode north to join an Engager force in October, an event which became known as "the Start", but within two days members of the Kirk Party had recovered him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=96–97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=56–57}}.</ref> Nevertheless, the Scots remained Charles's best hope of restoration, and he was [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|crowned King of Scotland]] at [[Scone Abbey]] on 1 January 1651. With Cromwell's forces threatening Charles's position in Scotland, it was decided to mount an attack on England, but many of their most experienced soldiers had been excluded on religious grounds by the Kirk Party, whose leaders also refused to participate, among them [[Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll|Lord Argyll]]. Opposition to what was primarily a Scottish army meant few English Royalists joined as it moved south, and the invasion ended in defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651. [[Escape of Charles II|Charles managed to escape]] and landed in [[Normandy]] six weeks later on 16 October, even though there was a reward of £1,000 on his head, anyone caught helping him was at risk of being put to death, and he was difficult to disguise, being over {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}}, which was unusually tall for the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=98–128}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=53–69}}.</ref>{{efn|One thousand pounds was a vast sum at the time, greater than an average workman's lifetime earnings.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=117}} }}
[[File:Charles II (de Champaigne).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Charles in exile, painted by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], c. 1653]]
Under the [[Instrument of Government]] passed by Parliament, Cromwell was appointed [[Lord Protector#Cromwellian Commonwealth|Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653, effectively placing the [[British Isles]] under military rule. Charles lived a life of leisure at [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] near Paris,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=54}} living on a grant from Louis XIV of 600 [[French livre|livres]] a month.<ref>[http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/charles2.htm Charles II of England]. Excerpted from: Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Vol XV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. 142.</ref> Charles could not obtain sufficient finance or support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government. Despite the [[Stuart family]] connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange, France and the [[Dutch Republic]] allied themselves with Cromwell's government from 1654, forcing Charles to leave France and turn to Spain for aid, which at that time ruled the [[Southern Netherlands]].{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=74–112}}
Charles made the [[Treaty of Brussels (1656)|Treaty of Brussels]] with Spain in 1656. This gathered Spanish support for a restoration in return for Charles's contribution to the war against France. Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects; this small, underpaid, poorly-equipped and ill-disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post-Restoration army.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=156–157}} The Commonwealth made the [[Treaty of Paris (1657)|Treaty of Paris]] with France in 1657 to join them in war against Spain in the Netherlands. Royalist supporters in the Spanish force were led by Charles's younger brother [[James, Duke of York]].<ref>Childs, John. ''Army of Charles II''. Routledge, 2013 p. 2</ref> At the [[Battle of the Dunes (1658)|Battle of the Dunes]] in 1658, as part of the larger Spanish force, Charles's army of around 2,000 clashed with Commonwealth troops fighting with the French. By the end of the battle Charles's force was about 1,000 and with Dunkirk given to the English the prospect of a Royalist expedition to England was dashed.<ref>Tucker, S ''Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict'' p. 212</ref>
== Restoration ==
{{further|Stuart Restoration}}
After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, Charles's initial chances of regaining the Crown seemed slim; Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. However, the new Lord Protector had little experience of either military or civil administration. In 1659, the [[Rump Parliament]] was recalled and Richard Cromwell resigned. During the civil and military unrest that followed, [[George Monck]], the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=160–165}} Monck and his army marched into the [[City of London]], and forced the Rump Parliament to re-admit members of the [[Long Parliament]] who had been excluded in December 1648, during [[Pride's Purge]]. Parliament dissolved itself, and there was a general election for the first time in almost 20 years.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], 16 March 1660.</ref> The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications intending to bring about the return of a Presbyterian majority.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}}
The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored, and the elections resulted in a [[Parliament of England|House of Commons]] that was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between [[Anglicans]] and Presbyterians.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}} The so-called [[Convention Parliament (1660)|Convention Parliament]] assembled on 25 April 1660, and soon afterwards welcomed the [[Declaration of Breda]], in which Charles promised lenience and tolerance. There would be liberty of conscience, and Anglican church policy would not be harsh. He would not exile past enemies nor confiscate their wealth. There would be pardons for nearly all his opponents except the [[regicides]]. Above all, Charles promised to rule in cooperation with Parliament.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=5}} The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return, a message that reached Charles at [[Breda]] on 8 May 1660.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=131}} In Ireland, a [[Irish Convention (1660)|convention]] had been called earlier in the year and had already declared for Charles. On 14 May, he was proclaimed king in Dublin.{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}
[[File:The arrival of King Charles II of England in Rotterdam, may 24 1660 (Lieve Pietersz. Verschuier, 1665).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Seascape of vessels along a low-lying coastline|Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by [[Lieve Verschuier]].]]
Charles set out for England from [[Scheveningen]], arrived in [[Dover]] on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May, his 30th birthday. Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to nearly all of Cromwell's supporters in the [[Act of Indemnity and Oblivion]], 50 people were specifically excluded.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=190}} In the end nine of the [[List of regicides of Charles I|regicides]] were executed:{{sfn|The Royal Household|2009}} they were [[hanged, drawn and quartered]], whereas others were given life imprisonment or excluded from office for life. The bodies of Oliver Cromwell, [[Henry Ireton]] and [[John Bradshaw (Judge)|John Bradshaw]] were subjected to [[posthumous execution|posthumous decapitations]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=185}}
The English Parliament granted Charles an annual income to run the government of £1.2 million,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} generated largely from customs and excise duties. The grant, however, proved to be insufficient for most of Charles's reign. For the most part, the actual revenue was much lower, which led to attempts to economise at court by reducing the size and expenses of the [[royal household]]{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} and raising money through unpopular innovations such as the [[hearth tax]].{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}
In the latter half of 1660, Charles's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his siblings [[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry]] and Mary of [[smallpox]]. At around the same time, [[Anne Hyde]], the daughter of Lord Chancellor [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Edward Hyde]], revealed that she was pregnant by Charles's brother James, whom she had secretly married. Edward Hyde, who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy, was created [[Earl of Clarendon]] and his position as Charles's favourite minister was strengthened.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=210–202}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=155–156}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp= 43–44}}.</ref>
=== Clarendon Code ===
[[File:Charles II by John Michael Wright.jpg|thumb|Coronation portrait: Charles was crowned at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 23 April 1661.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], [http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html 23 April 1661] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429202445/http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html |date=29 April 2018 }}</ref>|alt=Charles wearing a crown and ermine-lined robe]]
The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660, and, shortly after Charles's [[Coronation of the British monarch|English coronation]], the second English Parliament of the reign assembled. Dubbed the [[Cavalier Parliament]], it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican. It sought to discourage [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|non-conformity]] to the [[Church of England]] and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance. The [[Corporation Act 1661]] required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=169}} the [[Act of Uniformity 1662]] made the use of the [[Book of Common Prayer (1662)|1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'']] compulsory; the [[Conventicle Act 1664]] prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people, except under the auspices of the Church of England; and the [[Five Mile Act 1665]] prohibited expelled non-conforming clergymen from coming within five miles (8 km) of a parish from which they had been banished. The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles's reign. The Acts became known as the [[Clarendon Code]], after Lord Clarendon, even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=229}}
The Restoration was accompanied by social change. [[Puritanism]] lost its momentum. Theatres reopened after having been closed during the [[Interregnum (England)|protectorship]] of Oliver Cromwell, and bawdy "[[Restoration comedy]]" became a recognisable genre. Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by "their natural performers", rather than by boys as was often the practice before;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=185}} and [[Restoration literature]] celebrated or reacted to the restored court, which included [[libertine]]s such as [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester|Lord Rochester]]. Of Charles II, Rochester supposedly said:
{{Poemquote|We have a pretty, witty king,
Whose word no man relies on,
He never said a foolish thing,
And never did a wise one<ref>Papers of [[Thomas Hearne (antiquarian)|Thomas Hearne]] (17 November 1706) quoted in {{harvnb|Doble|1885|p=308}}.</ref>}}
To which Charles is reputed to have replied "that the matter was easily accounted for: For that his discourse was his own, his actions were the ministry's".{{sfn|Hume|1778|p=212}}
=== Great Plague and Great Fire ===
In 1665, the [[Great Plague of London]] began, peaking in September with up to 7,000 deaths per week.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=238}} Charles, his family, and the court fled London in July to [[Salisbury]]; Parliament met in [[Oxford]].{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=120}} Plague cases ebbed over the winter, and Charles returned to London in February 1666.{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=105}}
After a long spell of hot and dry weather through mid-1666, the [[Great Fire of London]] started on 2 September 1666 in [[Pudding Lane]]. Fanned by strong winds and fed by wood and fuel stockpiled for winter, the fire destroyed about 13,200 houses and 87 churches, including [[St Paul's Cathedral]].{{sfn|Porter|2007}} Charles and his brother James joined and directed the firefighting effort. The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=243–247}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=121–122}}.</ref>
== Foreign policy and marriage ==
[[File:English School - King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza.png|300px|thumb|Charles and Catherine]]
Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a [[Portuguese Restoration War|war against Spain]] to restore its independence after a [[dynastic union]] of sixty years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] began during his father's reign and upon the restoration, [[Luisa de Guzmán|Queen Luísa of Portugal]], acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance.<ref>Clyde L. Gros, "The Anglo-Portuguese Marriage of 1662" ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 10#3 (1930), pp. 313–352 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506378 online]</ref> On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed; England acquired Catherine's [[dowry]] of the port of [[Portuguese Tangier|Tangier]] in North Africa, the [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] in India (which had a major influence on the development of the [[British Empire]]), valuable trading privileges in Brazil and the [[East Indies]], religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns (equivalent to £300,000 then{{efn|Equivalent to between £42.7 million (real cost) and £12.7 billion (economic share) as of 2021.<ref>"Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present", [https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth], 2023</ref>}}); while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} Catherine journeyed from Portugal to [[Portsmouth]] on 13–14 May 1662,{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies—a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}}
The same year, in an unpopular move, Charles [[Sale of Dunkirk|sold Dunkirk]] to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=93, 99}} The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances, as it cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=184}}
[[File:CharlesII1667Medal.jpg|thumb|left|Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by [[John Roettier]] to commemorate the [[Second Dutch War]]|alt=Obverse of medal]]
Before Charles's restoration, the [[Navigation Acts]] of 1650 had hurt [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the [[First Dutch War]] (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] appeared in November 1660 with the [[Dutch Gift]].{{sfn|Israel|1998|pp=749–750}} The [[Second Dutch War]] (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]], but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on England (the [[Raid on the Medway]]) when they sailed up the [[River Thames]] to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, [[HMS Royal Charles (1655)|''Royal Charles'']], which was taken back to the Netherlands as a [[Prize (law)|prize]].{{efn|The ship's [[Transom (nautical)|transom]] is on display at the [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam.}} The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]].
As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=250–251}} Clarendon fled to France when impeached for [[high treason]] (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical<!--Macaulay, (1849) ''The History of England from the Accession of James II'', p.152--> [[acronym]] as the [[Cabal]]—[[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford|Clifford]], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Arlington]], [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Buckingham]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury)]] and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Lauderdale]]. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=254}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=175–176}}.</ref>
In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden, and with its former enemy the Netherlands, to oppose Louis XIV in the [[War of Devolution]]. Louis made peace with the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]], but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the [[Treaty of Dover]], under which Louis would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=275}} Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=275–276}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p= 180}}.</ref> It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert.<ref>For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, {{harvnb|Seaward|2004}}; for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}}.</ref>
Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the [[East India Company]] the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and [[criminal jurisdiction]] over its possessions in the Indies.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=835}} Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of [[Bombay]] to the company for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.{{sfn|British Library Learning}} The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain; [[English Tangier|Tangier]] was abandoned in 1684.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=426}} In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire [[Hudson Bay]] drainage basin to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] by royal charter, and named the territory [[Rupert's Land]], after his cousin [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]], the company's first governor.{{sfn|''Hudson's Bay Company''|2017}}
== Conflict with Parliament ==
Although previously favourable to the Crown, the Cavalier Parliament was alienated by the king's wars and religious policies during the 1670s. In 1672, Charles issued the [[Declaration of Indulgence (1672)|Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], in which he purported to suspend all [[penal law (Britain)|penal laws]] against Catholics and other religious dissenters. In the same year, he openly supported Catholic France and started the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=305–308}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=284–285}}.</ref>
The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the king had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament. Charles withdrew the Declaration, and also agreed to the [[Test Act]], which not only required public officials to receive the [[Eucharist|sacrament]] under the forms prescribed by the Church of England,{{sfn|Raithby|1819|pp=782–785}} but also later forced them to denounce [[transubstantiation]] and the Catholic Mass as "superstitious and idolatrous".{{sfn|Raithby|1819a| pp=894–896}} Clifford, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned rather than take the oath, and died shortly after, possibly from suicide.
By 1674, England had gained nothing from the Anglo-Dutch War, and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. The power of the Cabal waned and that of Clifford's replacement, [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|Lord Danby]] grew, as did opposition towards him and the court. Politicians and peers believed that Charles II favoured a pro-French foreign policy that desired to emulate the absolutist (and Catholic) sovereignty of Louis XIV. In numerous pamphlets and parliamentary speeches between 1675 and 1678, "popery and arbitrary government" were decried for fear of the loss of English liberties and freedoms.<ref>{{citation|last=Mansfield|first=Andrew|date=3 September 2021|title=The First Earl of Shaftesbury's Resolute Conscience and Aristocratic Constitutionalism|journal=The Historical Journal|volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=969–991|doi=10.1017/s0018246x21000662|issn=0018-246X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[File:Charles-pineapple.jpg|thumb|right|Charles was presented with the first [[pineapple]] grown in England in 1675. Painting by [[Hendrick Danckerts]].|alt=Charles accepts a pineapple from a kneeling man in front of a grand country house]]
Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir; her four pregnancies had ended in [[miscarriage]]s and [[stillbirth]]s in 1662, February 1666, May 1668, and June 1669.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} Charles's [[heir presumptive]] was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Partly to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic, Charles agreed that James's daughter, [[Mary II of England|Mary]], should marry the Protestant [[William III of England|William of Orange]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=347–348}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=345–346}}.</ref> In 1678, [[Titus Oates]], who had been alternately an Anglican and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest, falsely warned of a "[[Popish Plot]]" to assassinate the king, even accusing the queen of complicity. Charles did not believe the allegations, but ordered his chief minister Lord Danby to investigate. While Danby seems to have been rightly sceptical about Oates's claims, the Cavalier Parliament took them seriously.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=359–362}} The people were seized with an anti-Catholic hysteria;{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=360}} judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators; numerous innocent individuals were executed.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=375}}
Later in 1678, Danby was impeached by the House of Commons on the charge of [[high treason]]. Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France, Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV, trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money. Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France, but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles's wishes. Unfortunately for him, the House of Commons failed to view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal, instead believing that he was the author of the policy. To save Danby from the impeachment trial, Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=278, 301–304}}
The new English Parliament, which met in March of the same year, was quite hostile to Charles. Many members feared that he had intended to use the standing army to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism. However, with insufficient funds voted by Parliament, Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops. Having lost the support of Parliament, Danby resigned his post of [[Lord High Treasurer]], but received a pardon from the king. In defiance of the royal will, the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings, and that the pardon was therefore invalid. When the [[House of Lords]] attempted to impose the punishment of exile—which the Commons thought too mild—the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses. As he had been required to do so many times during his reign, Charles bowed to the wishes of his opponents, committing Danby to the [[Tower of London]], in which he was held for another five years.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=367–374}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=306–309}}.</ref>
== Science ==
[[File:King Charles II of England (1630-1685).TIF|thumb|Portrait by [[John Riley (painter)|John Riley]], {{Circa|1683–1684}}|alt=Oil portrait of Charles with heavy jowls, a wig of long black curls and in a suit of armour]]
In Charles's early childhood, [[William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle]], was governor of the royal household and Brian Duppa, the [[Dean of Christ Church, Oxford]], was his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}} Neither man thought that the study of science subjects was appropriate for a future king,<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=23}}</ref> and Newcastle even advised against studying any subject too seriously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Falkus|1972|p=17}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=9}}</ref> However, as Charles grew older, the renowned surgeon [[William Harvey]] was appointed his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}}<ref name=Carvalho>{{Cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Cristina |title=Charles II: A Man Caught Between Tradition and Science |journal=Via Panorâmica |date=2014 |volume=3 |pages=5–24 |hdl=10400.26/7191 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> He was famous for his work on blood circulation in the human body and already held the position of physician to Charles I; his studies were to influence Charles's own attitude to science. As the king's chief physician, Harvey accompanied Charles I to the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and, although some details are uncertain,{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=15}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=D |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=October 1946 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=405 |pmid=20323936 |pmc=1583020}}; {{cite book|last=Young|first=P.|title=Edgehill 1642|publisher=Windrush Press|location=Gloucester|year=1995|page=144}}</ref> he had charge of Prince Charles and the Duke of York in the morning,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=36}} but the two boys were back with the king for the start of battle.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=79}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stewart |first=D. |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=British Medical Journal| date=25 May 1946 |volume=1 |issue=4455 |page=808 |pmc=2058941 |jstor=20366436 |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4455.808}}</ref> Later in the afternoon, with their father concerned for their safety, the two princes left the battlefield accompanied by Sir W. Howard and his pensioners.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=130}}
During his exile, in France, Charles continued his education, including physics, chemistry and mathematics.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=220}} His tutors included the cleric [[John Earle (bishop)|John Earle]], well known for his satirical book ''Microcosmographie'', with whom he studied Latin and Greek, and [[Thomas Hobbes]], the philosopher and author of ''Leviathan'', with whom he studied mathematics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Hobbes (1588–1697)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/hobbes_thomas.shtml|publisher=BBC|date=2014}}</ref> In France, Charles assisted his childhood friend, the [[Earl of Buckingham]], with his experiments in [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=182}}</ref> with the Earl convinced he was close to producing the [[philosopher's stone]]. Although some of Charles's studies, while abroad, may have helped to pass the time,{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=30}} on his return to England he was already knowledgeable in the mathematics of navigation and was a competent chemist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}</ref> Such was his knowledge of naval architecture that he was able to participate in technical discussions on the subject with [[Samuel Pepys]], [[William Petty]] and [[John Evelyn]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}</ref>
The new concepts and discoveries being found at this time fascinated Charles,{{Sfn|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}} not only in science and medicine, but in topics such as botany and gardening.<ref name=Carvalho/>{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} A French traveller, Sorbier, while visiting the English court, was astonished by the extent of the king's knowledge.{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=209}} The king freely indulged in his many interests, including astronomy, which had been stimulated by a visit to [[Gresham College]], in October 1660, to see the telescopes made by the astronomer [[Sir Paul Neile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jardine |first=L. |title=On a Grander Scale |publisher=Harper Collins |location=London |date=2002 |page=166}}; {{cite web |last=Hartlib |first=S. |title=Letter: Hartlib to John Worthington |url=https://www.dhi.ac.uk/hartlib/view?docset=additional?docname=WORTH_17@term0=transtext_gresham#highlight}} (search for 15 October 1660)</ref> Charles was so impressed by what he saw that he ordered his own 36' telescope which he had installed in the Privy Garden at [[Whitehall]].<ref name=Wright2000>{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=David |title=The astronomy in Pepys' Diary |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |date=August 2000 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=4.23–4.27 |doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00423.x |s2cid=122377967 |doi-access=free}}</ref> He would invite his friends and acquaintances to view the heavens through his new telescope and, in May 1661, Evelyn describes his visit to the Garden, with several other scientists, to view [[Saturn's rings]].{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=357}} Charles also had a laboratory installed, in Whitehall, within easy access to his bedroom.{{Sfn|Pepys|1906b|p=611}}<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley>{{cite book|last=Ashley|first=M.|title=England in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Penguin|location=London|year=1958|pages=153–154}}</ref>
From the beginning of his reign, Charles appointed experts to assist him in his scientific pursuits. These included: [[Timothy Clarke]] a celebrated anatomist, who performed some dissections for the king;{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=365}} [[Robert Morison]] as his chief botanist (Charles had his own botanical garden);{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} [[Edmund Dickinson]], a chemist and alchemist, who was tasked with carrying out experiments in the king's laboratory;<ref>{{Cite DNB |wstitle= Dickinson, Edmund | volume= 15 |last= Harrison |first= Robert |author-link= |pages = 33-34 |short=1}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Blomberg |first=W. N. |title=An Account of the Life and Writings of Edmund Dickinson |publisher=Montagu |location=London |date=1739 |page=89 |url=https://archive.org/details/b30549085/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> [[Sir Thomas Williams, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Williams]], who was skillful in compounding and inventing medicines, some of which were prepared in the royal presence;{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=96}} and [[Nicasius le Febure]] (or Nicolas LeFevre), who was invited to England as royal professor of chemistry and apothecary to the king's household.<ref>{{cite web |title=LeFevre N. |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/le-febvre-nicaise}}</ref> Evelyn visited his laboratory with the king.{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=376}}
In addition to his many other interests, the king was fascinated by clock mechanisms<ref name=Carvalho/> and had clocks distributed all around Whitehall, including seven of them in his bedroom.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} [[Robert Bruce, 1st Earl of Ailesbury|Robert Bruce]] (later Earl of Ailesbury), a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, complained that the continual noise of the clocks chiming disturbed his sleep, whenever it was necessary for him to stay close by to the king.{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=87}} Also, Charles had a sundial installed in the Privy Garden,{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} by which he could set his personal [[pocket watch]].{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} (For a while, the king personally recorded the performance of the latest spring-balance watch, presented to him by [[Robert Hooke]].{{sfn|Jardine|2004|p=202}})
In 1662, Charles was pleased to grant a royal charter to a group of scientists and others who had established a formal society in 1660 to give a more academic and learned approach to science and to conduct experiments in physics and mathematics.<ref name=Ashley/><ref>{{cite book|last=Purver|first=M.|title=The Royal Society, Concept and Creation|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|location=London|year=1967|pages=21, 85, 189}}</ref> [[Sir Robert Moray]], a member of Charles's court, played an important part in achieving this outcome, and he was to be the first president of this new [[Royal Society]]. Over the years, Moray was an important go-between for Charles and the Society,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=251}} and his standing with the king was so high that he was given access to the royal laboratory to perform his own experiments there.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}; {{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=228}}</ref>
