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[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]] are regarded as one of the greatest architectural feats of all time and are one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] ]]
Like other aspects of the [[culture of Africa]], the '''architecture of Africa''' is exceptionally diverse. Throughout the [[history of Africa]], [[African people|Africans]] have developed their own local [[architecture|architectural]] traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as the [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture]] of [[West Africa]]. A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of [[fractal]] scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.<ref>{{cite book| last = Eglash| first = Ron| title = African Fractals Modern Computing and Indigenous Design| year = 1999| publisher = Rutgers University Press| isbn = 978-0-8135-2613-3 }}</ref>
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, [[mudbrick]], [[rammed earth]], and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the [[Horn of Africa]] for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
==Prehistoric architecture==
===North Africa===
====Nile Valley====
[[Affad 23]] is an [[archaeological site]] located in the [[Affad Basin|Affad]] region of southern Dongola Reach in northern [[Sudan]],<ref name="Osypiński">{{cite journal |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |last2=Osypińska |first2=Marta |last3=Gautier |first3=Achilles |title=Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10186 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=7787802958 |jstor=43135549 |s2cid=161078189}}</ref> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest [[Natural environment|open-air]] [[hut]] in the world) and diverse [[hunting]] and [[Hunter-gatherer|gathering]] loci some 50,000 years old".<ref name="Osypiński II">{{cite web |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |title=Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory |url=https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |publisher=National Science Centre |date=2020}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |page=460 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Animals in the history of the Middle Nile}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska II">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |last2=Osypiński |first2=Piotr |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |pages=187–188 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa}}</ref>
====Central Sahara====
=====Kel Essuf Period=====
Concealed remnants of dismantled [[furnishing|furnished]] flooring are found in 75% of the Central Saharan rockshelters where Kel Essuf rock artforms are found.<ref name="Ferhat">{{cite journal |last1=Ferhat |first1=Nadjib |last2=Striedter |first2=Karl Heinz |last3=Tauveron |first3=Michel |title=Les " Kel Essuf " : un nouveau faciès de l'art rupestre du Sahara central |date=April 30, 2000 |volume=330 |issue=8 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3715024 |journal= Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA |pages=577–580 |doi=10.1016/S1251-8050(00)00177-4 |s2cid=126951785 |issn=1251-8050 |oclc=4931567223 |bibcode=2000CRASE.330..577F}}</ref> The furnished flooring in these rockshelters were likely created for the purpose of [[rainwater harvesting|collecting water]] and were subsequently dismantled after the earliest [[Round Head rock art]] began to be created.<ref name="Ferhat" /> Based on these furnished floors purposed for the collection of spring water, the [[Kel Essuf rock art]], which are cultural [[facies]], may date at least as early as 12,000 [[Before Present|BP]] amid the [[Late Pleistocene|late period of the Pleistocene]].<ref name="Aïn-Séba">{{cite journal |last1=Aïn-Séba |first1=Nagète |title=Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara |journal=Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología |date=June 3, 2022 |volume=22 |issue=22 |page=308 |doi=10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 |url=https://riull.ull.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/915/27450/TB_22_%282022%29_15.pdf |issn=2530-8327 |s2cid=249349324}}</ref> Given the occurrences of furnished flooring for collecting water and production of engraved Kel Essuf rock art, these [[rockshelters]] may have been inhabited during periods of decreased availability of local water sources.<ref name="Ferhat" /> Consequently, there may have been increasing regional isolation due to adverse [[Climate of Africa|climate]] within the region.<ref name="Aïn-Séba" />
=====Round Head Period=====