Charles never attended a Society meeting,{{Sfn|Jardine|2004|p=106}} but he remained aware of the activities there from his discussions with Society members, especially Moray.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} In addition, [[Robert Boyle]] gave him a private viewing of the Boyle/Hooke [[air-pump]],<ref name=West>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on rarified air |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |date=January 2005 |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004 |pmid=15591301 |s2cid=5837786}}</ref><ref name=Nichols>{{cite book |last=Nichols |first=R. |title=Robert Hooke and the Royal Society |publisher=Book Guild |location=Sussex, England |date=1999 |page=43}}</ref> which was used at many of the Wednesday meetings. However, Charles preferred experiments that had an immediate practical outcome{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} and he laughed at the efforts of the Society members "to weigh air".{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=451}} He seemed unable to grasp the significance of the basic laws of physics being established at that time, including [[Boyle's Law]] and [[Hooke's Law]] and the concept of atmospheric pressure<ref name=West/> and the [[barometer]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure |journal=Physiology |date=March 2013 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=66–73 |doi=10.1152/physiol.00053.2012 |pmid=23455767 |pmc=3768090}}</ref> and the importance of air for the support of life.<ref name=Nichols/>
Although Charles lost interest in the activities of the society, he continued to support scientific and commercial endeavours. He founded the Mathematical School at [[Christ's Hospital]] in 1673 and, two years later, following concerns over French advances in astronomy, he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] at Greenwich.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|pp=241–242}} He maintained an interest in chemistry and regularly visited his private laboratory.<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley/> There, dissections were occasionally carried out, and observed by the king.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} Pepys noted in his diary that on the morning of Friday, 15 January 1669, while he was walking to Whitehall, he met the king who invited him to view his chemistry laboratory. Pepys confessed to finding what he saw there beyond him.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pepys |first=Samuel|work=The Diary of Samuel Pepys|title=Friday 15 January 1668/69|date=15 January 2012 |url=https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15/}}</ref>
Charles developed painful gout in later life which limited the daily walks that he took regularly when younger. His keenness was now channelled to his laboratory where he would devote himself to his experiments, for hours at a time,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheatley |first=H. B. |title=Samuel Pepys and the World he Lived In |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co. |location=London |date=1907 |edition=1st |orig-date=1880 |page=167 |url=https://archive.org/details/samuelpepysandth51757gut}}</ref>{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=586}} sometimes helped by Moray.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=198}} Charles was particularly interested in alchemy, which he had first encountered many years earlier, during his exile with the Duke of Buckingham. Charles resumed his experiments with mercury and would spend whole mornings attempting to distill it. Heating mercury in an open crucible releases mercury vapour, which is toxic and may have contributed to his later ill health.{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=567–596}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Homes|first=F.|title=The Sickly Stewarts|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=2003|pages=104–108}}</ref>
== Later years ==
Charles faced a political storm over his brother James, a Catholic, being next in line to the throne. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury]] (previously Baron Ashley and a member of the Cabal, which had fallen apart in 1673). Lord Shaftesbury's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the [[Exclusion Bill]], which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the [[Succession to the British throne|line of succession]]. Some even sought to confer the Crown on the Protestant [[Duke of Monmouth]], the eldest of Charles's illegitimate children. The ''Abhorrers''—those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent—were named [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]] (after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits), while the ''Petitioners''—those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill—were called [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] (after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians).<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=373, 377, 391}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=310–320}}.</ref>
===Absolute monarch===
Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed, and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials, which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism, Charles dissolved the English Parliament, for a second time that year, in mid-1679. Charles's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled; within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again, after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill. When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681, Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=376–401}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=314–345}}.</ref> During the 1680s, however, popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed, and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty. Lord Shaftesbury was prosecuted (albeit unsuccessfully) for treason in 1681 and later fled to Holland, where he died. For the remainder of his reign, Charles ruled without Parliament.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=430–441}}
Charles's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants. Protestant conspirators formulated the [[Rye House Plot]], a plan to murder him and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in [[Newmarket, Suffolk|Newmarket]]. A great fire, however, destroyed Charles's lodgings at Newmarket, which forced him to leave the races early, thus inadvertently avoiding the planned attack. News of the failed plot was leaked.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=426}} Protestant politicians such as the [[Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], [[Algernon Sydney]], [[William Russell, Lord Russell|Lord Russell]] and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot. Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange. Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the king's Catholic brother, James, acquired greater influence at court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=420–423}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=366–368}}.</ref> Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=437}}
Thus through the last years of Charles's reign, his approach towards his opponents changed, and he was compared by Whigs to the contemporary Louis XIV of France, with his form of government in those years termed "slavery". Many of them were prosecuted and their estates seized, with Charles replacing judges and sheriffs at will and packing juries to achieve conviction. To destroy opposition in London, Charles first disenfranchised many Whigs in the 1682 municipal elections, and in 1683 the [[Ancient borough#Charters of incorporation|London charter]] was forfeited. In retrospect, the use of the judicial system by Charles (and later his brother and heir James) as a tool against opposition, helped establish the idea of [[separation of powers]] between the judiciary and the Crown in Whig thought.<ref>Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). ''The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688–91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts'' (Vol. 16), Chapter 3. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>
=== Death ===
Charles suffered a sudden [[apoplectic fit]] on the morning of 2 February 1685, and died four days later at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], at 11:45 am, aged 54.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=443}}.</ref> The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many, including one of the royal doctors, but a more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of [[uremia|uraemia]], a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction.{{sfn|BMJ|1938}} Charles had a laboratory among his many interests where, prior to his illness, he had been experimenting with [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. Mercuric poisoning can produce irreversible kidney damage, but the case for that being a cause of his death is unproven.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=586–587}} In the days between his collapse and his death, Charles endured a variety of torturous treatments, including [[bloodletting]], [[laxative|purging]] and [[cupping therapy|cupping]], in the hope of effecting a recovery,{{sfn|Roberts|2015}} which may have exacerbated his uraemia through dehydration, rather than helping to alleviate it.<ref>{{citation |last1=Aronson |first1=J. K. |last2= Heneghan |first2=C. |title=The death of King Charles II |date=17 October 2018 |publisher=Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) |location=Oxford|url=https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/news/views/the-death-of-king-charles-ii |access-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>
On his deathbed, Charles asked his brother, James, to look after his mistresses: "be well to [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Portsmouth]], and let not poor [[Nell Gwyn|Nelly]] starve".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=456}}<!--This is a paraphrase used by Fraser--> He told his courtiers, "I am sorry, gentlemen, for being such a time a-dying",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} and expressed regret at his treatment of his wife. On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church, in the presence of Father [[John Huddleston]], though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed, and with whom the idea originated, is unclear.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}} He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] "without any manner of pomp"{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} on 14 February.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=459}}
Charles was succeeded by his brother James II and VII.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |publisher=royal.uk |access-date=7 May 2023}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
[[File:Charles II statue. Parliament Square Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Statue of Charles II as a Roman Caesar, erected 1685, [[Parliament Square, Edinburgh]]|alt=Lead equestrian statue]]
The escapades of Charles after his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] remained important to him throughout his life. He delighted and bored listeners with tales of his escape for many years. Numerous accounts of his adventures were published, particularly in the immediate aftermath of the Restoration. Though not averse to his escape being ascribed to divine providence, Charles himself seems to have delighted most in his ability to sustain his disguise as a man of ordinary origins, and to move unrecognised through his realm. Ironic and cynical, Charles took pleasure in stories that demonstrated the undetectable nature of any inherent majesty he possessed.{{sfn|Weber|1988|pages=492–493, 505–506}}
Charles had no legitimate children, but acknowledged a dozen by seven mistresses,{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=411}} including five by [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers, Lady Castlemaine]], for whom the [[Duke of Cleveland|Dukedom of Cleveland]] was created. His other mistresses included [[Moll Davis]], [[Nell Gwyn]], [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]], [[Catherine Pegge]], [[Lucy Walter]] and [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth]]. As a result, in his lifetime he was often nicknamed "[[Old Rowley]]", the name of his favourite racehorse, notable as a stallion.{{sfn|Pearson|1960|p=147}}
Charles's subjects resented paying taxes that were spent on his mistresses and their children,{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=338}} many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms. The present [[Duke of Buccleuch|Dukes of Buccleuch]], [[Duke of Richmond|Richmond]], [[Duke of Grafton|Grafton]] and [[Duke of St Albans|St Albans]] descend from Charles in unbroken male line.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=413}} Charles II is an ancestor of both [[King Charles III]]'s first wife, [[Diana, Princess of Wales]],{{efn|Diana was descended from two of Charles II's illegitimate sons: the [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Dukes of Grafton]] and [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Richmond]].}} and his second wife, [[Queen Camilla]]. Charles and Diana's son, [[William, Prince of Wales]], is likely to be the first British monarch descended from Charles II.
Charles's eldest son, the [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|Duke of Monmouth]], led a rebellion against James II, but was defeated at the [[Battle of Sedgemoor]] on 6 July 1685, captured and executed. James was eventually dethroned in 1688, in the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]].
[[File:Rhc-charles2.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Charles II (c. 1682) in ancient Roman dress by [[Grinling Gibbons]] at the [[Royal Hospital Chelsea]]|alt=Gilt statue]]
In the words of his contemporary [[John Evelyn]], "a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections, debonair, easy of access, not bloody or cruel".{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=382–383}} [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], wrote more lewdly of Charles:
{{Poem quote|Restless he rolls from whore to whore
A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=95}}}}
Looking back on Charles's reign, Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible [[despotism]]. Professor [[Ronald Hutton]] summarises a polarised historiography:
{{Poem quote|For the past hundred years, books on Charles II have been sharply divided into two categories. Academic historians have concentrated mainly on his activities as a statesman and emphasised his duplicity, self-indulgence, poor judgement and lack of an aptitude for business or for stable and trustworthy government. Non-academic authors have concentrated mainly on his social and cultural world, emphasising his charm, affability, worldliness, tolerance, turning him into one of the most popular of all English monarchs in novels, plays and films.<ref>{{citation|first=Ronald |last=Hutton|title=A Gambling Man: Charles II and the Restoration|journal=History Today|date=December 2009|volume=59|issue=12|pages=55+}}</ref>}}
Hutton says Charles was a popular king in his own day and a "legendary figure" in British history.
{{Poem quote|Other kings had inspired more respect, but perhaps only Henry VIII had endeared himself to the popular imagination as much as this one. He was the playboy monarch, naughty but nice, the hero of all who prized urbanity, tolerance, good humour, and the pursuit of pleasure above the more earnest, sober, or material virtues.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=446}}}}
The anniversary of the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] (which was also Charles's birthday)—29 May—was recognised in England until the mid-nineteenth century as [[Oak Apple Day]], after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell. Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=118}} Charles II is [[Cultural depictions of Charles II of England|depicted extensively in art, literature and media]]. [[Charleston, South Carolina]], and [[South Kingstown, Rhode Island]], are named after him. King Charles's Island and Charles Island are previous names of both [[Floreana Island]] and [[Española Island]] in the [[Galapagos Archipelago]], both in his honour.
== Titles, styles, honours and arms ==
=== Titles and styles ===
The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles II was "Charles the Second, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Monarchs of Scotland|Scotland]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc."<ref>''Guinness Book of Answers'' (1991), p. 708</ref> The [[English claims to the French throne|claim to France]] was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English monarch since [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.
=== Honours ===
* '''KG''': [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], ''21 May 1638''{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}
=== Arms ===
Charles's [[Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales|coat of arms as Prince of Wales]] was the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|royal arms]] (which he later inherited), differenced by a [[Label (heraldry)|label]] of three points [[Argent]].{{sfn|Ashmole|1715|p=534}} His arms as monarch were: [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], I and IV Grandquarterly, [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]] three [[fleurs-de-lis]] [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] (for France) and [[Gules]] three lions [[Attitude (heraldry)#Passant|passant guardant]] in [[Pale (heraldry)|pale]] Or ([[Royal Arms of England|for England]]); II Or a lion [[rampant]] within a double [[tressure]] flory-counter-flory Gules ([[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|for Scotland]]); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ([[Coat of arms of Ireland|for Ireland]]).
{| border="0" align="center" width="70%"
|-
!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of the Stuart Princes of Wales (1610-1688).svg|center|200px]]
!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of England (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]
!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of Scotland (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]
|-
|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms as Prince of Wales</div>
|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II as king (outside Scotland)</div>
|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II used as king in Scotland</div>
|}
==Issue==
By [[Lucy Walter]] (c. 1630 – 1658):
* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts, later Scott]] (1649–1685), created [[Duke of Monmouth]] (1663) in England and [[Duke of Buccleuch]] (1663) in Scotland. Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met, and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II, but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers, Colonel Robert Sidney, rather than Charles. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James in 1651, but Charles II was not the father, since he and Walter parted in September 1649.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}}
By [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]] (1622–1680), daughter of Sir [[Robert Killigrew]], married [[Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon]], in 1660:
* [[Charlotte FitzRoy, Countess of Yarmouth|Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy]] (1650–1684), married firstly [[James Howard (dramatist)|James Howard]] and secondly [[William Paston, 2nd Earl of Yarmouth]]
By [[Catherine Pegge]]:
* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth|Charles FitzCharles]] (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created [[Earl of Plymouth]] (1675)
* [[Catherine FitzCharles]] (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk){{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=125}}
By [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers]] (1641–1709), wife of [[Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine]], and created [[Duke of Cleveland|Duchess of Cleveland]] in her own right:
* [[Anne Lennard, Countess of Sussex|Lady Anne Palmer (Fitzroy)]] (1661–1722), married [[Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex]]. She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her.{{sfn|Cokayne|1926|pp=706–708}}
* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland|Charles Fitzroy]] (1662–1730), created [[Duke of Southampton]] (1675), became 2nd [[Duke of Cleveland]] (1709)
* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Henry Fitzroy]] (1663–1690), created [[Earl of Euston]] (1672), [[Duke of Grafton]] (1675)
* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield|Charlotte Fitzroy]] (1664–1717), married [[Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield]]
* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland|George Fitzroy]] (1665–1716), created [[Earl of Northumberland]] (1674), [[Duke of Northumberland]] (1678)
* ([[Lady Barbara FitzRoy|Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy]] (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of [[John Churchill]], later [[Dukes of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], who was another of Cleveland's many lovers,{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=97, 123}} and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=65, 286}})
By [[Nell Gwyn]] (1650–1687):
* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans|Charles Beauclerk]] (1670–1726), created [[Duke of St Albans]] (1684)
* James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)
[[File:Mignard, Louise de Kérouaille.jpg|thumb|Louise de Kérouaille with unknown attendant, painted in France by [[Pierre Mignard]], 1682<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw05102/Louise-de-Kroualle-Duchess-of-Portsmouth-with-an-unknown-female-attendant|title=Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth with an unknown female attendant|publisher=National Portrait Gallery|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref>]]
By [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille]] (1649–1734), created [[Duke of Portsmouth|Duchess of Portsmouth]] in her own right (1673):
* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Charles Lennox]] (1672–1723), created [[Duke of Richmond]] (1675) in England and [[Duke of Lennox]] (1675) in Scotland.
By [[Moll Davis|Mary 'Moll' Davis]], courtesan and actress of repute:{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=287}}
* [[Lady Mary Tudor]] (1673–1726), married [[Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater]]; after Edward's death, she married [[Henry Graham (of Levens)]], and upon his death she married James Rooke.
Other probable mistresses include:
* Christabella Wyndham<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref>
* [[Hortense Mancini]], Duchess of Mazarin<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=341–342}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=336}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=228}}.</ref>
* [[Winifred Wells]] – one of Queen Catherine's Maids of Honour<ref name="mrs">{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=285}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=262}}.</ref>
* Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman<ref name="mrs"/>
* Mrs Knight – a famous singer{{sfn|BBC staff|2003}}
* [[Elizabeth, Countess of Falmouth|Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth]] – the widow of [[Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth]]<ref name="mrs"/>{{sfn|Melville|2005|p=91}}
* Elizabeth Fitzgerald, [[Earl of Kildare|Countess of Kildare]]<ref name="mrs"/>
Letters claiming that Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret bore Charles a son named [[James de la Cloche]] in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=43–44}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=25}}.</ref>
== Genealogical tables==
{{chart top|The House of Stuart and their relations<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=5}}.</ref>}}
{{chart/start|align=center}}
{{chart |border=0| | | | | | | |James|y|Anne| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Henry|y|Marie|James=[[James I of England]]<br />1566–1625|Anne=[[Anne of Denmark]]<br>1574–1619|Henry=[[Henry IV of France]]<br>1553–1610|Marie=[[Marie de' Medici]]<br>1575–1642}}
{{chart |border=0| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}
{{chart |border=0| | |Elizabeth| | | | | | | | | | | |Charles|y|Henrietta| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Louis| | | |Charles=[[Charles I of England]]<br />1600–1649|Elizabeth=[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia|Elizabeth]]<br />1596–1662|Henrietta=[[Henrietta Maria of France]]<br>1609–1669|Louis=[[Louis XIII of France]]<br>1601–1643}}
{{chart|border=0| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}
{{chart|border=0|Rupert| |Sophia| | Charles| |Mary|y|William| |Anne|y|James|y|Maria| |Henrietta|y|Philip| |Louis|Anne=[[Anne Hyde]]<br />1637–1671|James=[[James II of England]]<br />1633–1701|Maria=[[Mary of Modena]]<br />1658–1718|Mary=[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]]<br />1631–1660|Charles=Charles II of England<br />1630–1685|Sophia=[[Sophia of Hanover]]<br />1630–1714|Henrietta=[[Henrietta of England|Henrietta]]<br>1644–1670|Older=''[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia#Issue|Older children]]''|William=[[William II of Orange]]<br>1626–1650|Philip=[[Philip I of Orléans]]<br>1640–1701|Louis=[[Louis XIV of France]]<br>1638–1715|Rupert=[[Rupert of the Rhine]]<br>1619–1682}}
{{chart |border=0| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | |}}
{{chart |border=0| | | | |George| | | | | | | |William|~|Mary| |Anne| |James| | | |Marie| |AnneM| | | | | |Anne=[[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne of Great Britain]]<br />1665–1714|Mary=[[Mary II of England]]<br />1662–1694|William=[[William III of England]]<br />1650–1702|George=[[George I of Great Britain]]<br />1660–1727|James=[[James Francis Edward]]<br />1688–1766|Monmouth=[[James, Duke of Monmouth]]<br>1649–1685|Marie=[[Marie Louise of Orléans]]<br>1662–1689|AnneM=[[Anne Marie of Orléans]]<br>1669–1728}}
{{chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}
{{Charles II's children}}
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}
=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Airy |first=Osmund |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027987167/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Charles II |date=1904 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |location=London |hdl=2027/uc1.$b674296 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ashmole |first=Elias |title=The History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter |date=1715 |publisher=Bell, Taylor, Baker and Collins |location=London |author-link=Elias Ashmole}}
* {{Cite book |last=BBC staff |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |title=Charles II and the women who bore his children |date=October 2003 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040414082540/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2004 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |title=Bombay: History of a City |publisher=The British Library Board |ref={{harvid|British Library Learning}} |access-date=19 April 2010 |archive-date=25 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625131303/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |url-status=dead }}
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* {{Cite book |title=The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707 |date=2007–2017 |publisher=University of St Andrews |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=K. M. |chapter=Proclamation: of King Charles II, 5 January 1649 (NAS. PA2/24, f.97r-97v.) |ref={{SfnRef|RPS}} |access-date=5 August 2016 |display-editors=et al |chapter-url=http://www.rps.ac.uk/search.php?action=fetch_jump&filename=charlesi_ms&jump=charlesi_t1649_1_70_d5_trans&type=ms&fragment=m1649_1_71_d6_ms }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Mark |title=Private Lives |date=2001 |publisher=Cassell |isbn=0-304-35758-8 |location=London}}
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=East India Company |volume=8 |pages=834–835 |mode=cs2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cokayne |first=George E. |title=The Complete Peerage |date=1926 |publisher=St Catherine Press |others=Revised and enlarged by Gibbs, Vicary; Edited by Doubleday, H. A., Warrand, D., and de Walden, Lord Howard |volume=VI |location=London |chapter=Appendix F. Bastards of Charles II |author-link=George Cokayne}}
* {{Cite book |title=Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne |date=1885 |publisher=Clarendon Press for the Oxford Historical Society |editor-last=Doble |editor-first=C. E. |volume=1 |location=Oxford}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Falkus |first=Christopher |title=The Life and Times of Charles II |date=1972 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-99427-1 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |title=King Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-77571-5 |location=London |author-link=Antonia Fraser}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haley |first=K.H.D. |title=Politics in the Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=0-631-13928-1 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=UK}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.hbc.com/hbcheritage/collections/archival/charter |title=The Royal Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company |author=[[Hudson's Bay Company]] |ref={{sfnRef|Hudson's Bay Company|2017}} }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/charlessecondkin00hutt |title=Charles II: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland |date=1989 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-822911-9 |location=Oxford |author-link=Ronald Hutton |url-access=registration }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906a |publisher=Dent & Sons |volume=1 |location=London |orig-date=1669 |author-link=Samuel Pepys }}
** {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906b |publisher=Dent & Sons |author-mask=2 |volume=2 |location=London |orig-date=1669 }}
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* {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1672: An Act for preventing Dangers which may happen from Popish Recusants |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47451 }}
** {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819a |editor-mask=2 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1678: (Stat. 2.) An Act for the more effectuall preserving the Kings Person and Government by disableing Papists from sitting in either House of Parlyament |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47482 }}
* {{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Jacob |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/tryals-and-tribulations |title=Tryals and tribulations |date=Fall 2015 |work=Distillations Magazine |volume=1 |pages=14–15 |access-date=22 March 2018 |issue=3 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Scott |first1=C. L. |title=Edgehill – The Battle Reinterpreted |last2=Turton |first2=A. |last3=von Arni |first3=E. G. |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |year=2004}}
* {{Cite ODNB |last=Seaward |first=Paul|date=2004 |id=5144 |title=Charles II (1630–1685) |mode=cs2 |freearticle=y}}
* {{Cite book |last=The Royal Household |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesII.aspx |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |date=2009 |publisher=Official website of the British Monarchy |access-date=19 April 2010 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Uglow |first=Jenny |title=A Gambling Man: Charles II's Restoration Game |date=2009 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21733-5 |author-link=Jenny Uglow}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=Harold |title=Representations of the King: Charles II and His Escape from Worcester |date=1988 |journal=Studies in Philology |volume=85 |pages=489–509 |issue=4 |jstor=4174319}}
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* {{Cite ODNB |last=Wynne |first=S. M. |date=2004 |id=4894 |title=Catherine (1638–1705) |mode=cs2}}
{{Refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Edie |first=Carolyn |date=1965 |title=Succession and Monarchy: The Controversy of 1679–1681 |journal=American Historical Review |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=350–370 |doi=10.2307/1845634 |jstor=1845634}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David C. |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham: The Merry Monarch and the Aristocratic Rogue |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton |isbn=0-7509-3916-8 |location=Stroud |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Tim |title=Restoration: Charles II and His Kingdoms, 1660–1685 |date=2005 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=0-7139-9191-7 |location=London |author-link=Timothy J. G. Harris}}
* {{Cite book |last=Keay |first=Anna |title=The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power |date=2008 |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |isbn=978-1-84725-225-8 |location=London |author-link=Anna Keay}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=J. P. |author-link=John Philipps Kenyon |date=1957 |title=Review Article: The Reign of Charles II |journal=Cambridge Historical Journal |volume=XIII |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1017/S1474691300000068}}
* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=John |title=Restoration England: The Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-35396-3 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reign of Charles II |date=1934 |publisher=Oxford University Press|author-link=David Ogg (historian)}}
** {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reigns of James II and William III |date=1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=David Ogg (historian) |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Escape of Charles II After the Battle of Worcester |date=1966 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London}}
** {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Image of the King: Charles I and Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |title=King Charles Preserved: An Account of his Escape after the Battle of Worcester dictated by the King Himself to Samuel Pepys |date=1956 |publisher=The Rodale Press |location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania}}. Dictated in 1680.
* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Derek |title=All The King's Women: Love, Sex and Politics in the Life of Charles II |date=2003 |publisher=Hutchinson |isbn=0-09-179379-3 |location=London}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Charles II. (King of England) |display=Charles II. | volume= 5 |last= Yorke | first= Philip Chesney |author-link= | pages = 912–916 }}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{sister project links|d=|c=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=yes|wikt=no|n=no|q=yes}}
* [https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii Charles II] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]]
* [https://www.rct.uk/collection/people/charles-ii-king-of-great-britain-1630-85#/type/subject Charles II] at the official website of the [[Royal Collection Trust]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml Charles II] at BBC History
* {{NPG name|name=King Charles II}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Stuart]]|29 May|1630|6 February|1685}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef|rows=1|before=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1649–1651}}
{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}
|-
{{S-break}}
{{S-vac|rows=1|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]|reason=[[English Interregnum]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1660–1685}}
{{S-aft|rows=2|after=[[James II of England|James II & VII]]}}
|-
{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1660–1685}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-roy|gb}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-vac|rows=2|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Cornwall]]<br />[[Duke of Rothesay]]|years=1630–1649}}
{{S-vac|rows=2|next=[[James Francis Edward]]}}
|-
{{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1638–1649}}
{{s-end}}
{{English, Scottish and British monarchs}}
{{Pictish and Scottish Monarchs}}
{{Princes of Wales}}
{{Dukes of Cornwall}}
{{Dukes of Rothesay}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Charles 02 Of England}}
[[Category:Charles II of England| ]]
[[Category:1630 births]]
[[Category:1685 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century English monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century English nobility]]
[[Category:17th-century Irish monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Scottish peers]]
[[Category:British expatriates in the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:Children of Charles I of England]]
[[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Dukes of Cornwall]]
[[Category:Dukes of Rothesay]]
[[Category:English pretenders to the French throne]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Lord High Stewards of Scotland]]
[[Category:House of Stuart]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Lord High Admirals of England]]
[[Category:People from Westminster]]
[[Category:People of the English Civil War]]
[[Category:English princes]]
[[Category:Princes of Scotland]]
[[Category:Princes of Wales]]
[[Category:Sons of kings]]
[[Category:People of the War of Devolution]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,394 +1,3 @@
-{{short description|King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1660 to 1685}}
-{{Featured article}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
-{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
-{{Infobox royalty
-| name = Charles II
-| image = King Charles II by John Michael Wright or studio.jpg
-| caption = Charles in [[Garter robes]], {{circa|1660–1665}}
-| alt = Charles is of thin build and has chest-length curly black hair
-| succession = [[King of England]], [[List of Scottish monarchs|Scotland]] and [[List of Irish monarchs|Ireland]]
-| moretext = ([[Style of the British sovereign#Styles of English and Scottish sovereigns|more...]])
-| reign = 29 May 1660{{efn|name=reign|The traditional date of the Restoration marking the first assembly of King and Parliament together since the abolition of the English monarchy in 1649. The English Parliament recognised Charles as king by unanimous vote on 2 May 1660, and he was proclaimed king in London on 8 May, although royalists had recognised him as such since the execution of his father on 30 January 1649. During Charles's reign all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if his reign began at his father's death.}} –<br />6 February 1685
-| predecessor = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]
-| successor = [[James II of England|James II & VII]]
-| coronation = 23 April 1661
-| cor-type = <!-- Britain -->
-| succession1 = [[King of Scotland]]
-| reign1 = 30 January 1649 –<br /> 3 September 1651{{efn|From the death of his father to his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]]}}
-| predecessor1 = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]
-| successor1 = ''Military government''
-| coronation1 = 1 January 1651
-| cor-type1 = [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|Coronation]]
-| spouse = {{marriage|[[Catherine of Braganza]]|1662}}
-| issue = {{plainlist|
-* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]]
-* [[Charlotte Paston, Countess of Yarmouth]]
-* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth]]
-* [[Catherine FitzCharles]]
-* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland]]
-* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton]]
-* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield]]
-* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland]]
-* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans]]
-* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond]]
-* [[Lady Mary Tudor]]}}
-| issue-link = #Issue
-| issue-type = Illegitimate children
-| house = [[House of Stuart|Stuart]]
-| father = [[Charles I of England]]
-| mother = [[Henrietta Maria of France]]
-| birth_date = 29 May 1630<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 8 June 1630)
-| birth_place = [[St James's Palace]], Westminster, England
-| death_date = 6 February 1685 (aged 54)<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 16 February 1685)
-| death_place = [[Whitehall Palace]], Westminster, England
-| burial_date = 14 February 1685
-| burial_place = [[Westminster Abbey]], England
-| signature = CharlesIISig.svg
-}}
-
-'''Charles II''' (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685){{efn|All dates in this article unless otherwise noted are given in the [[Julian calendar]] with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see [[Old Style and New Style dates]]).}} was [[King of Scotland]] from 1649 until 1651 and King of [[King of England|England]], Scotland, and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]] from the [[Stuart Restoration|1660 Restoration]] of the monarchy until his death in 1685.
-
-Charles II was the eldest surviving child of [[Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland]] and [[Henrietta Maria of France]]. After [[Charles I's execution]] at [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]] on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the [[English Civil War]], the [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as the [[English Interregnum]] or the [[English Commonwealth]], with a government led by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651, and Charles [[Escape of Charles II|fled to mainland Europe]]. Cromwell became [[Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the [[Dutch Republic]] and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the [[Stuart Restoration|restoration of the monarchy]] in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649.
-
-[[Cavalier Parliament|Charles's English parliament]] enacted the [[Clarendon Code]], to shore up the position of the [[Established Church|re-established]] [[Church of England]]. Charles acquiesced to these new laws even though he favoured a policy of [[religious tolerance]]. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. In 1670, he entered into the [[Treaty of Dover]], an alliance with his cousin, King [[Louis XIV of France]]. Louis agreed to aid him in the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to [[Catholicism]] at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce [[religious freedom]] for Catholics and Protestant [[dissenter]]s with his [[1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], but the [[English Parliament]] forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, [[Titus Oates]]'s fabrication of a supposed [[Popish Plot]] sparked the [[Exclusion Crisis]] when it was revealed that Charles's brother and [[heir presumptive]], [[James, Duke of York]], had become a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion [[British Whig Party|Whig]] and anti-exclusion [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] parties. Charles sided with the Tories and, after the discovery of the [[Rye House Plot]] to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685.
-
-Following his restoration, Charles became known for his affability and friendliness, and for allowing his subjects easy access to his person. However, he also showed an almost impenetrable reserve, especially concerning his political agendas. His court gained a reputation for moral laxity.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=361–363}} Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] produced no surviving children, but the king acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James.
-
-== Early life, civil war and exile ==
-[[File:Charles II Prince of Wales Egmont.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Charles as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to [[Justus van Egmont]]|alt=Baby in white christening robe]]
-
-Charles was born at [[St James's Palace]] on 29 May 1630, eldest surviving son of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], king of [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], and his wife [[Henrietta Maria]], sister of [[Louis XIII of France]]. Charles was their second child (the first being a son born about a year before, who had died within a day).{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} He was baptised on 27 June in the [[Chapel Royal]] by [[William Laud]], a future [[archbishop of Canterbury]], and during his infancy was supervised by the Protestant [[Edward Sackville, 4th Earl of Dorset#Family|Countess of Dorset]]. His godparents included his maternal uncle Louis XIII and maternal grandmother, [[Marie de' Medici]], the Dowager Queen of France, both of whom were Catholics.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp= 1–4}}.</ref> At birth, Charles automatically became [[Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Duke of Rothesay]], and the possessor of several other associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated [[Prince of Wales]], though he was never formally invested.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}
-
-In August 1642, the long-running dispute between Charles I and [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] culminated in the outbreak of the [[First English Civil War]]. In October, Prince Charles and his younger brother [[James II of England|James]] were present at the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and spent the next two years based in the [[Cavalier|Royalist]] capital of [[Oxford]]. In January 1645, Charles was given his own Council and made titular head of Royalist forces in the [[West Country]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=6–7}}.</ref> By spring 1646, most of the region had been occupied by [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] forces and Charles went into exile to avoid capture. From [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], he went first to the [[Isles of Scilly]], then to [[Jersey]], and finally to France, where his mother was already living under the protection of his first cousin, the eight-year-old [[Louis XIV]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=6}}.</ref> Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646.
-
-During the [[Second English Civil War]] in 1648, Charles moved to [[The Hague]], where his sister [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]] and his brother-in-law [[William II, Prince of Orange]], seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the Royalist cause than his mother's French relations.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=55–56}} Although part of the Parliamentarian fleet defected, it did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the Royalist [[Engager]] army led by the [[James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] before it was defeated at [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Preston]] by the [[New Model Army]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=57–60}}
-
-[[File:William Dobson - Charles II, 1630 - 1685. King of Scots 1649 - 1685. King of England and Ireland 1660 - 1685 (When Prince of Wales, with a page) - Google Art Project.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|Portrait by [[William Dobson]], c. 1642 or 1643|alt=Charles as a boy with shoulder-length black hair and standing in a martial pose]]
-
-At The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with [[Lucy Walter]], who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=65–66, 155}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref> Her son, [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts]] (afterwards [[Duke of Monmouth]] and [[Duke of Buccleuch]]), was one of Charles's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}} Despite his son's diplomatic efforts to save him, the [[execution of Charles I]] took place in January 1649, and England became a [[Commonwealth of England|republic]]. On 5 February, the [[Covenanter]] [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II as "King of Great Britain, France and Ireland" at the [[Mercat Cross, Edinburgh]],{{sfn|RPS|loc=1649/1/71}} but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he agreed to establish [[Presbyterianism]] as the [[state religion]] in all three of his kingdoms.
-
-When negotiations with the Scots stalled, Charles authorised [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Lord Montrose]] to land in the [[Orkney Islands]] with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion, in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking. Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise, and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway. He was captured and executed. Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a [[Treaty of Breda (1650)|treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament]] at [[Breda]], and support the [[Solemn League and Covenant]], which authorised [[Presbyterian church governance]] across Britain. Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650, he formally agreed to the Covenant; his abandonment of [[Episcopy|Episcopal]] church governance, although winning him support in Scotland, left him unpopular in England. Charles himself soon came to despise the "villainy" and "hypocrisy" of the Covenanters.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=53}}.</ref> Charles was provided with a Scottish court, and the record of his [[Food and the Scottish royal household|food and household expenses]] at [[Falkland Palace]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] survives.<ref>David Stevenson, 'Minute Book of the Board of Green Cloth', ''Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, XV'' (Edinburgh, 2013), pp. 55–132.</ref>
-
-[[File:Cast gold medal of Charles II Stuart.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Cast gold coronation medal of Charles II, dated 1651]]
-
-Charles's Scottish coronation led to the [[Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)| Anglo-Scottish War]] of 1650 to 1652. On 3 September 1650, the Covenanters were defeated at [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] by a much smaller force commanded by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The Scots were divided between moderate Engagers and the more radical [[Kirk Party]], who even fought each other. Disillusioned by these divisions, Charles rode north to join an Engager force in October, an event which became known as "the Start", but within two days members of the Kirk Party had recovered him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=96–97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=56–57}}.</ref> Nevertheless, the Scots remained Charles's best hope of restoration, and he was [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|crowned King of Scotland]] at [[Scone Abbey]] on 1 January 1651. With Cromwell's forces threatening Charles's position in Scotland, it was decided to mount an attack on England, but many of their most experienced soldiers had been excluded on religious grounds by the Kirk Party, whose leaders also refused to participate, among them [[Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll|Lord Argyll]]. Opposition to what was primarily a Scottish army meant few English Royalists joined as it moved south, and the invasion ended in defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651. [[Escape of Charles II|Charles managed to escape]] and landed in [[Normandy]] six weeks later on 16 October, even though there was a reward of £1,000 on his head, anyone caught helping him was at risk of being put to death, and he was difficult to disguise, being over {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}}, which was unusually tall for the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=98–128}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=53–69}}.</ref>{{efn|One thousand pounds was a vast sum at the time, greater than an average workman's lifetime earnings.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=117}} }}
-
-[[File:Charles II (de Champaigne).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Charles in exile, painted by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], c. 1653]]
-
-Under the [[Instrument of Government]] passed by Parliament, Cromwell was appointed [[Lord Protector#Cromwellian Commonwealth|Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653, effectively placing the [[British Isles]] under military rule. Charles lived a life of leisure at [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] near Paris,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=54}} living on a grant from Louis XIV of 600 [[French livre|livres]] a month.<ref>[http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/charles2.htm Charles II of England]. Excerpted from: Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Vol XV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. 142.</ref> Charles could not obtain sufficient finance or support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government. Despite the [[Stuart family]] connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange, France and the [[Dutch Republic]] allied themselves with Cromwell's government from 1654, forcing Charles to leave France and turn to Spain for aid, which at that time ruled the [[Southern Netherlands]].{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=74–112}}
-
-Charles made the [[Treaty of Brussels (1656)|Treaty of Brussels]] with Spain in 1656. This gathered Spanish support for a restoration in return for Charles's contribution to the war against France. Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects; this small, underpaid, poorly-equipped and ill-disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post-Restoration army.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=156–157}} The Commonwealth made the [[Treaty of Paris (1657)|Treaty of Paris]] with France in 1657 to join them in war against Spain in the Netherlands. Royalist supporters in the Spanish force were led by Charles's younger brother [[James, Duke of York]].<ref>Childs, John. ''Army of Charles II''. Routledge, 2013 p. 2</ref> At the [[Battle of the Dunes (1658)|Battle of the Dunes]] in 1658, as part of the larger Spanish force, Charles's army of around 2,000 clashed with Commonwealth troops fighting with the French. By the end of the battle Charles's force was about 1,000 and with Dunkirk given to the English the prospect of a Royalist expedition to England was dashed.<ref>Tucker, S ''Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict'' p. 212</ref>
-
-== Restoration ==
-{{further|Stuart Restoration}}
-After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, Charles's initial chances of regaining the Crown seemed slim; Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. However, the new Lord Protector had little experience of either military or civil administration. In 1659, the [[Rump Parliament]] was recalled and Richard Cromwell resigned. During the civil and military unrest that followed, [[George Monck]], the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=160–165}} Monck and his army marched into the [[City of London]], and forced the Rump Parliament to re-admit members of the [[Long Parliament]] who had been excluded in December 1648, during [[Pride's Purge]]. Parliament dissolved itself, and there was a general election for the first time in almost 20 years.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], 16 March 1660.</ref> The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications intending to bring about the return of a Presbyterian majority.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}}
-
-The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored, and the elections resulted in a [[Parliament of England|House of Commons]] that was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between [[Anglicans]] and Presbyterians.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}} The so-called [[Convention Parliament (1660)|Convention Parliament]] assembled on 25 April 1660, and soon afterwards welcomed the [[Declaration of Breda]], in which Charles promised lenience and tolerance. There would be liberty of conscience, and Anglican church policy would not be harsh. He would not exile past enemies nor confiscate their wealth. There would be pardons for nearly all his opponents except the [[regicides]]. Above all, Charles promised to rule in cooperation with Parliament.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=5}} The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return, a message that reached Charles at [[Breda]] on 8 May 1660.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=131}} In Ireland, a [[Irish Convention (1660)|convention]] had been called earlier in the year and had already declared for Charles. On 14 May, he was proclaimed king in Dublin.{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}
-[[File:The arrival of King Charles II of England in Rotterdam, may 24 1660 (Lieve Pietersz. Verschuier, 1665).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Seascape of vessels along a low-lying coastline|Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by [[Lieve Verschuier]].]]
-
-Charles set out for England from [[Scheveningen]], arrived in [[Dover]] on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May, his 30th birthday. Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to nearly all of Cromwell's supporters in the [[Act of Indemnity and Oblivion]], 50 people were specifically excluded.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=190}} In the end nine of the [[List of regicides of Charles I|regicides]] were executed:{{sfn|The Royal Household|2009}} they were [[hanged, drawn and quartered]], whereas others were given life imprisonment or excluded from office for life. The bodies of Oliver Cromwell, [[Henry Ireton]] and [[John Bradshaw (Judge)|John Bradshaw]] were subjected to [[posthumous execution|posthumous decapitations]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=185}}
-
-The English Parliament granted Charles an annual income to run the government of £1.2 million,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} generated largely from customs and excise duties. The grant, however, proved to be insufficient for most of Charles's reign. For the most part, the actual revenue was much lower, which led to attempts to economise at court by reducing the size and expenses of the [[royal household]]{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} and raising money through unpopular innovations such as the [[hearth tax]].{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}
-
-In the latter half of 1660, Charles's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his siblings [[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry]] and Mary of [[smallpox]]. At around the same time, [[Anne Hyde]], the daughter of Lord Chancellor [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Edward Hyde]], revealed that she was pregnant by Charles's brother James, whom she had secretly married. Edward Hyde, who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy, was created [[Earl of Clarendon]] and his position as Charles's favourite minister was strengthened.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=210–202}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=155–156}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp= 43–44}}.</ref>
-
-=== Clarendon Code ===
-[[File:Charles II by John Michael Wright.jpg|thumb|Coronation portrait: Charles was crowned at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 23 April 1661.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], [http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html 23 April 1661] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429202445/http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html |date=29 April 2018 }}</ref>|alt=Charles wearing a crown and ermine-lined robe]]
-The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660, and, shortly after Charles's [[Coronation of the British monarch|English coronation]], the second English Parliament of the reign assembled. Dubbed the [[Cavalier Parliament]], it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican. It sought to discourage [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|non-conformity]] to the [[Church of England]] and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance. The [[Corporation Act 1661]] required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=169}} the [[Act of Uniformity 1662]] made the use of the [[Book of Common Prayer (1662)|1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'']] compulsory; the [[Conventicle Act 1664]] prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people, except under the auspices of the Church of England; and the [[Five Mile Act 1665]] prohibited expelled non-conforming clergymen from coming within five miles (8 km) of a parish from which they had been banished. The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles's reign. The Acts became known as the [[Clarendon Code]], after Lord Clarendon, even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=229}}
-
-The Restoration was accompanied by social change. [[Puritanism]] lost its momentum. Theatres reopened after having been closed during the [[Interregnum (England)|protectorship]] of Oliver Cromwell, and bawdy "[[Restoration comedy]]" became a recognisable genre. Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by "their natural performers", rather than by boys as was often the practice before;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=185}} and [[Restoration literature]] celebrated or reacted to the restored court, which included [[libertine]]s such as [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester|Lord Rochester]]. Of Charles II, Rochester supposedly said:
-
-{{Poemquote|We have a pretty, witty king,
-Whose word no man relies on,
-He never said a foolish thing,
-And never did a wise one<ref>Papers of [[Thomas Hearne (antiquarian)|Thomas Hearne]] (17 November 1706) quoted in {{harvnb|Doble|1885|p=308}}.</ref>}}
-
-To which Charles is reputed to have replied "that the matter was easily accounted for: For that his discourse was his own, his actions were the ministry's".{{sfn|Hume|1778|p=212}}
-
-=== Great Plague and Great Fire ===
-In 1665, the [[Great Plague of London]] began, peaking in September with up to 7,000 deaths per week.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=238}} Charles, his family, and the court fled London in July to [[Salisbury]]; Parliament met in [[Oxford]].{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=120}} Plague cases ebbed over the winter, and Charles returned to London in February 1666.{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=105}}
-
-After a long spell of hot and dry weather through mid-1666, the [[Great Fire of London]] started on 2 September 1666 in [[Pudding Lane]]. Fanned by strong winds and fed by wood and fuel stockpiled for winter, the fire destroyed about 13,200 houses and 87 churches, including [[St Paul's Cathedral]].{{sfn|Porter|2007}} Charles and his brother James joined and directed the firefighting effort. The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=243–247}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=121–122}}.</ref>
-
-== Foreign policy and marriage ==
-[[File:English School - King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza.png|300px|thumb|Charles and Catherine]]
-Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a [[Portuguese Restoration War|war against Spain]] to restore its independence after a [[dynastic union]] of sixty years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] began during his father's reign and upon the restoration, [[Luisa de Guzmán|Queen Luísa of Portugal]], acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance.<ref>Clyde L. Gros, "The Anglo-Portuguese Marriage of 1662" ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 10#3 (1930), pp. 313–352 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506378 online]</ref> On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed; England acquired Catherine's [[dowry]] of the port of [[Portuguese Tangier|Tangier]] in North Africa, the [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] in India (which had a major influence on the development of the [[British Empire]]), valuable trading privileges in Brazil and the [[East Indies]], religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns (equivalent to £300,000 then{{efn|Equivalent to between £42.7 million (real cost) and £12.7 billion (economic share) as of 2021.<ref>"Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present", [https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth], 2023</ref>}}); while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} Catherine journeyed from Portugal to [[Portsmouth]] on 13–14 May 1662,{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies—a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}}
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-The same year, in an unpopular move, Charles [[Sale of Dunkirk|sold Dunkirk]] to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=93, 99}} The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances, as it cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=184}}
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-[[File:CharlesII1667Medal.jpg|thumb|left|Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by [[John Roettier]] to commemorate the [[Second Dutch War]]|alt=Obverse of medal]]
-Before Charles's restoration, the [[Navigation Acts]] of 1650 had hurt [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the [[First Dutch War]] (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] appeared in November 1660 with the [[Dutch Gift]].{{sfn|Israel|1998|pp=749–750}} The [[Second Dutch War]] (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]], but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on England (the [[Raid on the Medway]]) when they sailed up the [[River Thames]] to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, [[HMS Royal Charles (1655)|''Royal Charles'']], which was taken back to the Netherlands as a [[Prize (law)|prize]].{{efn|The ship's [[Transom (nautical)|transom]] is on display at the [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam.}} The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]].