At the start of the 10th millennium BP, amid the [[Epipaleolithic]], the walls of rock shelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a [[Foundation (engineering)|foundation]] for proto-village [[huts]] that families resided in, as well as [[hearths]], which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers.<ref name="Soukopova">{{cite book |last1=Soukopova |first1=Jitka |title=Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara |date=16 January 2013 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=20 |isbn=9781443845793 |oclc=826685273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07wwBwAAQBAJ&q=Tuareg&pg=PR5}}</ref> Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers of the [[Round Head Period]] built a simple [[stone wall]], dated to 10,508±429 cal BP/9260±290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a [[windbreak]].<ref name="Soukopova" />
=====Pastoral Period=====
In the collective memory of [[Pastoral period#Early Pastoral Period 2|Early Pastoral peoples]], rockshelters (e.g., Fozzigiaren, Imenennaden, [[Takarkori]]) in the Tadrart Acacus region may have served as monumental areas for women and children, as these were where their burial sites were primarily found.<ref name="Di Lernia">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |title=Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara |date=June 2013 |volume=48 |issue=2 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867 |s2cid=162877973 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271666951 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |pages=176, 179–181, 183–186 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=5136086464}}</ref> Engraved rock art has been found on various kinds of stone structures (e.g., stone arrangements, standing stones, corbeilles – ceremonial monuments) in the Messak Plateau.<ref name="Di Lernia" /> Stone monuments are also often found in proximity to these engraved Pastoral rock art.<ref name="Di Lernia II">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |display-authors=etal |title=Inside the "African Cattle Complex": Animal Burials in the Holocene Central Sahara |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=e56879 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0056879 |pmid=23437260 |pmc=3577651 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...856879D |doi-access=free |s2cid=4057938 |issn=1932-6203 |oclc=828565064}}</ref> A complete cattle pastoral economy (e.g., dairying) developed in the Acacus and Messak regions of southwestern Libya.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Semi-sedentary settlements were used seasonally by [[Pastoral period#Middle Pastoral Period 2|Middle Pastoral peoples]] depending on the weather patterns (e.g., [[West African Monsoon|monsoon]]).<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> [[Wadi]] Bedis [[meander]] had 42 stone monuments (e.g., mostly corbeilles, stone structures and platforms, tumuli). Ceramics (e.g., potsherds) and stone implements were found along with 9 monuments bearing engraved rock art.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> From 5200 BCE to 3800 BCE, burial of animals occurred.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Nine decorated ceramics (e.g., mostly rocker stamp/plain edge design, sometimes alternately pivoting stamp design) and sixteen stone maces were found.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Some stone maces, used literally or symbolically to [[Ritual slaughter|slaughter]] the cattle (e.g., Bos taurus), were ceremonially set near the head of sacrificed cattle or stone monuments.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> In 5000 BP, the development of [[megalithic]] [[monuments]] (e.g., [[architecture]]) increased in the Central Sahara.<ref name="Di Lernia" /> In the Central Sahara, the tumuli tradition originated in the Middle Pastoral Period and transformed amid the Late Pastoral Period (4500 BP – 2500 BP).<ref name="Muscat">{{cite book |last1=Muscat |first1=Iona |title=Megalithism and monumentality in prehistoric North Africa |date=January 2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6584373 |publisher=University of Malta |s2cid=133240608}}</ref> At Takarkori rockshelter, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, [[Pastoral period#Late Pastoral Period 2|Late Pastoral peoples]] herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were buried in stone-covered [[tumuli]] that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP.<ref name="Di Lernia III">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |last2=Tafuri |first2=Mary Anne |title=Persistent deathplaces and mobile landmarks: The Holocene mortuary and isotopic record from Wadi Takarkori (SW Libya) |date=March 2013 |volume=32 |pages=3–5, 8–14 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257118118 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |doi=10.1016/J.JAA.2012.07.002 |s2cid=144968825 |issn=0278-4165 |oclc=5902856678}}</ref> At Takarkori rockshelter, [[Pastoral period#Final Pastoral Period 2|Final Pastoral peoples]] created burial sites for several hundred individuals that contained non-local, luxury goods and drum-type architecture in 3000 BP, which made way for the development of the [[Garamantian]] civilization.<ref name="Di Lernia III" />