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-As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=250–251}} Clarendon fled to France when impeached for [[high treason]] (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical<!--Macaulay, (1849) ''The History of England from the Accession of James II'', p.152--> [[acronym]] as the [[Cabal]]—[[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford|Clifford]], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Arlington]], [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Buckingham]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury)]] and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Lauderdale]]. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=254}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=175–176}}.</ref>
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-In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden, and with its former enemy the Netherlands, to oppose Louis XIV in the [[War of Devolution]]. Louis made peace with the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]], but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the [[Treaty of Dover]], under which Louis would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=275}} Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=275–276}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p= 180}}.</ref> It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert.<ref>For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, {{harvnb|Seaward|2004}}; for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}}.</ref>
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-Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the [[East India Company]] the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and [[criminal jurisdiction]] over its possessions in the Indies.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=835}} Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of [[Bombay]] to the company for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.{{sfn|British Library Learning}} The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain; [[English Tangier|Tangier]] was abandoned in 1684.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=426}} In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire [[Hudson Bay]] drainage basin to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] by royal charter, and named the territory [[Rupert's Land]], after his cousin [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]], the company's first governor.{{sfn|''Hudson's Bay Company''|2017}}
-
-== Conflict with Parliament ==
-Although previously favourable to the Crown, the Cavalier Parliament was alienated by the king's wars and religious policies during the 1670s. In 1672, Charles issued the [[Declaration of Indulgence (1672)|Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], in which he purported to suspend all [[penal law (Britain)|penal laws]] against Catholics and other religious dissenters. In the same year, he openly supported Catholic France and started the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=305–308}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=284–285}}.</ref>
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-The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the king had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament. Charles withdrew the Declaration, and also agreed to the [[Test Act]], which not only required public officials to receive the [[Eucharist|sacrament]] under the forms prescribed by the Church of England,{{sfn|Raithby|1819|pp=782–785}} but also later forced them to denounce [[transubstantiation]] and the Catholic Mass as "superstitious and idolatrous".{{sfn|Raithby|1819a| pp=894–896}} Clifford, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned rather than take the oath, and died shortly after, possibly from suicide.
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-By 1674, England had gained nothing from the Anglo-Dutch War, and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. The power of the Cabal waned and that of Clifford's replacement, [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|Lord Danby]] grew, as did opposition towards him and the court. Politicians and peers believed that Charles II favoured a pro-French foreign policy that desired to emulate the absolutist (and Catholic) sovereignty of Louis XIV. In numerous pamphlets and parliamentary speeches between 1675 and 1678, "popery and arbitrary government" were decried for fear of the loss of English liberties and freedoms.<ref>{{citation|last=Mansfield|first=Andrew|date=3 September 2021|title=The First Earl of Shaftesbury's Resolute Conscience and Aristocratic Constitutionalism|journal=The Historical Journal|volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=969–991|doi=10.1017/s0018246x21000662|issn=0018-246X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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-[[File:Charles-pineapple.jpg|thumb|right|Charles was presented with the first [[pineapple]] grown in England in 1675. Painting by [[Hendrick Danckerts]].|alt=Charles accepts a pineapple from a kneeling man in front of a grand country house]]
-Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir; her four pregnancies had ended in [[miscarriage]]s and [[stillbirth]]s in 1662, February 1666, May 1668, and June 1669.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} Charles's [[heir presumptive]] was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Partly to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic, Charles agreed that James's daughter, [[Mary II of England|Mary]], should marry the Protestant [[William III of England|William of Orange]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=347–348}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=345–346}}.</ref> In 1678, [[Titus Oates]], who had been alternately an Anglican and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest, falsely warned of a "[[Popish Plot]]" to assassinate the king, even accusing the queen of complicity. Charles did not believe the allegations, but ordered his chief minister Lord Danby to investigate. While Danby seems to have been rightly sceptical about Oates's claims, the Cavalier Parliament took them seriously.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=359–362}} The people were seized with an anti-Catholic hysteria;{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=360}} judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators; numerous innocent individuals were executed.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=375}}
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-Later in 1678, Danby was impeached by the House of Commons on the charge of [[high treason]]. Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France, Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV, trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money. Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France, but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles's wishes. Unfortunately for him, the House of Commons failed to view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal, instead believing that he was the author of the policy. To save Danby from the impeachment trial, Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=278, 301–304}}
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-The new English Parliament, which met in March of the same year, was quite hostile to Charles. Many members feared that he had intended to use the standing army to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism. However, with insufficient funds voted by Parliament, Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops. Having lost the support of Parliament, Danby resigned his post of [[Lord High Treasurer]], but received a pardon from the king. In defiance of the royal will, the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings, and that the pardon was therefore invalid. When the [[House of Lords]] attempted to impose the punishment of exile—which the Commons thought too mild—the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses. As he had been required to do so many times during his reign, Charles bowed to the wishes of his opponents, committing Danby to the [[Tower of London]], in which he was held for another five years.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=367–374}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=306–309}}.</ref>
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-== Science ==
-[[File:King Charles II of England (1630-1685).TIF|thumb|Portrait by [[John Riley (painter)|John Riley]], {{Circa|1683–1684}}|alt=Oil portrait of Charles with heavy jowls, a wig of long black curls and in a suit of armour]]
-In Charles's early childhood, [[William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle]], was governor of the royal household and Brian Duppa, the [[Dean of Christ Church, Oxford]], was his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}} Neither man thought that the study of science subjects was appropriate for a future king,<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=23}}</ref> and Newcastle even advised against studying any subject too seriously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Falkus|1972|p=17}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=9}}</ref> However, as Charles grew older, the renowned surgeon [[William Harvey]] was appointed his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}}<ref name=Carvalho>{{Cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Cristina |title=Charles II: A Man Caught Between Tradition and Science |journal=Via Panorâmica |date=2014 |volume=3 |pages=5–24 |hdl=10400.26/7191 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> He was famous for his work on blood circulation in the human body and already held the position of physician to Charles I; his studies were to influence Charles's own attitude to science. As the king's chief physician, Harvey accompanied Charles I to the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and, although some details are uncertain,{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=15}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=D |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=October 1946 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=405 |pmid=20323936 |pmc=1583020}}; {{cite book|last=Young|first=P.|title=Edgehill 1642|publisher=Windrush Press|location=Gloucester|year=1995|page=144}}</ref> he had charge of Prince Charles and the Duke of York in the morning,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=36}} but the two boys were back with the king for the start of battle.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=79}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stewart |first=D. |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=British Medical Journal| date=25 May 1946 |volume=1 |issue=4455 |page=808 |pmc=2058941 |jstor=20366436 |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4455.808}}</ref> Later in the afternoon, with their father concerned for their safety, the two princes left the battlefield accompanied by Sir W. Howard and his pensioners.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=130}}
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-During his exile, in France, Charles continued his education, including physics, chemistry and mathematics.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=220}} His tutors included the cleric [[John Earle (bishop)|John Earle]], well known for his satirical book ''Microcosmographie'', with whom he studied Latin and Greek, and [[Thomas Hobbes]], the philosopher and author of ''Leviathan'', with whom he studied mathematics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Hobbes (1588–1697)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/hobbes_thomas.shtml|publisher=BBC|date=2014}}</ref> In France, Charles assisted his childhood friend, the [[Earl of Buckingham]], with his experiments in [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=182}}</ref> with the Earl convinced he was close to producing the [[philosopher's stone]]. Although some of Charles's studies, while abroad, may have helped to pass the time,{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=30}} on his return to England he was already knowledgeable in the mathematics of navigation and was a competent chemist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}</ref> Such was his knowledge of naval architecture that he was able to participate in technical discussions on the subject with [[Samuel Pepys]], [[William Petty]] and [[John Evelyn]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}</ref>
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-The new concepts and discoveries being found at this time fascinated Charles,{{Sfn|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}} not only in science and medicine, but in topics such as botany and gardening.<ref name=Carvalho/>{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} A French traveller, Sorbier, while visiting the English court, was astonished by the extent of the king's knowledge.{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=209}} The king freely indulged in his many interests, including astronomy, which had been stimulated by a visit to [[Gresham College]], in October 1660, to see the telescopes made by the astronomer [[Sir Paul Neile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jardine |first=L. |title=On a Grander Scale |publisher=Harper Collins |location=London |date=2002 |page=166}}; {{cite web |last=Hartlib |first=S. |title=Letter: Hartlib to John Worthington |url=https://www.dhi.ac.uk/hartlib/view?docset=additional?docname=WORTH_17@term0=transtext_gresham#highlight}} (search for 15 October 1660)</ref> Charles was so impressed by what he saw that he ordered his own 36' telescope which he had installed in the Privy Garden at [[Whitehall]].<ref name=Wright2000>{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=David |title=The astronomy in Pepys' Diary |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |date=August 2000 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=4.23–4.27 |doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00423.x |s2cid=122377967 |doi-access=free}}</ref> He would invite his friends and acquaintances to view the heavens through his new telescope and, in May 1661, Evelyn describes his visit to the Garden, with several other scientists, to view [[Saturn's rings]].{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=357}} Charles also had a laboratory installed, in Whitehall, within easy access to his bedroom.{{Sfn|Pepys|1906b|p=611}}<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley>{{cite book|last=Ashley|first=M.|title=England in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Penguin|location=London|year=1958|pages=153–154}}</ref>
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-From the beginning of his reign, Charles appointed experts to assist him in his scientific pursuits. These included: [[Timothy Clarke]] a celebrated anatomist, who performed some dissections for the king;{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=365}} [[Robert Morison]] as his chief botanist (Charles had his own botanical garden);{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} [[Edmund Dickinson]], a chemist and alchemist, who was tasked with carrying out experiments in the king's laboratory;<ref>{{Cite DNB |wstitle= Dickinson, Edmund | volume= 15 |last= Harrison |first= Robert |author-link= |pages = 33-34 |short=1}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Blomberg |first=W. N. |title=An Account of the Life and Writings of Edmund Dickinson |publisher=Montagu |location=London |date=1739 |page=89 |url=https://archive.org/details/b30549085/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> [[Sir Thomas Williams, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Williams]], who was skillful in compounding and inventing medicines, some of which were prepared in the royal presence;{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=96}} and [[Nicasius le Febure]] (or Nicolas LeFevre), who was invited to England as royal professor of chemistry and apothecary to the king's household.<ref>{{cite web |title=LeFevre N. |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/le-febvre-nicaise}}</ref> Evelyn visited his laboratory with the king.{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=376}}
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-In addition to his many other interests, the king was fascinated by clock mechanisms<ref name=Carvalho/> and had clocks distributed all around Whitehall, including seven of them in his bedroom.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} [[Robert Bruce, 1st Earl of Ailesbury|Robert Bruce]] (later Earl of Ailesbury), a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, complained that the continual noise of the clocks chiming disturbed his sleep, whenever it was necessary for him to stay close by to the king.{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=87}} Also, Charles had a sundial installed in the Privy Garden,{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} by which he could set his personal [[pocket watch]].{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} (For a while, the king personally recorded the performance of the latest spring-balance watch, presented to him by [[Robert Hooke]].{{sfn|Jardine|2004|p=202}})
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-In 1662, Charles was pleased to grant a royal charter to a group of scientists and others who had established a formal society in 1660 to give a more academic and learned approach to science and to conduct experiments in physics and mathematics.<ref name=Ashley/><ref>{{cite book|last=Purver|first=M.|title=The Royal Society, Concept and Creation|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|location=London|year=1967|pages=21, 85, 189}}</ref> [[Sir Robert Moray]], a member of Charles's court, played an important part in achieving this outcome, and he was to be the first president of this new [[Royal Society]]. Over the years, Moray was an important go-between for Charles and the Society,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=251}} and his standing with the king was so high that he was given access to the royal laboratory to perform his own experiments there.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}; {{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=228}}</ref>
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-Charles never attended a Society meeting,{{Sfn|Jardine|2004|p=106}} but he remained aware of the activities there from his discussions with Society members, especially Moray.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} In addition, [[Robert Boyle]] gave him a private viewing of the Boyle/Hooke [[air-pump]],<ref name=West>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on rarified air |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |date=January 2005 |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004 |pmid=15591301 |s2cid=5837786}}</ref><ref name=Nichols>{{cite book |last=Nichols |first=R. |title=Robert Hooke and the Royal Society |publisher=Book Guild |location=Sussex, England |date=1999 |page=43}}</ref> which was used at many of the Wednesday meetings. However, Charles preferred experiments that had an immediate practical outcome{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} and he laughed at the efforts of the Society members "to weigh air".{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=451}} He seemed unable to grasp the significance of the basic laws of physics being established at that time, including [[Boyle's Law]] and [[Hooke's Law]] and the concept of atmospheric pressure<ref name=West/> and the [[barometer]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure |journal=Physiology |date=March 2013 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=66–73 |doi=10.1152/physiol.00053.2012 |pmid=23455767 |pmc=3768090}}</ref> and the importance of air for the support of life.<ref name=Nichols/>
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-Although Charles lost interest in the activities of the society, he continued to support scientific and commercial endeavours. He founded the Mathematical School at [[Christ's Hospital]] in 1673 and, two years later, following concerns over French advances in astronomy, he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] at Greenwich.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|pp=241–242}} He maintained an interest in chemistry and regularly visited his private laboratory.<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley/> There, dissections were occasionally carried out, and observed by the king.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} Pepys noted in his diary that on the morning of Friday, 15 January 1669, while he was walking to Whitehall, he met the king who invited him to view his chemistry laboratory. Pepys confessed to finding what he saw there beyond him.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pepys |first=Samuel|work=The Diary of Samuel Pepys|title=Friday 15 January 1668/69|date=15 January 2012 |url=https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15/}}</ref>
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-Charles developed painful gout in later life which limited the daily walks that he took regularly when younger. His keenness was now channelled to his laboratory where he would devote himself to his experiments, for hours at a time,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheatley |first=H. B. |title=Samuel Pepys and the World he Lived In |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co. |location=London |date=1907 |edition=1st |orig-date=1880 |page=167 |url=https://archive.org/details/samuelpepysandth51757gut}}</ref>{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=586}} sometimes helped by Moray.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=198}} Charles was particularly interested in alchemy, which he had first encountered many years earlier, during his exile with the Duke of Buckingham. Charles resumed his experiments with mercury and would spend whole mornings attempting to distill it. Heating mercury in an open crucible releases mercury vapour, which is toxic and may have contributed to his later ill health.{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=567–596}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Homes|first=F.|title=The Sickly Stewarts|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=2003|pages=104–108}}</ref>
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-== Later years ==
-Charles faced a political storm over his brother James, a Catholic, being next in line to the throne. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury]] (previously Baron Ashley and a member of the Cabal, which had fallen apart in 1673). Lord Shaftesbury's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the [[Exclusion Bill]], which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the [[Succession to the British throne|line of succession]]. Some even sought to confer the Crown on the Protestant [[Duke of Monmouth]], the eldest of Charles's illegitimate children. The ''Abhorrers''—those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent—were named [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]] (after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits), while the ''Petitioners''—those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill—were called [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] (after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians).<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=373, 377, 391}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=310–320}}.</ref>
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-===Absolute monarch===
-Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed, and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials, which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism, Charles dissolved the English Parliament, for a second time that year, in mid-1679. Charles's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled; within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again, after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill. When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681, Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=376–401}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=314–345}}.</ref> During the 1680s, however, popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed, and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty. Lord Shaftesbury was prosecuted (albeit unsuccessfully) for treason in 1681 and later fled to Holland, where he died. For the remainder of his reign, Charles ruled without Parliament.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=430–441}}
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-Charles's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants. Protestant conspirators formulated the [[Rye House Plot]], a plan to murder him and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in [[Newmarket, Suffolk|Newmarket]]. A great fire, however, destroyed Charles's lodgings at Newmarket, which forced him to leave the races early, thus inadvertently avoiding the planned attack. News of the failed plot was leaked.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=426}} Protestant politicians such as the [[Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], [[Algernon Sydney]], [[William Russell, Lord Russell|Lord Russell]] and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot. Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange. Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the king's Catholic brother, James, acquired greater influence at court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=420–423}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=366–368}}.</ref> Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=437}}
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-Thus through the last years of Charles's reign, his approach towards his opponents changed, and he was compared by Whigs to the contemporary Louis XIV of France, with his form of government in those years termed "slavery". Many of them were prosecuted and their estates seized, with Charles replacing judges and sheriffs at will and packing juries to achieve conviction. To destroy opposition in London, Charles first disenfranchised many Whigs in the 1682 municipal elections, and in 1683 the [[Ancient borough#Charters of incorporation|London charter]] was forfeited. In retrospect, the use of the judicial system by Charles (and later his brother and heir James) as a tool against opposition, helped establish the idea of [[separation of powers]] between the judiciary and the Crown in Whig thought.<ref>Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). ''The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688–91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts'' (Vol. 16), Chapter 3. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>
-
-=== Death ===
-Charles suffered a sudden [[apoplectic fit]] on the morning of 2 February 1685, and died four days later at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], at 11:45 am, aged 54.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=443}}.</ref> The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many, including one of the royal doctors, but a more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of [[uremia|uraemia]], a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction.{{sfn|BMJ|1938}} Charles had a laboratory among his many interests where, prior to his illness, he had been experimenting with [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. Mercuric poisoning can produce irreversible kidney damage, but the case for that being a cause of his death is unproven.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=586–587}} In the days between his collapse and his death, Charles endured a variety of torturous treatments, including [[bloodletting]], [[laxative|purging]] and [[cupping therapy|cupping]], in the hope of effecting a recovery,{{sfn|Roberts|2015}} which may have exacerbated his uraemia through dehydration, rather than helping to alleviate it.<ref>{{citation |last1=Aronson |first1=J. K. |last2= Heneghan |first2=C. |title=The death of King Charles II |date=17 October 2018 |publisher=Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) |location=Oxford|url=https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/news/views/the-death-of-king-charles-ii |access-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>
-
-On his deathbed, Charles asked his brother, James, to look after his mistresses: "be well to [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Portsmouth]], and let not poor [[Nell Gwyn|Nelly]] starve".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=456}}<!--This is a paraphrase used by Fraser--> He told his courtiers, "I am sorry, gentlemen, for being such a time a-dying",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} and expressed regret at his treatment of his wife. On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church, in the presence of Father [[John Huddleston]], though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed, and with whom the idea originated, is unclear.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}} He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] "without any manner of pomp"{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} on 14 February.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=459}}
-
-Charles was succeeded by his brother James II and VII.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |publisher=royal.uk |access-date=7 May 2023}}</ref>
-
-== Legacy ==
-[[File:Charles II statue. Parliament Square Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Statue of Charles II as a Roman Caesar, erected 1685, [[Parliament Square, Edinburgh]]|alt=Lead equestrian statue]]
-
-The escapades of Charles after his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] remained important to him throughout his life. He delighted and bored listeners with tales of his escape for many years. Numerous accounts of his adventures were published, particularly in the immediate aftermath of the Restoration. Though not averse to his escape being ascribed to divine providence, Charles himself seems to have delighted most in his ability to sustain his disguise as a man of ordinary origins, and to move unrecognised through his realm. Ironic and cynical, Charles took pleasure in stories that demonstrated the undetectable nature of any inherent majesty he possessed.{{sfn|Weber|1988|pages=492–493, 505–506}}
-
-Charles had no legitimate children, but acknowledged a dozen by seven mistresses,{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=411}} including five by [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers, Lady Castlemaine]], for whom the [[Duke of Cleveland|Dukedom of Cleveland]] was created. His other mistresses included [[Moll Davis]], [[Nell Gwyn]], [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]], [[Catherine Pegge]], [[Lucy Walter]] and [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth]]. As a result, in his lifetime he was often nicknamed "[[Old Rowley]]", the name of his favourite racehorse, notable as a stallion.{{sfn|Pearson|1960|p=147}}
-
-Charles's subjects resented paying taxes that were spent on his mistresses and their children,{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=338}} many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms. The present [[Duke of Buccleuch|Dukes of Buccleuch]], [[Duke of Richmond|Richmond]], [[Duke of Grafton|Grafton]] and [[Duke of St Albans|St Albans]] descend from Charles in unbroken male line.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=413}} Charles II is an ancestor of both [[King Charles III]]'s first wife, [[Diana, Princess of Wales]],{{efn|Diana was descended from two of Charles II's illegitimate sons: the [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Dukes of Grafton]] and [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Richmond]].}} and his second wife, [[Queen Camilla]]. Charles and Diana's son, [[William, Prince of Wales]], is likely to be the first British monarch descended from Charles II.
-
-Charles's eldest son, the [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|Duke of Monmouth]], led a rebellion against James II, but was defeated at the [[Battle of Sedgemoor]] on 6 July 1685, captured and executed. James was eventually dethroned in 1688, in the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]].
-
-[[File:Rhc-charles2.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Charles II (c. 1682) in ancient Roman dress by [[Grinling Gibbons]] at the [[Royal Hospital Chelsea]]|alt=Gilt statue]]
-
-In the words of his contemporary [[John Evelyn]], "a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections, debonair, easy of access, not bloody or cruel".{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=382–383}} [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], wrote more lewdly of Charles:
-
-{{Poem quote|Restless he rolls from whore to whore
-A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=95}}}}
-
-Looking back on Charles's reign, Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible [[despotism]]. Professor [[Ronald Hutton]] summarises a polarised historiography:
-
-{{Poem quote|For the past hundred years, books on Charles II have been sharply divided into two categories. Academic historians have concentrated mainly on his activities as a statesman and emphasised his duplicity, self-indulgence, poor judgement and lack of an aptitude for business or for stable and trustworthy government. Non-academic authors have concentrated mainly on his social and cultural world, emphasising his charm, affability, worldliness, tolerance, turning him into one of the most popular of all English monarchs in novels, plays and films.<ref>{{citation|first=Ronald |last=Hutton|title=A Gambling Man: Charles II and the Restoration|journal=History Today|date=December 2009|volume=59|issue=12|pages=55+}}</ref>}}
-
-Hutton says Charles was a popular king in his own day and a "legendary figure" in British history.
-
-{{Poem quote|Other kings had inspired more respect, but perhaps only Henry VIII had endeared himself to the popular imagination as much as this one. He was the playboy monarch, naughty but nice, the hero of all who prized urbanity, tolerance, good humour, and the pursuit of pleasure above the more earnest, sober, or material virtues.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=446}}}}
-
-The anniversary of the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] (which was also Charles's birthday)—29 May—was recognised in England until the mid-nineteenth century as [[Oak Apple Day]], after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell. Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=118}} Charles II is [[Cultural depictions of Charles II of England|depicted extensively in art, literature and media]]. [[Charleston, South Carolina]], and [[South Kingstown, Rhode Island]], are named after him. King Charles's Island and Charles Island are previous names of both [[Floreana Island]] and [[Española Island]] in the [[Galapagos Archipelago]], both in his honour.
-
-== Titles, styles, honours and arms ==
-=== Titles and styles ===
-The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles II was "Charles the Second, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Monarchs of Scotland|Scotland]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc."<ref>''Guinness Book of Answers'' (1991), p. 708</ref> The [[English claims to the French throne|claim to France]] was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English monarch since [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.
-
-=== Honours ===
-* '''KG''': [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], ''21 May 1638''{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}
-
-=== Arms ===
-Charles's [[Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales|coat of arms as Prince of Wales]] was the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|royal arms]] (which he later inherited), differenced by a [[Label (heraldry)|label]] of three points [[Argent]].{{sfn|Ashmole|1715|p=534}} His arms as monarch were: [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], I and IV Grandquarterly, [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]] three [[fleurs-de-lis]] [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] (for France) and [[Gules]] three lions [[Attitude (heraldry)#Passant|passant guardant]] in [[Pale (heraldry)|pale]] Or ([[Royal Arms of England|for England]]); II Or a lion [[rampant]] within a double [[tressure]] flory-counter-flory Gules ([[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|for Scotland]]); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ([[Coat of arms of Ireland|for Ireland]]).
-
-{| border="0" align="center" width="70%"
-|-
-!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of the Stuart Princes of Wales (1610-1688).svg|center|200px]]
-!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of England (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]
-!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of Scotland (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]
-|-
-|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms as Prince of Wales</div>
-|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II as king (outside Scotland)</div>
-|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II used as king in Scotland</div>
-|}
-
-==Issue==
-By [[Lucy Walter]] (c. 1630 – 1658):
-
-* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts, later Scott]] (1649–1685), created [[Duke of Monmouth]] (1663) in England and [[Duke of Buccleuch]] (1663) in Scotland. Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met, and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II, but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers, Colonel Robert Sidney, rather than Charles. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James in 1651, but Charles II was not the father, since he and Walter parted in September 1649.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}}
-
-By [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]] (1622–1680), daughter of Sir [[Robert Killigrew]], married [[Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon]], in 1660:
-
-* [[Charlotte FitzRoy, Countess of Yarmouth|Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy]] (1650–1684), married firstly [[James Howard (dramatist)|James Howard]] and secondly [[William Paston, 2nd Earl of Yarmouth]]
-
-By [[Catherine Pegge]]:
-
-* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth|Charles FitzCharles]] (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created [[Earl of Plymouth]] (1675)
-* [[Catherine FitzCharles]] (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk){{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=125}}
-
-By [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers]] (1641–1709), wife of [[Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine]], and created [[Duke of Cleveland|Duchess of Cleveland]] in her own right:
-
-* [[Anne Lennard, Countess of Sussex|Lady Anne Palmer (Fitzroy)]] (1661–1722), married [[Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex]]. She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her.{{sfn|Cokayne|1926|pp=706–708}}
-* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland|Charles Fitzroy]] (1662–1730), created [[Duke of Southampton]] (1675), became 2nd [[Duke of Cleveland]] (1709)
-* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Henry Fitzroy]] (1663–1690), created [[Earl of Euston]] (1672), [[Duke of Grafton]] (1675)
-* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield|Charlotte Fitzroy]] (1664–1717), married [[Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield]]
-* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland|George Fitzroy]] (1665–1716), created [[Earl of Northumberland]] (1674), [[Duke of Northumberland]] (1678)
-* ([[Lady Barbara FitzRoy|Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy]] (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of [[John Churchill]], later [[Dukes of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], who was another of Cleveland's many lovers,{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=97, 123}} and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=65, 286}})
-
-By [[Nell Gwyn]] (1650–1687):
-
-* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans|Charles Beauclerk]] (1670–1726), created [[Duke of St Albans]] (1684)
-* James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)
-[[File:Mignard, Louise de Kérouaille.jpg|thumb|Louise de Kérouaille with unknown attendant, painted in France by [[Pierre Mignard]], 1682<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw05102/Louise-de-Kroualle-Duchess-of-Portsmouth-with-an-unknown-female-attendant|title=Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth with an unknown female attendant|publisher=National Portrait Gallery|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref>]]
-By [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille]] (1649–1734), created [[Duke of Portsmouth|Duchess of Portsmouth]] in her own right (1673):
-
-* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Charles Lennox]] (1672–1723), created [[Duke of Richmond]] (1675) in England and [[Duke of Lennox]] (1675) in Scotland.
-
-By [[Moll Davis|Mary 'Moll' Davis]], courtesan and actress of repute:{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=287}}
-
-* [[Lady Mary Tudor]] (1673–1726), married [[Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater]]; after Edward's death, she married [[Henry Graham (of Levens)]], and upon his death she married James Rooke.
-
-Other probable mistresses include:
-
-* Christabella Wyndham<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref>
-* [[Hortense Mancini]], Duchess of Mazarin<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=341–342}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=336}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=228}}.</ref>
-* [[Winifred Wells]] – one of Queen Catherine's Maids of Honour<ref name="mrs">{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=285}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=262}}.</ref>
-* Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman<ref name="mrs"/>
-* Mrs Knight – a famous singer{{sfn|BBC staff|2003}}
-* [[Elizabeth, Countess of Falmouth|Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth]] – the widow of [[Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth]]<ref name="mrs"/>{{sfn|Melville|2005|p=91}}
-* Elizabeth Fitzgerald, [[Earl of Kildare|Countess of Kildare]]<ref name="mrs"/>
-
-Letters claiming that Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret bore Charles a son named [[James de la Cloche]] in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=43–44}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=25}}.</ref>
-
-== Genealogical tables==
-{{chart top|The House of Stuart and their relations<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=5}}.</ref>}}
-{{chart/start|align=center}}
-{{chart |border=0| | | | | | | |James|y|Anne| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Henry|y|Marie|James=[[James I of England]]<br />1566–1625|Anne=[[Anne of Denmark]]<br>1574–1619|Henry=[[Henry IV of France]]<br>1553–1610|Marie=[[Marie de' Medici]]<br>1575–1642}}
-{{chart |border=0| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}
-{{chart |border=0| | |Elizabeth| | | | | | | | | | | |Charles|y|Henrietta| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Louis| | | |Charles=[[Charles I of England]]<br />1600–1649|Elizabeth=[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia|Elizabeth]]<br />1596–1662|Henrietta=[[Henrietta Maria of France]]<br>1609–1669|Louis=[[Louis XIII of France]]<br>1601–1643}}
-{{chart|border=0| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}
-{{chart|border=0|Rupert| |Sophia| | Charles| |Mary|y|William| |Anne|y|James|y|Maria| |Henrietta|y|Philip| |Louis|Anne=[[Anne Hyde]]<br />1637–1671|James=[[James II of England]]<br />1633–1701|Maria=[[Mary of Modena]]<br />1658–1718|Mary=[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]]<br />1631–1660|Charles=Charles II of England<br />1630–1685|Sophia=[[Sophia of Hanover]]<br />1630–1714|Henrietta=[[Henrietta of England|Henrietta]]<br>1644–1670|Older=''[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia#Issue|Older children]]''|William=[[William II of Orange]]<br>1626–1650|Philip=[[Philip I of Orléans]]<br>1640–1701|Louis=[[Louis XIV of France]]<br>1638–1715|Rupert=[[Rupert of the Rhine]]<br>1619–1682}}
-{{chart |border=0| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | |}}
-{{chart |border=0| | | | |George| | | | | | | |William|~|Mary| |Anne| |James| | | |Marie| |AnneM| | | | | |Anne=[[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne of Great Britain]]<br />1665–1714|Mary=[[Mary II of England]]<br />1662–1694|William=[[William III of England]]<br />1650–1702|George=[[George I of Great Britain]]<br />1660–1727|James=[[James Francis Edward]]<br />1688–1766|Monmouth=[[James, Duke of Monmouth]]<br>1649–1685|Marie=[[Marie Louise of Orléans]]<br>1662–1689|AnneM=[[Anne Marie of Orléans]]<br>1669–1728}}
-{{chart/end}}
-{{chart bottom}}
-
-{{Charles II's children}}
-
-== Notes ==
-{{Notelist}}
-
-== References ==
-{{Reflist|20em}}
-
-=== Works cited ===
-{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Airy |first=Osmund |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027987167/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Charles II |date=1904 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |location=London |hdl=2027/uc1.$b674296 |hdl-access=free }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Ashmole |first=Elias |title=The History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter |date=1715 |publisher=Bell, Taylor, Baker and Collins |location=London |author-link=Elias Ashmole}}
-* {{Cite book |last=BBC staff |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |title=Charles II and the women who bore his children |date=October 2003 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040414082540/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2004 |url-status=live }}
-* {{Cite book |url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |title=Bombay: History of a City |publisher=The British Library Board |ref={{harvid|British Library Learning}} |access-date=19 April 2010 |archive-date=25 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625131303/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |url-status=dead }}
-* {{Cite journal |date=1938 |title=Nova et Vetera |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=2 |issue=4064 |page=1089 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4064.1089 |pmc=2210948 |pmid=20781915 |ref={{sfnRef|BMJ|1938}}}}
-* {{Cite book |title=The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707 |date=2007–2017 |publisher=University of St Andrews |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=K. M. |chapter=Proclamation: of King Charles II, 5 January 1649 (NAS. PA2/24, f.97r-97v.) |ref={{SfnRef|RPS}} |access-date=5 August 2016 |display-editors=et al |chapter-url=http://www.rps.ac.uk/search.php?action=fetch_jump&filename=charlesi_ms&jump=charlesi_t1649_1_70_d5_trans&type=ms&fragment=m1649_1_71_d6_ms }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=Thomas |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088253359 |title=Memoirs of Thomas, Earl of Ailesbury, Vol. 1 |date=1890 |publisher=Roburghe Club, Nichols & Sons |location=Westminster }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Burnet |first=Gilbert |url=https://archive.org/details/burnetshistoryof01burnuoft/mode/2up |title=History of My Own Time, part1 |date=1847 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Mark |title=Private Lives |date=2001 |publisher=Cassell |isbn=0-304-35758-8 |location=London}}
-* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=East India Company |volume=8 |pages=834–835 |mode=cs2}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Cokayne |first=George E. |title=The Complete Peerage |date=1926 |publisher=St Catherine Press |others=Revised and enlarged by Gibbs, Vicary; Edited by Doubleday, H. A., Warrand, D., and de Walden, Lord Howard |volume=VI |location=London |chapter=Appendix F. Bastards of Charles II |author-link=George Cokayne}}
-* {{Cite book |title=Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne |date=1885 |publisher=Clarendon Press for the Oxford Historical Society |editor-last=Doble |editor-first=C. E. |volume=1 |location=Oxford}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Evelyn |first=John |title=Diary of John Evelyn, Vol. 1 |date=1952 |publisher=Dent & Sons |location=London}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Falkus |first=Christopher |title=The Life and Times of Charles II |date=1972 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-99427-1 |location=London}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |title=King Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-77571-5 |location=London |author-link=Antonia Fraser}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Haley |first=K.H.D. |title=Politics in the Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=0-631-13928-1 |location=Oxford}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=UK}}
-* {{Cite book |url=http://www.hbc.com/hbcheritage/collections/archival/charter |title=The Royal Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company |author=[[Hudson's Bay Company]] |ref={{sfnRef|Hudson's Bay Company|2017}} }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Hume |first=David |title=The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 |date=1778 |publisher=printed for T. Cadell |volume=VIII |location=London |page=212 |author-link=David Hume}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/charlessecondkin00hutt |title=Charles II: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland |date=1989 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-822911-9 |location=Oxford |author-link=Ronald Hutton |url-access=registration }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Israel |first=Jonathan Irvine |title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 |date=1998 |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |author-link=Jonathan Israel}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Jardine |first=Lisa |title=The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man Who Measured London |date=2004 |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=0-00-715175-6 |location=London |author-link=Lisa Jardine}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Melville |first=Lewis |title=The Windsor Beauties: Ladies of the Court of Charles II |date=2005 |publisher=Loving Healing Press |isbn=1-932690-13-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FCxRqOrMVQUC&dq=charles+ii+bagot&pg=PA91 91] |author-link=Lewis Melville |orig-date=1928}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesii0000mill |title=Charles II |date=1991 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-81214-9 |location=London |author-link=John Miller (historian) |url-access=registration }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=Hesketh |title=Charles II: His Life and Likeness |date=1960 |publisher=Heinemann |location=London |author-link=Hesketh Pearson}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906a |publisher=Dent & Sons |volume=1 |location=London |orig-date=1669 |author-link=Samuel Pepys }}
-** {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906b |publisher=Dent & Sons |author-mask=2 |volume=2 |location=London |orig-date=1669 }}
-* {{Cite ODNB |last=Porter |first=Stephen |date=January 2007 |id=95647 |title=The great fire of London |mode=cs2}}
-* {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1672: An Act for preventing Dangers which may happen from Popish Recusants |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47451 }}
-** {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819a |editor-mask=2 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1678: (Stat. 2.) An Act for the more effectuall preserving the Kings Person and Government by disableing Papists from sitting in either House of Parlyament |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47482 }}
-* {{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Jacob |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/tryals-and-tribulations |title=Tryals and tribulations |date=Fall 2015 |work=Distillations Magazine |volume=1 |pages=14–15 |access-date=22 March 2018 |issue=3 }}
-* {{Cite book |last1=Scott |first1=C. L. |title=Edgehill – The Battle Reinterpreted |last2=Turton |first2=A. |last3=von Arni |first3=E. G. |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |year=2004}}
-* {{Cite ODNB |last=Seaward |first=Paul|date=2004 |id=5144 |title=Charles II (1630–1685) |mode=cs2 |freearticle=y}}
-* {{Cite book |last=The Royal Household |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesII.aspx |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |date=2009 |publisher=Official website of the British Monarchy |access-date=19 April 2010 }}
-* {{Cite book |last=Uglow |first=Jenny |title=A Gambling Man: Charles II's Restoration Game |date=2009 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21733-5 |author-link=Jenny Uglow}}
-* {{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=Harold |title=Representations of the King: Charles II and His Escape from Worcester |date=1988 |journal=Studies in Philology |volume=85 |pages=489–509 |issue=4 |jstor=4174319}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy |date=1996 |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-7126-7448-9 |edition=Revised |author-link=Alison Weir (historian)}}
-* {{Cite ODNB |last=Wynne |first=S. M. |date=2004 |id=4894 |title=Catherine (1638–1705) |mode=cs2}}
-{{Refend}}
-
-== Further reading ==
-{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
-* {{Cite journal |last=Edie |first=Carolyn |date=1965 |title=Succession and Monarchy: The Controversy of 1679–1681 |journal=American Historical Review |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=350–370 |doi=10.2307/1845634 |jstor=1845634}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David C. |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham: The Merry Monarch and the Aristocratic Rogue |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton |isbn=0-7509-3916-8 |location=Stroud |ref=none}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Tim |title=Restoration: Charles II and His Kingdoms, 1660–1685 |date=2005 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=0-7139-9191-7 |location=London |author-link=Timothy J. G. Harris}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Keay |first=Anna |title=The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power |date=2008 |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |isbn=978-1-84725-225-8 |location=London |author-link=Anna Keay}}
-* {{Cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=J. P. |author-link=John Philipps Kenyon |date=1957 |title=Review Article: The Reign of Charles II |journal=Cambridge Historical Journal |volume=XIII |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1017/S1474691300000068}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=John |title=Restoration England: The Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-35396-3 |location=London}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reign of Charles II |date=1934 |publisher=Oxford University Press|author-link=David Ogg (historian)}}
-** {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reigns of James II and William III |date=1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=David Ogg (historian) |author-mask=2}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Escape of Charles II After the Battle of Worcester |date=1966 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London}}
-** {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Image of the King: Charles I and Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London |author-mask=2}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |title=King Charles Preserved: An Account of his Escape after the Battle of Worcester dictated by the King Himself to Samuel Pepys |date=1956 |publisher=The Rodale Press |location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania}}. Dictated in 1680.
-* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Derek |title=All The King's Women: Love, Sex and Politics in the Life of Charles II |date=2003 |publisher=Hutchinson |isbn=0-09-179379-3 |location=London}}
-* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Charles II. (King of England) |display=Charles II. | volume= 5 |last= Yorke | first= Philip Chesney |author-link= | pages = 912–916 }}
-{{Refend}}
-
-== External links ==
-{{sister project links|d=|c=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=yes|wikt=no|n=no|q=yes}}
-* [https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii Charles II] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]]
-* [https://www.rct.uk/collection/people/charles-ii-king-of-great-britain-1630-85#/type/subject Charles II] at the official website of the [[Royal Collection Trust]]
-* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml Charles II] at BBC History
-* {{NPG name|name=King Charles II}}
-
-{{S-start}}
-{{S-hou|[[House of Stuart]]|29 May|1630|6 February|1685}}
-{{S-break}}
-{{S-reg}}
-{{S-bef|rows=1|before=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]}}
-{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1649–1651}}
-{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}
-|-
-{{S-break}}
-{{S-vac|rows=1|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]|reason=[[English Interregnum]]}}
-{{S-ttl|title=[[King of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1660–1685}}
-{{S-aft|rows=2|after=[[James II of England|James II & VII]]}}
-|-
-{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}
-{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1660–1685}}
-{{S-break}}
-{{S-roy|gb}}
-{{S-break}}
-{{S-vac|rows=2|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles]]}}
-{{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Cornwall]]<br />[[Duke of Rothesay]]|years=1630–1649}}
-{{S-vac|rows=2|next=[[James Francis Edward]]}}
-|-
-{{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1638–1649}}
-{{s-end}}
-{{English, Scottish and British monarchs}}
-{{Pictish and Scottish Monarchs}}
-{{Princes of Wales}}
-{{Dukes of Cornwall}}
-{{Dukes of Rothesay}}
+Na not C II no lets talk about Aaron The Good. Aaron is very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very, very good. He has a brother called Simon who's extreme x bad x bad x bad. Simon poops every were and he even where's nappies at night. He came from a very weird planet called Simon but I call it poop planet. Did you know that the Aaron's have a song?! Aaron's are the best! Aaron's never cry! Aarons never slip! And never lie!
{{Authority control}}
' |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{short description|King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1660 to 1685}}',
1 => '{{Featured article}}',
2 => '{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}',
3 => '{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}',
4 => '{{Infobox royalty',
5 => '| name = Charles II',
6 => '| image = King Charles II by John Michael Wright or studio.jpg',
7 => '| caption = Charles in [[Garter robes]], {{circa|1660–1665}}',
8 => '| alt = Charles is of thin build and has chest-length curly black hair',
9 => '| succession = [[King of England]], [[List of Scottish monarchs|Scotland]] and [[List of Irish monarchs|Ireland]]',
10 => '| moretext = ([[Style of the British sovereign#Styles of English and Scottish sovereigns|more...]])',
11 => '| reign = 29 May 1660{{efn|name=reign|The traditional date of the Restoration marking the first assembly of King and Parliament together since the abolition of the English monarchy in 1649. The English Parliament recognised Charles as king by unanimous vote on 2 May 1660, and he was proclaimed king in London on 8 May, although royalists had recognised him as such since the execution of his father on 30 January 1649. During Charles's reign all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if his reign began at his father's death.}} –<br />6 February 1685',
12 => '| predecessor = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]',
13 => '| successor = [[James II of England|James II & VII]]',
14 => '| coronation = 23 April 1661',
15 => '| cor-type = <!-- Britain -->',
16 => '| succession1 = [[King of Scotland]]',
17 => '| reign1 = 30 January 1649 –<br /> 3 September 1651{{efn|From the death of his father to his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]]}}',
18 => '| predecessor1 = [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]',
19 => '| successor1 = ''Military government''',
20 => '| coronation1 = 1 January 1651',
21 => '| cor-type1 = [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|Coronation]]',
22 => '| spouse = {{marriage|[[Catherine of Braganza]]|1662}}',
23 => '| issue = {{plainlist|',
24 => '* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]]',
25 => '* [[Charlotte Paston, Countess of Yarmouth]]',
26 => '* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth]]',
27 => '* [[Catherine FitzCharles]]',
28 => '* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland]]',
29 => '* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton]]',
30 => '* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield]]',
31 => '* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland]]',
32 => '* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans]]',
33 => '* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond]]',
34 => '* [[Lady Mary Tudor]]}}',
35 => '| issue-link = #Issue',
36 => '| issue-type = Illegitimate children',
37 => '| house = [[House of Stuart|Stuart]]',
38 => '| father = [[Charles I of England]]',
39 => '| mother = [[Henrietta Maria of France]]',
40 => '| birth_date = 29 May 1630<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 8 June 1630)',
41 => '| birth_place = [[St James's Palace]], Westminster, England',
42 => '| death_date = 6 February 1685 (aged 54)<br />([[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]]: 16 February 1685)',
43 => '| death_place = [[Whitehall Palace]], Westminster, England',
44 => '| burial_date = 14 February 1685',
45 => '| burial_place = [[Westminster Abbey]], England',
46 => '| signature = CharlesIISig.svg',
47 => '}}',
48 => '',
49 => ''''Charles II''' (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685){{efn|All dates in this article unless otherwise noted are given in the [[Julian calendar]] with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see [[Old Style and New Style dates]]).}} was [[King of Scotland]] from 1649 until 1651 and King of [[King of England|England]], Scotland, and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]] from the [[Stuart Restoration|1660 Restoration]] of the monarchy until his death in 1685.',
50 => '',
51 => 'Charles II was the eldest surviving child of [[Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland]] and [[Henrietta Maria of France]]. After [[Charles I's execution]] at [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]] on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the [[English Civil War]], the [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as the [[English Interregnum]] or the [[English Commonwealth]], with a government led by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651, and Charles [[Escape of Charles II|fled to mainland Europe]]. Cromwell became [[Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the [[Dutch Republic]] and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the [[Stuart Restoration|restoration of the monarchy]] in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents stating a [[regnal year]] did so as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649.',
52 => '',
53 => '[[Cavalier Parliament|Charles's English parliament]] enacted the [[Clarendon Code]], to shore up the position of the [[Established Church|re-established]] [[Church of England]]. Charles acquiesced to these new laws even though he favoured a policy of [[religious tolerance]]. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. In 1670, he entered into the [[Treaty of Dover]], an alliance with his cousin, King [[Louis XIV of France]]. Louis agreed to aid him in the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to [[Catholicism]] at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce [[religious freedom]] for Catholics and Protestant [[dissenter]]s with his [[1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], but the [[English Parliament]] forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, [[Titus Oates]]'s fabrication of a supposed [[Popish Plot]] sparked the [[Exclusion Crisis]] when it was revealed that Charles's brother and [[heir presumptive]], [[James, Duke of York]], had become a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion [[British Whig Party|Whig]] and anti-exclusion [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] parties. Charles sided with the Tories and, after the discovery of the [[Rye House Plot]] to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685.',
54 => '',
55 => 'Following his restoration, Charles became known for his affability and friendliness, and for allowing his subjects easy access to his person. However, he also showed an almost impenetrable reserve, especially concerning his political agendas. His court gained a reputation for moral laxity.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=361–363}} Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] produced no surviving children, but the king acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James.',
56 => '',
57 => '== Early life, civil war and exile ==',
58 => '[[File:Charles II Prince of Wales Egmont.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Charles as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to [[Justus van Egmont]]|alt=Baby in white christening robe]]',
59 => '',
60 => 'Charles was born at [[St James's Palace]] on 29 May 1630, eldest surviving son of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], king of [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], and his wife [[Henrietta Maria]], sister of [[Louis XIII of France]]. Charles was their second child (the first being a son born about a year before, who had died within a day).{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} He was baptised on 27 June in the [[Chapel Royal]] by [[William Laud]], a future [[archbishop of Canterbury]], and during his infancy was supervised by the Protestant [[Edward Sackville, 4th Earl of Dorset#Family|Countess of Dorset]]. His godparents included his maternal uncle Louis XIII and maternal grandmother, [[Marie de' Medici]], the Dowager Queen of France, both of whom were Catholics.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=13}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp= 1–4}}.</ref> At birth, Charles automatically became [[Duke of Cornwall]] and [[Duke of Rothesay]], and the possessor of several other associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated [[Prince of Wales]], though he was never formally invested.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}',
61 => '',
62 => 'In August 1642, the long-running dispute between Charles I and [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] culminated in the outbreak of the [[First English Civil War]]. In October, Prince Charles and his younger brother [[James II of England|James]] were present at the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and spent the next two years based in the [[Cavalier|Royalist]] capital of [[Oxford]]. In January 1645, Charles was given his own Council and made titular head of Royalist forces in the [[West Country]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=6–7}}.</ref> By spring 1646, most of the region had been occupied by [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] forces and Charles went into exile to avoid capture. From [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], he went first to the [[Isles of Scilly]], then to [[Jersey]], and finally to France, where his mother was already living under the protection of his first cousin, the eight-year-old [[Louis XIV]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=6}}.</ref> Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646.',
63 => '',
64 => 'During the [[Second English Civil War]] in 1648, Charles moved to [[The Hague]], where his sister [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]] and his brother-in-law [[William II, Prince of Orange]], seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the Royalist cause than his mother's French relations.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=55–56}} Although part of the Parliamentarian fleet defected, it did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the Royalist [[Engager]] army led by the [[James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] before it was defeated at [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Preston]] by the [[New Model Army]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=57–60}}',
65 => '',
66 => '[[File:William Dobson - Charles II, 1630 - 1685. King of Scots 1649 - 1685. King of England and Ireland 1660 - 1685 (When Prince of Wales, with a page) - Google Art Project.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|Portrait by [[William Dobson]], c. 1642 or 1643|alt=Charles as a boy with shoulder-length black hair and standing in a martial pose]]',
67 => '',
68 => 'At The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with [[Lucy Walter]], who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=65–66, 155}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=26}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref> Her son, [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts]] (afterwards [[Duke of Monmouth]] and [[Duke of Buccleuch]]), was one of Charles's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}} Despite his son's diplomatic efforts to save him, the [[execution of Charles I]] took place in January 1649, and England became a [[Commonwealth of England|republic]]. On 5 February, the [[Covenanter]] [[Parliament of Scotland]] proclaimed Charles II as "King of Great Britain, France and Ireland" at the [[Mercat Cross, Edinburgh]],{{sfn|RPS|loc=1649/1/71}} but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he agreed to establish [[Presbyterianism]] as the [[state religion]] in all three of his kingdoms.',
69 => '',
70 => 'When negotiations with the Scots stalled, Charles authorised [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Lord Montrose]] to land in the [[Orkney Islands]] with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion, in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking. Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise, and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway. He was captured and executed. Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a [[Treaty of Breda (1650)|treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament]] at [[Breda]], and support the [[Solemn League and Covenant]], which authorised [[Presbyterian church governance]] across Britain. Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650, he formally agreed to the Covenant; his abandonment of [[Episcopy|Episcopal]] church governance, although winning him support in Scotland, left him unpopular in England. Charles himself soon came to despise the "villainy" and "hypocrisy" of the Covenanters.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=53}}.</ref> Charles was provided with a Scottish court, and the record of his [[Food and the Scottish royal household|food and household expenses]] at [[Falkland Palace]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] survives.<ref>David Stevenson, 'Minute Book of the Board of Green Cloth', ''Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, XV'' (Edinburgh, 2013), pp. 55–132.</ref>',
71 => '',
72 => '[[File:Cast gold medal of Charles II Stuart.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Cast gold coronation medal of Charles II, dated 1651]]',
73 => '',
74 => 'Charles's Scottish coronation led to the [[Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)| Anglo-Scottish War]] of 1650 to 1652. On 3 September 1650, the Covenanters were defeated at [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] by a much smaller force commanded by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The Scots were divided between moderate Engagers and the more radical [[Kirk Party]], who even fought each other. Disillusioned by these divisions, Charles rode north to join an Engager force in October, an event which became known as "the Start", but within two days members of the Kirk Party had recovered him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=96–97}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=56–57}}.</ref> Nevertheless, the Scots remained Charles's best hope of restoration, and he was [[Scottish coronation of Charles II|crowned King of Scotland]] at [[Scone Abbey]] on 1 January 1651. With Cromwell's forces threatening Charles's position in Scotland, it was decided to mount an attack on England, but many of their most experienced soldiers had been excluded on religious grounds by the Kirk Party, whose leaders also refused to participate, among them [[Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll|Lord Argyll]]. Opposition to what was primarily a Scottish army meant few English Royalists joined as it moved south, and the invasion ended in defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on 3 September 1651. [[Escape of Charles II|Charles managed to escape]] and landed in [[Normandy]] six weeks later on 16 October, even though there was a reward of £1,000 on his head, anyone caught helping him was at risk of being put to death, and he was difficult to disguise, being over {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}}, which was unusually tall for the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=98–128}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=53–69}}.</ref>{{efn|One thousand pounds was a vast sum at the time, greater than an average workman's lifetime earnings.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=117}} }}',
75 => '',
76 => '[[File:Charles II (de Champaigne).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Charles in exile, painted by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], c. 1653]]',
77 => '',
78 => 'Under the [[Instrument of Government]] passed by Parliament, Cromwell was appointed [[Lord Protector#Cromwellian Commonwealth|Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653, effectively placing the [[British Isles]] under military rule. Charles lived a life of leisure at [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] near Paris,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=54}} living on a grant from Louis XIV of 600 [[French livre|livres]] a month.<ref>[http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/charles2.htm Charles II of England]. Excerpted from: Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Vol XV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. 142.</ref> Charles could not obtain sufficient finance or support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government. Despite the [[Stuart family]] connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange, France and the [[Dutch Republic]] allied themselves with Cromwell's government from 1654, forcing Charles to leave France and turn to Spain for aid, which at that time ruled the [[Southern Netherlands]].{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=74–112}}',
79 => '',
80 => 'Charles made the [[Treaty of Brussels (1656)|Treaty of Brussels]] with Spain in 1656. This gathered Spanish support for a restoration in return for Charles's contribution to the war against France. Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects; this small, underpaid, poorly-equipped and ill-disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post-Restoration army.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=156–157}} The Commonwealth made the [[Treaty of Paris (1657)|Treaty of Paris]] with France in 1657 to join them in war against Spain in the Netherlands. Royalist supporters in the Spanish force were led by Charles's younger brother [[James, Duke of York]].<ref>Childs, John. ''Army of Charles II''. Routledge, 2013 p. 2</ref> At the [[Battle of the Dunes (1658)|Battle of the Dunes]] in 1658, as part of the larger Spanish force, Charles's army of around 2,000 clashed with Commonwealth troops fighting with the French. By the end of the battle Charles's force was about 1,000 and with Dunkirk given to the English the prospect of a Royalist expedition to England was dashed.<ref>Tucker, S ''Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict'' p. 212</ref>',
81 => '',
82 => '== Restoration ==',
83 => '{{further|Stuart Restoration}}',
84 => 'After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, Charles's initial chances of regaining the Crown seemed slim; Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. However, the new Lord Protector had little experience of either military or civil administration. In 1659, the [[Rump Parliament]] was recalled and Richard Cromwell resigned. During the civil and military unrest that followed, [[George Monck]], the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=160–165}} Monck and his army marched into the [[City of London]], and forced the Rump Parliament to re-admit members of the [[Long Parliament]] who had been excluded in December 1648, during [[Pride's Purge]]. Parliament dissolved itself, and there was a general election for the first time in almost 20 years.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], 16 March 1660.</ref> The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications intending to bring about the return of a Presbyterian majority.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}}',
85 => '',
86 => 'The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored, and the elections resulted in a [[Parliament of England|House of Commons]] that was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between [[Anglicans]] and Presbyterians.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=24–25}} The so-called [[Convention Parliament (1660)|Convention Parliament]] assembled on 25 April 1660, and soon afterwards welcomed the [[Declaration of Breda]], in which Charles promised lenience and tolerance. There would be liberty of conscience, and Anglican church policy would not be harsh. He would not exile past enemies nor confiscate their wealth. There would be pardons for nearly all his opponents except the [[regicides]]. Above all, Charles promised to rule in cooperation with Parliament.{{sfn|Haley|1985|p=5}} The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return, a message that reached Charles at [[Breda]] on 8 May 1660.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=131}} In Ireland, a [[Irish Convention (1660)|convention]] had been called earlier in the year and had already declared for Charles. On 14 May, he was proclaimed king in Dublin.{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}',
87 => '[[File:The arrival of King Charles II of England in Rotterdam, may 24 1660 (Lieve Pietersz. Verschuier, 1665).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Seascape of vessels along a low-lying coastline|Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by [[Lieve Verschuier]].]]',
88 => '',
89 => 'Charles set out for England from [[Scheveningen]], arrived in [[Dover]] on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May, his 30th birthday. Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to nearly all of Cromwell's supporters in the [[Act of Indemnity and Oblivion]], 50 people were specifically excluded.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=190}} In the end nine of the [[List of regicides of Charles I|regicides]] were executed:{{sfn|The Royal Household|2009}} they were [[hanged, drawn and quartered]], whereas others were given life imprisonment or excluded from office for life. The bodies of Oliver Cromwell, [[Henry Ireton]] and [[John Bradshaw (Judge)|John Bradshaw]] were subjected to [[posthumous execution|posthumous decapitations]].{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=185}}',
90 => '',
91 => 'The English Parliament granted Charles an annual income to run the government of £1.2 million,{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} generated largely from customs and excise duties. The grant, however, proved to be insufficient for most of Charles's reign. For the most part, the actual revenue was much lower, which led to attempts to economise at court by reducing the size and expenses of the [[royal household]]{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=94}} and raising money through unpopular innovations such as the [[hearth tax]].{{sfn|Seaward|2004}}',
92 => '',
93 => 'In the latter half of 1660, Charles's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his siblings [[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry]] and Mary of [[smallpox]]. At around the same time, [[Anne Hyde]], the daughter of Lord Chancellor [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Edward Hyde]], revealed that she was pregnant by Charles's brother James, whom she had secretly married. Edward Hyde, who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy, was created [[Earl of Clarendon]] and his position as Charles's favourite minister was strengthened.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=210–202}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=155–156}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp= 43–44}}.</ref>',
94 => '',
95 => '=== Clarendon Code ===',
96 => '[[File:Charles II by John Michael Wright.jpg|thumb|Coronation portrait: Charles was crowned at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 23 April 1661.<ref>Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]], [http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html 23 April 1661] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429202445/http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html |date=29 April 2018 }}</ref>|alt=Charles wearing a crown and ermine-lined robe]]',
97 => 'The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660, and, shortly after Charles's [[Coronation of the British monarch|English coronation]], the second English Parliament of the reign assembled. Dubbed the [[Cavalier Parliament]], it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican. It sought to discourage [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|non-conformity]] to the [[Church of England]] and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance. The [[Corporation Act 1661]] required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=169}} the [[Act of Uniformity 1662]] made the use of the [[Book of Common Prayer (1662)|1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'']] compulsory; the [[Conventicle Act 1664]] prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people, except under the auspices of the Church of England; and the [[Five Mile Act 1665]] prohibited expelled non-conforming clergymen from coming within five miles (8 km) of a parish from which they had been banished. The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles's reign. The Acts became known as the [[Clarendon Code]], after Lord Clarendon, even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=229}}',
98 => '',
99 => 'The Restoration was accompanied by social change. [[Puritanism]] lost its momentum. Theatres reopened after having been closed during the [[Interregnum (England)|protectorship]] of Oliver Cromwell, and bawdy "[[Restoration comedy]]" became a recognisable genre. Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by "their natural performers", rather than by boys as was often the practice before;{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=185}} and [[Restoration literature]] celebrated or reacted to the restored court, which included [[libertine]]s such as [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester|Lord Rochester]]. Of Charles II, Rochester supposedly said:',
100 => '',
101 => '{{Poemquote|We have a pretty, witty king,',
102 => 'Whose word no man relies on,',
103 => 'He never said a foolish thing,',
104 => 'And never did a wise one<ref>Papers of [[Thomas Hearne (antiquarian)|Thomas Hearne]] (17 November 1706) quoted in {{harvnb|Doble|1885|p=308}}.</ref>}}',
105 => '',
106 => 'To which Charles is reputed to have replied "that the matter was easily accounted for: For that his discourse was his own, his actions were the ministry's".{{sfn|Hume|1778|p=212}}',
107 => '',
108 => '=== Great Plague and Great Fire ===',
109 => 'In 1665, the [[Great Plague of London]] began, peaking in September with up to 7,000 deaths per week.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=238}} Charles, his family, and the court fled London in July to [[Salisbury]]; Parliament met in [[Oxford]].{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=120}} Plague cases ebbed over the winter, and Charles returned to London in February 1666.{{sfn|Falkus|1972|p=105}}',
110 => '',
111 => 'After a long spell of hot and dry weather through mid-1666, the [[Great Fire of London]] started on 2 September 1666 in [[Pudding Lane]]. Fanned by strong winds and fed by wood and fuel stockpiled for winter, the fire destroyed about 13,200 houses and 87 churches, including [[St Paul's Cathedral]].{{sfn|Porter|2007}} Charles and his brother James joined and directed the firefighting effort. The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=243–247}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=121–122}}.</ref>',
112 => '',
113 => '== Foreign policy and marriage ==',
114 => '[[File:English School - King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza.png|300px|thumb|Charles and Catherine]]',
115 => 'Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a [[Portuguese Restoration War|war against Spain]] to restore its independence after a [[dynastic union]] of sixty years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] began during his father's reign and upon the restoration, [[Luisa de Guzmán|Queen Luísa of Portugal]], acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance.<ref>Clyde L. Gros, "The Anglo-Portuguese Marriage of 1662" ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 10#3 (1930), pp. 313–352 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506378 online]</ref> On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed; England acquired Catherine's [[dowry]] of the port of [[Portuguese Tangier|Tangier]] in North Africa, the [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] in India (which had a major influence on the development of the [[British Empire]]), valuable trading privileges in Brazil and the [[East Indies]], religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns (equivalent to £300,000 then{{efn|Equivalent to between £42.7 million (real cost) and £12.7 billion (economic share) as of 2021.<ref>"Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present", [https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth], 2023</ref>}}); while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} Catherine journeyed from Portugal to [[Portsmouth]] on 13–14 May 1662,{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies—a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}}',
116 => '',
117 => 'The same year, in an unpopular move, Charles [[Sale of Dunkirk|sold Dunkirk]] to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=93, 99}} The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances, as it cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=184}}',
118 => '',
119 => '[[File:CharlesII1667Medal.jpg|thumb|left|Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by [[John Roettier]] to commemorate the [[Second Dutch War]]|alt=Obverse of medal]]',
120 => 'Before Charles's restoration, the [[Navigation Acts]] of 1650 had hurt [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the [[First Dutch War]] (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] appeared in November 1660 with the [[Dutch Gift]].{{sfn|Israel|1998|pp=749–750}} The [[Second Dutch War]] (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]], but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on England (the [[Raid on the Medway]]) when they sailed up the [[River Thames]] to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, [[HMS Royal Charles (1655)|''Royal Charles'']], which was taken back to the Netherlands as a [[Prize (law)|prize]].{{efn|The ship's [[Transom (nautical)|transom]] is on display at the [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam.}} The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]].',
121 => '',
122 => 'As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=250–251}} Clarendon fled to France when impeached for [[high treason]] (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical<!--Macaulay, (1849) ''The History of England from the Accession of James II'', p.152--> [[acronym]] as the [[Cabal]]—[[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford|Clifford]], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Arlington]], [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Buckingham]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury)]] and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Lauderdale]]. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=254}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=175–176}}.</ref>',
123 => '',
124 => 'In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden, and with its former enemy the Netherlands, to oppose Louis XIV in the [[War of Devolution]]. Louis made peace with the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]], but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the [[Treaty of Dover]], under which Louis would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=275}} Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=275–276}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p= 180}}.</ref> It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert.<ref>For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, {{harvnb|Seaward|2004}}; for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}}.</ref>',
125 => '',
126 => 'Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the [[East India Company]] the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and [[criminal jurisdiction]] over its possessions in the Indies.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=835}} Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of [[Bombay]] to the company for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.{{sfn|British Library Learning}} The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain; [[English Tangier|Tangier]] was abandoned in 1684.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=426}} In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire [[Hudson Bay]] drainage basin to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] by royal charter, and named the territory [[Rupert's Land]], after his cousin [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]], the company's first governor.{{sfn|''Hudson's Bay Company''|2017}}',
127 => '',
128 => '== Conflict with Parliament ==',
129 => 'Although previously favourable to the Crown, the Cavalier Parliament was alienated by the king's wars and religious policies during the 1670s. In 1672, Charles issued the [[Declaration of Indulgence (1672)|Royal Declaration of Indulgence]], in which he purported to suspend all [[penal law (Britain)|penal laws]] against Catholics and other religious dissenters. In the same year, he openly supported Catholic France and started the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=305–308}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=284–285}}.</ref>',
130 => '',
131 => 'The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the king had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament. Charles withdrew the Declaration, and also agreed to the [[Test Act]], which not only required public officials to receive the [[Eucharist|sacrament]] under the forms prescribed by the Church of England,{{sfn|Raithby|1819|pp=782–785}} but also later forced them to denounce [[transubstantiation]] and the Catholic Mass as "superstitious and idolatrous".{{sfn|Raithby|1819a| pp=894–896}} Clifford, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned rather than take the oath, and died shortly after, possibly from suicide.',
132 => '',
133 => 'By 1674, England had gained nothing from the Anglo-Dutch War, and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. The power of the Cabal waned and that of Clifford's replacement, [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|Lord Danby]] grew, as did opposition towards him and the court. Politicians and peers believed that Charles II favoured a pro-French foreign policy that desired to emulate the absolutist (and Catholic) sovereignty of Louis XIV. In numerous pamphlets and parliamentary speeches between 1675 and 1678, "popery and arbitrary government" were decried for fear of the loss of English liberties and freedoms.<ref>{{citation|last=Mansfield|first=Andrew|date=3 September 2021|title=The First Earl of Shaftesbury's Resolute Conscience and Aristocratic Constitutionalism|journal=The Historical Journal|volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=969–991|doi=10.1017/s0018246x21000662|issn=0018-246X|doi-access=free}}</ref>',
134 => '',
135 => '[[File:Charles-pineapple.jpg|thumb|right|Charles was presented with the first [[pineapple]] grown in England in 1675. Painting by [[Hendrick Danckerts]].|alt=Charles accepts a pineapple from a kneeling man in front of a grand country house]] ',
136 => 'Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir; her four pregnancies had ended in [[miscarriage]]s and [[stillbirth]]s in 1662, February 1666, May 1668, and June 1669.{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}} Charles's [[heir presumptive]] was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Partly to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic, Charles agreed that James's daughter, [[Mary II of England|Mary]], should marry the Protestant [[William III of England|William of Orange]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=347–348}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=345–346}}.</ref> In 1678, [[Titus Oates]], who had been alternately an Anglican and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest, falsely warned of a "[[Popish Plot]]" to assassinate the king, even accusing the queen of complicity. Charles did not believe the allegations, but ordered his chief minister Lord Danby to investigate. While Danby seems to have been rightly sceptical about Oates's claims, the Cavalier Parliament took them seriously.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=359–362}} The people were seized with an anti-Catholic hysteria;{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=360}} judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators; numerous innocent individuals were executed.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=375}}',
137 => '',
138 => 'Later in 1678, Danby was impeached by the House of Commons on the charge of [[high treason]]. Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France, Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV, trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money. Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France, but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles's wishes. Unfortunately for him, the House of Commons failed to view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal, instead believing that he was the author of the policy. To save Danby from the impeachment trial, Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=278, 301–304}}',
139 => '',
140 => 'The new English Parliament, which met in March of the same year, was quite hostile to Charles. Many members feared that he had intended to use the standing army to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism. However, with insufficient funds voted by Parliament, Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops. Having lost the support of Parliament, Danby resigned his post of [[Lord High Treasurer]], but received a pardon from the king. In defiance of the royal will, the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings, and that the pardon was therefore invalid. When the [[House of Lords]] attempted to impose the punishment of exile—which the Commons thought too mild—the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses. As he had been required to do so many times during his reign, Charles bowed to the wishes of his opponents, committing Danby to the [[Tower of London]], in which he was held for another five years.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=367–374}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=306–309}}.</ref>',
141 => '',
142 => '== Science ==',
143 => '[[File:King Charles II of England (1630-1685).TIF|thumb|Portrait by [[John Riley (painter)|John Riley]], {{Circa|1683–1684}}|alt=Oil portrait of Charles with heavy jowls, a wig of long black curls and in a suit of armour]]',
144 => 'In Charles's early childhood, [[William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle]], was governor of the royal household and Brian Duppa, the [[Dean of Christ Church, Oxford]], was his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}} Neither man thought that the study of science subjects was appropriate for a future king,<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=23}}</ref> and Newcastle even advised against studying any subject too seriously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Falkus|1972|p=17}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=9}}</ref> However, as Charles grew older, the renowned surgeon [[William Harvey]] was appointed his tutor.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=7}}<ref name=Carvalho>{{Cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Cristina |title=Charles II: A Man Caught Between Tradition and Science |journal=Via Panorâmica |date=2014 |volume=3 |pages=5–24 |hdl=10400.26/7191 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> He was famous for his work on blood circulation in the human body and already held the position of physician to Charles I; his studies were to influence Charles's own attitude to science. As the king's chief physician, Harvey accompanied Charles I to the [[Battle of Edgehill]] and, although some details are uncertain,{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=15}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=D |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=October 1946 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=405 |pmid=20323936 |pmc=1583020}}; {{cite book|last=Young|first=P.|title=Edgehill 1642|publisher=Windrush Press|location=Gloucester|year=1995|page=144}}</ref> he had charge of Prince Charles and the Duke of York in the morning,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=36}} but the two boys were back with the king for the start of battle.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=79}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stewart |first=D. |title=Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill |journal=British Medical Journal| date=25 May 1946 |volume=1 |issue=4455 |page=808 |pmc=2058941 |jstor=20366436 |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4455.808}}</ref> Later in the afternoon, with their father concerned for their safety, the two princes left the battlefield accompanied by Sir W. Howard and his pensioners.{{sfn|Scott|Turton|von Arni|2004|p=130}}',
145 => '',
146 => 'During his exile, in France, Charles continued his education, including physics, chemistry and mathematics.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=220}} His tutors included the cleric [[John Earle (bishop)|John Earle]], well known for his satirical book ''Microcosmographie'', with whom he studied Latin and Greek, and [[Thomas Hobbes]], the philosopher and author of ''Leviathan'', with whom he studied mathematics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Hobbes (1588–1697)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/hobbes_thomas.shtml|publisher=BBC|date=2014}}</ref> In France, Charles assisted his childhood friend, the [[Earl of Buckingham]], with his experiments in [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=182}}</ref> with the Earl convinced he was close to producing the [[philosopher's stone]]. Although some of Charles's studies, while abroad, may have helped to pass the time,{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=30}} on his return to England he was already knowledgeable in the mathematics of navigation and was a competent chemist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}</ref> Such was his knowledge of naval architecture that he was able to participate in technical discussions on the subject with [[Samuel Pepys]], [[William Petty]] and [[John Evelyn]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}</ref>',
147 => '',
148 => 'The new concepts and discoveries being found at this time fascinated Charles,{{Sfn|Hanrahan|2006|p=25}} not only in science and medicine, but in topics such as botany and gardening.<ref name=Carvalho/>{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} A French traveller, Sorbier, while visiting the English court, was astonished by the extent of the king's knowledge.{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=209}} The king freely indulged in his many interests, including astronomy, which had been stimulated by a visit to [[Gresham College]], in October 1660, to see the telescopes made by the astronomer [[Sir Paul Neile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jardine |first=L. |title=On a Grander Scale |publisher=Harper Collins |location=London |date=2002 |page=166}}; {{cite web |last=Hartlib |first=S. |title=Letter: Hartlib to John Worthington |url=https://www.dhi.ac.uk/hartlib/view?docset=additional?docname=WORTH_17@term0=transtext_gresham#highlight}} (search for 15 October 1660)</ref> Charles was so impressed by what he saw that he ordered his own 36' telescope which he had installed in the Privy Garden at [[Whitehall]].<ref name=Wright2000>{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=David |title=The astronomy in Pepys' Diary |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |date=August 2000 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=4.23–4.27 |doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00423.x |s2cid=122377967 |doi-access=free}}</ref> He would invite his friends and acquaintances to view the heavens through his new telescope and, in May 1661, Evelyn describes his visit to the Garden, with several other scientists, to view [[Saturn's rings]].{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=357}} Charles also had a laboratory installed, in Whitehall, within easy access to his bedroom.{{Sfn|Pepys|1906b|p=611}}<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley>{{cite book|last=Ashley|first=M.|title=England in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Penguin|location=London|year=1958|pages=153–154}}</ref>',
149 => '',
150 => 'From the beginning of his reign, Charles appointed experts to assist him in his scientific pursuits. These included: [[Timothy Clarke]] a celebrated anatomist, who performed some dissections for the king;{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=365}} [[Robert Morison]] as his chief botanist (Charles had his own botanical garden);{{Sfn|Falkus|1972|p=82}} [[Edmund Dickinson]], a chemist and alchemist, who was tasked with carrying out experiments in the king's laboratory;<ref>{{Cite DNB |wstitle= Dickinson, Edmund | volume= 15 |last= Harrison |first= Robert |author-link= |pages = 33-34 |short=1}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Blomberg |first=W. N. |title=An Account of the Life and Writings of Edmund Dickinson |publisher=Montagu |location=London |date=1739 |page=89 |url=https://archive.org/details/b30549085/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> [[Sir Thomas Williams, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Williams]], who was skillful in compounding and inventing medicines, some of which were prepared in the royal presence;{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=96}} and [[Nicasius le Febure]] (or Nicolas LeFevre), who was invited to England as royal professor of chemistry and apothecary to the king's household.<ref>{{cite web |title=LeFevre N. |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/le-febvre-nicaise}}</ref> Evelyn visited his laboratory with the king.{{Sfn|Evelyn|1952|p=376}}',
151 => '',
152 => 'In addition to his many other interests, the king was fascinated by clock mechanisms<ref name=Carvalho/> and had clocks distributed all around Whitehall, including seven of them in his bedroom.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} [[Robert Bruce, 1st Earl of Ailesbury|Robert Bruce]] (later Earl of Ailesbury), a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, complained that the continual noise of the clocks chiming disturbed his sleep, whenever it was necessary for him to stay close by to the king.{{Sfn|Bruce|1890|p=87}} Also, Charles had a sundial installed in the Privy Garden,{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} by which he could set his personal [[pocket watch]].{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} (For a while, the king personally recorded the performance of the latest spring-balance watch, presented to him by [[Robert Hooke]].{{sfn|Jardine|2004|p=202}})',
153 => '',
154 => 'In 1662, Charles was pleased to grant a royal charter to a group of scientists and others who had established a formal society in 1660 to give a more academic and learned approach to science and to conduct experiments in physics and mathematics.<ref name=Ashley/><ref>{{cite book|last=Purver|first=M.|title=The Royal Society, Concept and Creation|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|location=London|year=1967|pages=21, 85, 189}}</ref> [[Sir Robert Moray]], a member of Charles's court, played an important part in achieving this outcome, and he was to be the first president of this new [[Royal Society]]. Over the years, Moray was an important go-between for Charles and the Society,{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=251}} and his standing with the king was so high that he was given access to the royal laboratory to perform his own experiments there.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burnet|1847|p=167}}; {{Harvnb|Airy|1904|p=198}}; {{Harvnb|Uglow|2009|p=228}}</ref>',
155 => '',
156 => 'Charles never attended a Society meeting,{{Sfn|Jardine|2004|p=106}} but he remained aware of the activities there from his discussions with Society members, especially Moray.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=228}} In addition, [[Robert Boyle]] gave him a private viewing of the Boyle/Hooke [[air-pump]],<ref name=West>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Robert Boyle's landmark book of 1660 with the first experiments on rarified air |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |date=January 2005 |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00759.2004 |pmid=15591301 |s2cid=5837786}}</ref><ref name=Nichols>{{cite book |last=Nichols |first=R. |title=Robert Hooke and the Royal Society |publisher=Book Guild |location=Sussex, England |date=1999 |page=43}}</ref> which was used at many of the Wednesday meetings. However, Charles preferred experiments that had an immediate practical outcome{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=250}} and he laughed at the efforts of the Society members "to weigh air".{{Sfn|Pepys|1906a|p=451}} He seemed unable to grasp the significance of the basic laws of physics being established at that time, including [[Boyle's Law]] and [[Hooke's Law]] and the concept of atmospheric pressure<ref name=West/> and the [[barometer]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=West |first1=John B. |title=Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure |journal=Physiology |date=March 2013 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=66–73 |doi=10.1152/physiol.00053.2012 |pmid=23455767 |pmc=3768090}}</ref> and the importance of air for the support of life.<ref name=Nichols/>',
157 => '',
158 => 'Although Charles lost interest in the activities of the society, he continued to support scientific and commercial endeavours. He founded the Mathematical School at [[Christ's Hospital]] in 1673 and, two years later, following concerns over French advances in astronomy, he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] at Greenwich.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|pp=241–242}} He maintained an interest in chemistry and regularly visited his private laboratory.<ref name=Wright2000/><ref name=Ashley/> There, dissections were occasionally carried out, and observed by the king.{{Sfn|Uglow|2009|p=221}} Pepys noted in his diary that on the morning of Friday, 15 January 1669, while he was walking to Whitehall, he met the king who invited him to view his chemistry laboratory. Pepys confessed to finding what he saw there beyond him.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pepys |first=Samuel|work=The Diary of Samuel Pepys|title=Friday 15 January 1668/69|date=15 January 2012 |url=https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15/}}</ref>',
159 => '',
160 => 'Charles developed painful gout in later life which limited the daily walks that he took regularly when younger. His keenness was now channelled to his laboratory where he would devote himself to his experiments, for hours at a time,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheatley |first=H. B. |title=Samuel Pepys and the World he Lived In |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co. |location=London |date=1907 |edition=1st |orig-date=1880 |page=167 |url=https://archive.org/details/samuelpepysandth51757gut}}</ref>{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|p=586}} sometimes helped by Moray.{{Sfn|Airy|1904|p=198}} Charles was particularly interested in alchemy, which he had first encountered many years earlier, during his exile with the Duke of Buckingham. Charles resumed his experiments with mercury and would spend whole mornings attempting to distill it. Heating mercury in an open crucible releases mercury vapour, which is toxic and may have contributed to his later ill health.{{Sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=567–596}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Homes|first=F.|title=The Sickly Stewarts|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=2003|pages=104–108}}</ref>',
161 => '',
162 => '== Later years ==',
163 => 'Charles faced a political storm over his brother James, a Catholic, being next in line to the throne. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury]] (previously Baron Ashley and a member of the Cabal, which had fallen apart in 1673). Lord Shaftesbury's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the [[Exclusion Bill]], which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the [[Succession to the British throne|line of succession]]. Some even sought to confer the Crown on the Protestant [[Duke of Monmouth]], the eldest of Charles's illegitimate children. The ''Abhorrers''—those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent—were named [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]] (after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits), while the ''Petitioners''—those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill—were called [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] (after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians).<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=373, 377, 391}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=310–320}}.</ref>',
164 => '',
165 => '===Absolute monarch===',
166 => 'Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed, and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials, which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism, Charles dissolved the English Parliament, for a second time that year, in mid-1679. Charles's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled; within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again, after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill. When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681, Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=376–401}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=314–345}}.</ref> During the 1680s, however, popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed, and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty. Lord Shaftesbury was prosecuted (albeit unsuccessfully) for treason in 1681 and later fled to Holland, where he died. For the remainder of his reign, Charles ruled without Parliament.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=430–441}}',
167 => '',
168 => 'Charles's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants. Protestant conspirators formulated the [[Rye House Plot]], a plan to murder him and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in [[Newmarket, Suffolk|Newmarket]]. A great fire, however, destroyed Charles's lodgings at Newmarket, which forced him to leave the races early, thus inadvertently avoiding the planned attack. News of the failed plot was leaked.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=426}} Protestant politicians such as the [[Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], [[Algernon Sydney]], [[William Russell, Lord Russell|Lord Russell]] and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot. Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange. Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the king's Catholic brother, James, acquired greater influence at court.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=420–423}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=366–368}}.</ref> Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=437}}',
169 => '',
170 => 'Thus through the last years of Charles's reign, his approach towards his opponents changed, and he was compared by Whigs to the contemporary Louis XIV of France, with his form of government in those years termed "slavery". Many of them were prosecuted and their estates seized, with Charles replacing judges and sheriffs at will and packing juries to achieve conviction. To destroy opposition in London, Charles first disenfranchised many Whigs in the 1682 municipal elections, and in 1683 the [[Ancient borough#Charters of incorporation|London charter]] was forfeited. In retrospect, the use of the judicial system by Charles (and later his brother and heir James) as a tool against opposition, helped establish the idea of [[separation of powers]] between the judiciary and the Crown in Whig thought.<ref>Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). ''The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688–91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts'' (Vol. 16), Chapter 3. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>',
171 => '',
172 => '=== Death ===',
173 => 'Charles suffered a sudden [[apoplectic fit]] on the morning of 2 February 1685, and died four days later at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], at 11:45 am, aged 54.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=443}}.</ref> The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many, including one of the royal doctors, but a more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of [[uremia|uraemia]], a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction.{{sfn|BMJ|1938}} Charles had a laboratory among his many interests where, prior to his illness, he had been experimenting with [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. Mercuric poisoning can produce irreversible kidney damage, but the case for that being a cause of his death is unproven.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=586–587}} In the days between his collapse and his death, Charles endured a variety of torturous treatments, including [[bloodletting]], [[laxative|purging]] and [[cupping therapy|cupping]], in the hope of effecting a recovery,{{sfn|Roberts|2015}} which may have exacerbated his uraemia through dehydration, rather than helping to alleviate it.<ref>{{citation |last1=Aronson |first1=J. K. |last2= Heneghan |first2=C. |title=The death of King Charles II |date=17 October 2018 |publisher=Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) |location=Oxford|url=https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/news/views/the-death-of-king-charles-ii |access-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>',
174 => '',
175 => 'On his deathbed, Charles asked his brother, James, to look after his mistresses: "be well to [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Portsmouth]], and let not poor [[Nell Gwyn|Nelly]] starve".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=456}}<!--This is a paraphrase used by Fraser--> He told his courtiers, "I am sorry, gentlemen, for being such a time a-dying",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} and expressed regret at his treatment of his wife. On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church, in the presence of Father [[John Huddleston]], though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed, and with whom the idea originated, is unclear.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}} He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] "without any manner of pomp"{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=73}} on 14 February.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=459}}',
176 => '',
177 => 'Charles was succeeded by his brother James II and VII.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |publisher=royal.uk |access-date=7 May 2023}}</ref>',
178 => '',
179 => '== Legacy ==',
180 => '[[File:Charles II statue. Parliament Square Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Statue of Charles II as a Roman Caesar, erected 1685, [[Parliament Square, Edinburgh]]|alt=Lead equestrian statue]]',
181 => '',
182 => 'The escapades of Charles after his defeat at the [[Battle of Worcester]] remained important to him throughout his life. He delighted and bored listeners with tales of his escape for many years. Numerous accounts of his adventures were published, particularly in the immediate aftermath of the Restoration. Though not averse to his escape being ascribed to divine providence, Charles himself seems to have delighted most in his ability to sustain his disguise as a man of ordinary origins, and to move unrecognised through his realm. Ironic and cynical, Charles took pleasure in stories that demonstrated the undetectable nature of any inherent majesty he possessed.{{sfn|Weber|1988|pages=492–493, 505–506}}',
183 => '',
184 => 'Charles had no legitimate children, but acknowledged a dozen by seven mistresses,{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=411}} including five by [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers, Lady Castlemaine]], for whom the [[Duke of Cleveland|Dukedom of Cleveland]] was created. His other mistresses included [[Moll Davis]], [[Nell Gwyn]], [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]], [[Catherine Pegge]], [[Lucy Walter]] and [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth]]. As a result, in his lifetime he was often nicknamed "[[Old Rowley]]", the name of his favourite racehorse, notable as a stallion.{{sfn|Pearson|1960|p=147}}',
185 => '',
186 => 'Charles's subjects resented paying taxes that were spent on his mistresses and their children,{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=338}} many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms. The present [[Duke of Buccleuch|Dukes of Buccleuch]], [[Duke of Richmond|Richmond]], [[Duke of Grafton|Grafton]] and [[Duke of St Albans|St Albans]] descend from Charles in unbroken male line.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=413}} Charles II is an ancestor of both [[King Charles III]]'s first wife, [[Diana, Princess of Wales]],{{efn|Diana was descended from two of Charles II's illegitimate sons: the [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Dukes of Grafton]] and [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Richmond]].}} and his second wife, [[Queen Camilla]]. Charles and Diana's son, [[William, Prince of Wales]], is likely to be the first British monarch descended from Charles II.',
187 => '',
188 => 'Charles's eldest son, the [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|Duke of Monmouth]], led a rebellion against James II, but was defeated at the [[Battle of Sedgemoor]] on 6 July 1685, captured and executed. James was eventually dethroned in 1688, in the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]].',
189 => '',
190 => '[[File:Rhc-charles2.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Charles II (c. 1682) in ancient Roman dress by [[Grinling Gibbons]] at the [[Royal Hospital Chelsea]]|alt=Gilt statue]]',
191 => '',
192 => 'In the words of his contemporary [[John Evelyn]], "a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections, debonair, easy of access, not bloody or cruel".{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=382–383}} [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], wrote more lewdly of Charles:',
193 => '',
194 => '{{Poem quote|Restless he rolls from whore to whore',
195 => 'A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=95}}}}',
196 => '',
197 => 'Looking back on Charles's reign, Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible [[despotism]]. Professor [[Ronald Hutton]] summarises a polarised historiography:',
198 => '',
199 => '{{Poem quote|For the past hundred years, books on Charles II have been sharply divided into two categories. Academic historians have concentrated mainly on his activities as a statesman and emphasised his duplicity, self-indulgence, poor judgement and lack of an aptitude for business or for stable and trustworthy government. Non-academic authors have concentrated mainly on his social and cultural world, emphasising his charm, affability, worldliness, tolerance, turning him into one of the most popular of all English monarchs in novels, plays and films.<ref>{{citation|first=Ronald |last=Hutton|title=A Gambling Man: Charles II and the Restoration|journal=History Today|date=December 2009|volume=59|issue=12|pages=55+}}</ref>}}',
200 => '',
201 => 'Hutton says Charles was a popular king in his own day and a "legendary figure" in British history.',
202 => '',
203 => '{{Poem quote|Other kings had inspired more respect, but perhaps only Henry VIII had endeared himself to the popular imagination as much as this one. He was the playboy monarch, naughty but nice, the hero of all who prized urbanity, tolerance, good humour, and the pursuit of pleasure above the more earnest, sober, or material virtues.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=446}}}}',
204 => '',
205 => 'The anniversary of the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] (which was also Charles's birthday)—29 May—was recognised in England until the mid-nineteenth century as [[Oak Apple Day]], after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell. Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=118}} Charles II is [[Cultural depictions of Charles II of England|depicted extensively in art, literature and media]]. [[Charleston, South Carolina]], and [[South Kingstown, Rhode Island]], are named after him. King Charles's Island and Charles Island are previous names of both [[Floreana Island]] and [[Española Island]] in the [[Galapagos Archipelago]], both in his honour.',
206 => '',
207 => '== Titles, styles, honours and arms ==',
208 => '=== Titles and styles ===',
209 => 'The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles II was "Charles the Second, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Monarchs of Scotland|Scotland]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc."<ref>''Guinness Book of Answers'' (1991), p. 708</ref> The [[English claims to the French throne|claim to France]] was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English monarch since [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.',
210 => '',
211 => '=== Honours ===',
212 => '* '''KG''': [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], ''21 May 1638''{{sfn|Weir|1996| pp=255–257}}',
213 => '',
214 => '=== Arms ===',
215 => 'Charles's [[Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales|coat of arms as Prince of Wales]] was the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|royal arms]] (which he later inherited), differenced by a [[Label (heraldry)|label]] of three points [[Argent]].{{sfn|Ashmole|1715|p=534}} His arms as monarch were: [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], I and IV Grandquarterly, [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]] three [[fleurs-de-lis]] [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] (for France) and [[Gules]] three lions [[Attitude (heraldry)#Passant|passant guardant]] in [[Pale (heraldry)|pale]] Or ([[Royal Arms of England|for England]]); II Or a lion [[rampant]] within a double [[tressure]] flory-counter-flory Gules ([[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|for Scotland]]); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ([[Coat of arms of Ireland|for Ireland]]).',
216 => '',
217 => '{| border="0" align="center" width="70%"',
218 => '|-',
219 => '!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of the Stuart Princes of Wales (1610-1688).svg|center|200px]]',
220 => '!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of England (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]',
221 => '!width=33% |[[File:Coat of Arms of Scotland (1660-1689).svg|center|200px]]',
222 => '|-',
223 => '|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms as Prince of Wales</div>',
224 => '|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II as king (outside Scotland)</div>',
225 => '|<div style="text-align: center;">Coat of arms of Charles II used as king in Scotland</div>',
226 => '|}',
227 => '',
228 => '==Issue==',
229 => 'By [[Lucy Walter]] (c. 1630 – 1658):',
230 => '',
231 => '* [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth|James Crofts, later Scott]] (1649–1685), created [[Duke of Monmouth]] (1663) in England and [[Duke of Buccleuch]] (1663) in Scotland. Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met, and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II, but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers, Colonel Robert Sidney, rather than Charles. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James in 1651, but Charles II was not the father, since he and Walter parted in September 1649.{{sfn|Weir|1996|pp=255–257}}',
232 => '',
233 => 'By [[Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon|Elizabeth Killigrew]] (1622–1680), daughter of Sir [[Robert Killigrew]], married [[Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon]], in 1660:',
234 => '',
235 => '* [[Charlotte FitzRoy, Countess of Yarmouth|Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy]] (1650–1684), married firstly [[James Howard (dramatist)|James Howard]] and secondly [[William Paston, 2nd Earl of Yarmouth]]',
236 => '',
237 => 'By [[Catherine Pegge]]:',
238 => '',
239 => '* [[Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth|Charles FitzCharles]] (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created [[Earl of Plymouth]] (1675)',
240 => '* [[Catherine FitzCharles]] (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk){{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=125}}',
241 => '',
242 => 'By [[Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland|Barbara Villiers]] (1641–1709), wife of [[Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine]], and created [[Duke of Cleveland|Duchess of Cleveland]] in her own right:',
243 => '',
244 => '* [[Anne Lennard, Countess of Sussex|Lady Anne Palmer (Fitzroy)]] (1661–1722), married [[Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex]]. She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her.{{sfn|Cokayne|1926|pp=706–708}}',
245 => '* [[Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland|Charles Fitzroy]] (1662–1730), created [[Duke of Southampton]] (1675), became 2nd [[Duke of Cleveland]] (1709)',
246 => '* [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton|Henry Fitzroy]] (1663–1690), created [[Earl of Euston]] (1672), [[Duke of Grafton]] (1675)',
247 => '* [[Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield|Charlotte Fitzroy]] (1664–1717), married [[Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield]]',
248 => '* [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland|George Fitzroy]] (1665–1716), created [[Earl of Northumberland]] (1674), [[Duke of Northumberland]] (1678)',
249 => '* ([[Lady Barbara FitzRoy|Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy]] (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of [[John Churchill]], later [[Dukes of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], who was another of Cleveland's many lovers,{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=97, 123}} and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.{{sfn|Fraser|1979|pp=65, 286}})',
250 => '',
251 => 'By [[Nell Gwyn]] (1650–1687):',
252 => '',
253 => '* [[Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans|Charles Beauclerk]] (1670–1726), created [[Duke of St Albans]] (1684)',
254 => '* James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)',
255 => '[[File:Mignard, Louise de Kérouaille.jpg|thumb|Louise de Kérouaille with unknown attendant, painted in France by [[Pierre Mignard]], 1682<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw05102/Louise-de-Kroualle-Duchess-of-Portsmouth-with-an-unknown-female-attendant|title=Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth with an unknown female attendant|publisher=National Portrait Gallery|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref>]]',
256 => 'By [[Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth|Louise Renée de Penancoet de Kérouaille]] (1649–1734), created [[Duke of Portsmouth|Duchess of Portsmouth]] in her own right (1673):',
257 => '',
258 => '* [[Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond|Charles Lennox]] (1672–1723), created [[Duke of Richmond]] (1675) in England and [[Duke of Lennox]] (1675) in Scotland.',
259 => '',
260 => 'By [[Moll Davis|Mary 'Moll' Davis]], courtesan and actress of repute:{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=287}}',
261 => '',
262 => '* [[Lady Mary Tudor]] (1673–1726), married [[Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater]]; after Edward's death, she married [[Henry Graham (of Levens)]], and upon his death she married James Rooke.',
263 => '',
264 => 'Other probable mistresses include:',
265 => '',
266 => '* Christabella Wyndham<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=5}}.</ref>',
267 => '* [[Hortense Mancini]], Duchess of Mazarin<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=341–342}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=336}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p=228}}.</ref>',
268 => '* [[Winifred Wells]] – one of Queen Catherine's Maids of Honour<ref name="mrs">{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=285}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=262}}.</ref>',
269 => '* Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman<ref name="mrs"/>',
270 => '* Mrs Knight – a famous singer{{sfn|BBC staff|2003}}',
271 => '* [[Elizabeth, Countess of Falmouth|Elizabeth Berkeley, née Bagot, Dowager Countess of Falmouth]] – the widow of [[Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth]]<ref name="mrs"/>{{sfn|Melville|2005|p=91}}',
272 => '* Elizabeth Fitzgerald, [[Earl of Kildare|Countess of Kildare]]<ref name="mrs"/>',
273 => '',
274 => 'Letters claiming that Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret bore Charles a son named [[James de la Cloche]] in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=43–44}}; {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=25}}.</ref>',
275 => '',
276 => '== Genealogical tables==',
277 => '{{chart top|The House of Stuart and their relations<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|p=5}}.</ref>}}',
278 => '{{chart/start|align=center}}',
279 => '{{chart |border=0| | | | | | | |James|y|Anne| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Henry|y|Marie|James=[[James I of England]]<br />1566–1625|Anne=[[Anne of Denmark]]<br>1574–1619|Henry=[[Henry IV of France]]<br>1553–1610|Marie=[[Marie de' Medici]]<br>1575–1642}}',
280 => '{{chart |border=0| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}',
281 => '{{chart |border=0| | |Elizabeth| | | | | | | | | | | |Charles|y|Henrietta| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Louis| | | |Charles=[[Charles I of England]]<br />1600–1649|Elizabeth=[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia|Elizabeth]]<br />1596–1662|Henrietta=[[Henrietta Maria of France]]<br>1609–1669|Louis=[[Louis XIII of France]]<br>1601–1643}}',
282 => '{{chart|border=0| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}',
283 => '{{chart|border=0|Rupert| |Sophia| | Charles| |Mary|y|William| |Anne|y|James|y|Maria| |Henrietta|y|Philip| |Louis|Anne=[[Anne Hyde]]<br />1637–1671|James=[[James II of England]]<br />1633–1701|Maria=[[Mary of Modena]]<br />1658–1718|Mary=[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]]<br />1631–1660|Charles=Charles II of England<br />1630–1685|Sophia=[[Sophia of Hanover]]<br />1630–1714|Henrietta=[[Henrietta of England|Henrietta]]<br>1644–1670|Older=''[[Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia#Issue|Older children]]''|William=[[William II of Orange]]<br>1626–1650|Philip=[[Philip I of Orléans]]<br>1640–1701|Louis=[[Louis XIV of France]]<br>1638–1715|Rupert=[[Rupert of the Rhine]]<br>1619–1682}}',
284 => '{{chart |border=0| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | |}}',
285 => '{{chart |border=0| | | | |George| | | | | | | |William|~|Mary| |Anne| |James| | | |Marie| |AnneM| | | | | |Anne=[[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne of Great Britain]]<br />1665–1714|Mary=[[Mary II of England]]<br />1662–1694|William=[[William III of England]]<br />1650–1702|George=[[George I of Great Britain]]<br />1660–1727|James=[[James Francis Edward]]<br />1688–1766|Monmouth=[[James, Duke of Monmouth]]<br>1649–1685|Marie=[[Marie Louise of Orléans]]<br>1662–1689|AnneM=[[Anne Marie of Orléans]]<br>1669–1728}}',
286 => '{{chart/end}}',
287 => '{{chart bottom}}',
288 => '',
289 => '{{Charles II's children}}',
290 => '',
291 => '== Notes ==',
292 => '{{Notelist}}',
293 => '',
294 => '== References ==',
295 => '{{Reflist|20em}}',
296 => '',
297 => '=== Works cited ===',
298 => '{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}',
299 => '* {{Cite book |last=Airy |first=Osmund |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027987167/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Charles II |date=1904 |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co. |location=London |hdl=2027/uc1.$b674296 |hdl-access=free }}',
300 => '* {{Cite book |last=Ashmole |first=Elias |title=The History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter |date=1715 |publisher=Bell, Taylor, Baker and Collins |location=London |author-link=Elias Ashmole}}',
301 => '* {{Cite book |last=BBC staff |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |title=Charles II and the women who bore his children |date=October 2003 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040414082540/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/10_october/23/charles_ii_mistresses.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2004 |url-status=live }}',
302 => '* {{Cite book |url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |title=Bombay: History of a City |publisher=The British Library Board |ref={{harvid|British Library Learning}} |access-date=19 April 2010 |archive-date=25 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625131303/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history.html |url-status=dead }}',
303 => '* {{Cite journal |date=1938 |title=Nova et Vetera |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=2 |issue=4064 |page=1089 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4064.1089 |pmc=2210948 |pmid=20781915 |ref={{sfnRef|BMJ|1938}}}}',
304 => '* {{Cite book |title=The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707 |date=2007–2017 |publisher=University of St Andrews |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=K. M. |chapter=Proclamation: of King Charles II, 5 January 1649 (NAS. PA2/24, f.97r-97v.) |ref={{SfnRef|RPS}} |access-date=5 August 2016 |display-editors=et al |chapter-url=http://www.rps.ac.uk/search.php?action=fetch_jump&filename=charlesi_ms&jump=charlesi_t1649_1_70_d5_trans&type=ms&fragment=m1649_1_71_d6_ms }}',
305 => '* {{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=Thomas |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015088253359 |title=Memoirs of Thomas, Earl of Ailesbury, Vol. 1 |date=1890 |publisher=Roburghe Club, Nichols & Sons |location=Westminster }}',
306 => '* {{Cite book |last=Burnet |first=Gilbert |url=https://archive.org/details/burnetshistoryof01burnuoft/mode/2up |title=History of My Own Time, part1 |date=1847 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford }}',
307 => '* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Mark |title=Private Lives |date=2001 |publisher=Cassell |isbn=0-304-35758-8 |location=London}}',
308 => '* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=East India Company |volume=8 |pages=834–835 |mode=cs2}}',
309 => '* {{Cite book |last=Cokayne |first=George E. |title=The Complete Peerage |date=1926 |publisher=St Catherine Press |others=Revised and enlarged by Gibbs, Vicary; Edited by Doubleday, H. A., Warrand, D., and de Walden, Lord Howard |volume=VI |location=London |chapter=Appendix F. Bastards of Charles II |author-link=George Cokayne}}',
310 => '* {{Cite book |title=Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne |date=1885 |publisher=Clarendon Press for the Oxford Historical Society |editor-last=Doble |editor-first=C. E. |volume=1 |location=Oxford}}',
311 => '* {{Cite book |last=Evelyn |first=John |title=Diary of John Evelyn, Vol. 1 |date=1952 |publisher=Dent & Sons |location=London}}',
312 => '* {{Cite book |last=Falkus |first=Christopher |title=The Life and Times of Charles II |date=1972 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-99427-1 |location=London}}',
313 => '* {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |title=King Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-77571-5 |location=London |author-link=Antonia Fraser}}',
314 => '* {{Cite book |last=Haley |first=K.H.D. |title=Politics in the Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=0-631-13928-1 |location=Oxford}}',
315 => '* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |location=UK}}',
316 => '* {{Cite book |url=http://www.hbc.com/hbcheritage/collections/archival/charter |title=The Royal Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company |author=[[Hudson's Bay Company]] |ref={{sfnRef|Hudson's Bay Company|2017}} }}',
317 => '* {{Cite book |last=Hume |first=David |title=The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 |date=1778 |publisher=printed for T. Cadell |volume=VIII |location=London |page=212 |author-link=David Hume}}',
318 => '* {{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/charlessecondkin00hutt |title=Charles II: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland |date=1989 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-822911-9 |location=Oxford |author-link=Ronald Hutton |url-access=registration }}',
319 => '* {{Cite book |last=Israel |first=Jonathan Irvine |title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 |date=1998 |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |author-link=Jonathan Israel}}',
320 => '* {{Cite book |last=Jardine |first=Lisa |title=The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man Who Measured London |date=2004 |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=0-00-715175-6 |location=London |author-link=Lisa Jardine}}',
321 => '* {{Cite book |last=Melville |first=Lewis |title=The Windsor Beauties: Ladies of the Court of Charles II |date=2005 |publisher=Loving Healing Press |isbn=1-932690-13-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FCxRqOrMVQUC&dq=charles+ii+bagot&pg=PA91 91] |author-link=Lewis Melville |orig-date=1928}}',
322 => '* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesii0000mill |title=Charles II |date=1991 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=0-297-81214-9 |location=London |author-link=John Miller (historian) |url-access=registration }}',
323 => '* {{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=Hesketh |title=Charles II: His Life and Likeness |date=1960 |publisher=Heinemann |location=London |author-link=Hesketh Pearson}}',
324 => '* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906a |publisher=Dent & Sons |volume=1 |location=London |orig-date=1669 |author-link=Samuel Pepys }}',
325 => '** {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |url=http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15 |title=Diary of Samuel Pepys |date=1906b |publisher=Dent & Sons |author-mask=2 |volume=2 |location=London |orig-date=1669 }}',
326 => '* {{Cite ODNB |last=Porter |first=Stephen |date=January 2007 |id=95647 |title=The great fire of London |mode=cs2}}',
327 => '* {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1672: An Act for preventing Dangers which may happen from Popish Recusants |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47451 }}',
328 => '** {{Cite book |title=Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 |date=1819a |editor-mask=2 |editor-last=Raithby |editor-first=John |chapter=Charles II, 1678: (Stat. 2.) An Act for the more effectuall preserving the Kings Person and Government by disableing Papists from sitting in either House of Parlyament |access-date=19 April 2010 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47482 }}',
329 => '* {{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Jacob |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/tryals-and-tribulations |title=Tryals and tribulations |date=Fall 2015 |work=Distillations Magazine |volume=1 |pages=14–15 |access-date=22 March 2018 |issue=3 }}',
330 => '* {{Cite book |last1=Scott |first1=C. L. |title=Edgehill – The Battle Reinterpreted |last2=Turton |first2=A. |last3=von Arni |first3=E. G. |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |year=2004}}',
331 => '* {{Cite ODNB |last=Seaward |first=Paul|date=2004 |id=5144 |title=Charles II (1630–1685) |mode=cs2 |freearticle=y}}',
332 => '* {{Cite book |last=The Royal Household |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesII.aspx |title=Charles II (r. 1660–1685) |date=2009 |publisher=Official website of the British Monarchy |access-date=19 April 2010 }}',
333 => '* {{Cite book |last=Uglow |first=Jenny |title=A Gambling Man: Charles II's Restoration Game |date=2009 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21733-5 |author-link=Jenny Uglow}}',
334 => '* {{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=Harold |title=Representations of the King: Charles II and His Escape from Worcester |date=1988 |journal=Studies in Philology |volume=85 |pages=489–509 |issue=4 |jstor=4174319}}',
335 => '* {{Cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy |date=1996 |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-7126-7448-9 |edition=Revised |author-link=Alison Weir (historian)}}',
336 => '* {{Cite ODNB |last=Wynne |first=S. M. |date=2004 |id=4894 |title=Catherine (1638–1705) |mode=cs2}}',
337 => '{{Refend}}',
338 => '',
339 => '== Further reading ==',
340 => '{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}',
341 => '* {{Cite journal |last=Edie |first=Carolyn |date=1965 |title=Succession and Monarchy: The Controversy of 1679–1681 |journal=American Historical Review |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=350–370 |doi=10.2307/1845634 |jstor=1845634}}',
342 => '* {{Cite book |last=Hanrahan |first=David C. |title=Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham: The Merry Monarch and the Aristocratic Rogue |date=2006 |publisher=Sutton |isbn=0-7509-3916-8 |location=Stroud |ref=none}}',
343 => '* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Tim |title=Restoration: Charles II and His Kingdoms, 1660–1685 |date=2005 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=0-7139-9191-7 |location=London |author-link=Timothy J. G. Harris}}',
344 => '* {{Cite book |last=Keay |first=Anna |title=The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power |date=2008 |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |isbn=978-1-84725-225-8 |location=London |author-link=Anna Keay}}',
345 => '* {{Cite journal |last=Kenyon |first=J. P. |author-link=John Philipps Kenyon |date=1957 |title=Review Article: The Reign of Charles II |journal=Cambridge Historical Journal |volume=XIII |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1017/S1474691300000068}}',
346 => '* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=John |title=Restoration England: The Reign of Charles II |date=1985 |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-35396-3 |location=London}}',
347 => '* {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reign of Charles II |date=1934 |publisher=Oxford University Press|author-link=David Ogg (historian)}}',
348 => '** {{Cite book |last=Ogg |first=David |title=England in the Reigns of James II and William III |date=1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=David Ogg (historian) |author-mask=2}}',
349 => '* {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Escape of Charles II After the Battle of Worcester |date=1966 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London}}',
350 => '** {{Cite book |last=Ollard |first=Richard |title=The Image of the King: Charles I and Charles II |date=1979 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London |author-mask=2}}',
351 => '* {{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |title=King Charles Preserved: An Account of his Escape after the Battle of Worcester dictated by the King Himself to Samuel Pepys |date=1956 |publisher=The Rodale Press |location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania}}. Dictated in 1680.',
352 => '* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Derek |title=All The King's Women: Love, Sex and Politics in the Life of Charles II |date=2003 |publisher=Hutchinson |isbn=0-09-179379-3 |location=London}}',
353 => '* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Charles II. (King of England) |display=Charles II. | volume= 5 |last= Yorke | first= Philip Chesney |author-link= | pages = 912–916 }}',
354 => '{{Refend}}',
355 => '',
356 => '== External links ==',
357 => '{{sister project links|d=|c=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=yes|wikt=no|n=no|q=yes}}',
358 => '* [https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii Charles II] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]]',
359 => '* [https://www.rct.uk/collection/people/charles-ii-king-of-great-britain-1630-85#/type/subject Charles II] at the official website of the [[Royal Collection Trust]]',
360 => '* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml Charles II] at BBC History',
361 => '* {{NPG name|name=King Charles II}}',
362 => '',
363 => '{{S-start}}',
364 => '{{S-hou|[[House of Stuart]]|29 May|1630|6 February|1685}}',
365 => '{{S-break}}',
366 => '{{S-reg}}',
367 => '{{S-bef|rows=1|before=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]}}',
368 => '{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1649–1651}}',
369 => '{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}',
370 => '|-',
371 => '{{S-break}}',
372 => '{{S-vac|rows=1|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]|reason=[[English Interregnum]]}}',
373 => '{{S-ttl|title=[[King of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1660–1685}}',
374 => '{{S-aft|rows=2|after=[[James II of England|James II & VII]]}}',
375 => '|-',
376 => '{{S-vac|reason=Military government}}',
377 => '{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Scotland]]|years=1660–1685}}',
378 => '{{S-break}}',
379 => '{{S-roy|gb}}',
380 => '{{S-break}}',
381 => '{{S-vac|rows=2|last=[[Charles I of England|Charles]]}}',
382 => '{{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Cornwall]]<br />[[Duke of Rothesay]]|years=1630–1649}}',
383 => '{{S-vac|rows=2|next=[[James Francis Edward]]}}',
384 => '|-',
385 => '{{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1638–1649}}',
386 => '{{s-end}}',
387 => '{{English, Scottish and British monarchs}}',
388 => '{{Pictish and Scottish Monarchs}}',
389 => '{{Princes of Wales}}',
390 => '{{Dukes of Cornwall}}',
391 => '{{Dukes of Rothesay}}'
] |