[[Pastoralism]], possibly along with social stratification, and [[Pastoral rock art]], emerged in the Central Sahara between 5200 BCE and 4800 BCE.<ref name="Hassan">{{cite book |last1=Hassan |first1=F. A. |title=Droughts, Food and Culture |chapter=Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 |year=2002 |page=17 |publisher=Droughts, Food and Culture|doi=10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 |isbn=0-306-46755-0 |s2cid=126608903 |oclc=51874863}}</ref> Funerary monuments and sites, within possible territories that had chiefdoms, developed in the Saharan region of Niger between 4700 BCE and 4200 BCE.<ref name="Hassan" /> Cattle funerary sites developed in [[Nabta Playa]] (6450 BP/5400 cal BCE), [[Adrar Bous]] (6350 BP), in Chin Tafidet, and in Tuduf (2400 cal BCE – 2000 cal BCE).<ref name="Hassan" /> Thus, by this time, [[Cattle in religion and mythology|cattle religion]] (e.g., myths, rituals) and cultural distinctions between genders (e.g., men associated with bulls, violence, hunting, and dogs as well as burials at monumental funerary sites; women associated with cows, birth, nursing, and possibly the afterlife) had developed.<ref name="Hassan" /> Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern [[Sahara]], tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of [[Niger]].<ref name="Hassan" /> These megalithic monuments in the [[Sahara]]n region of [[Niger]] and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the [[mastabas]] and [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] of [[ancient Egypt]].<ref name="Hassan" /> During [[Predynastic Egypt]], tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., [[Naqada]], [[Helwan]]).<ref name="Hassan" /> Between 7500 BP and 7400 BP, amid the Late Pastoral Neolithic, religious ceremony and ceremonial burials, with megaliths, may have served as a cultural precedent for the latter religious reverence of the goddess [[Hathor]] during the dynastic period of ancient Egypt.<ref name="Holl V">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=A. |title=The Dawn of African Pastoralisms: An Introductory Note |url=https://www.academia.edu/2558487 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |year=1998 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=81–83 |doi=10.1006/jaar.1998.0318 |s2cid=144518526 |issn=0278-4165 |oclc=361174899}}</ref>
==Early architecture==
Probably the most famous class of structure in all Africa, the [[Pyramid]]s of [[Egypt]] remain one of the world's greatest early architectural achievements, regardless of practicality and origins in a funerary context. Egyptian architectural traditions also favored the building of vast temple complexes.
Little is known of ancient architecture south and west of the Sahara. Harder to date than the pyramids are the monoliths around the [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross River]], which have geometric or human designs. The vast number of [[Senegambian stone circles]] is also evidence of an emerging architecture.
===North Africa===
Likely part of [[Copper Age]] and [[Bronze Age]] [[Traditional Berber religion#Megalithic culture|cultural traditions of megalith-building]], [[megalith]]s (e.g., [[dolmens]]) were constructed in [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] North Africa.<ref name="Holl II" />
====Algeria====
=====Garamantes=====
Some of the earliest evidence of original [[Berbers|Amazigh]] (Berber) culture in North Africa has been found in the highlands of the Sahara and dates from the second millennium BC, when the region was much less arid than it is today and when the Amazigh population was most likely in the process of spreading across North Africa.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Brett|first1=Michael|title=The Berbers|last2=Fentress|first2=Elizabeth|publisher=Blackwell|year=1996|isbn=9780631207672|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=15–22}} One of the earliest groups for which there are historical records are the [[Garamantes]], who were later mentioned by [[Herodotus]]. Numerous archaeological sites associated with them have been found in the [[Fezzan]] (in present-day [[Libya]]), attesting to the existence of small villages, towns, and tombs. At least one settlement dates from as early as 1000 BC. The structures were initially built in [[dry stone]], but around the middle of the millennium (c. 500 BC) they began to be built with [[mudbrick]] instead.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=23}} By the second century AD there is evidence of large [[villa]]s and more sophisticated tombs associated with the aristocracy of this society, in particular at [[Germa]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=24}}
====Egypt====
=====Ancient Egypt=====
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
[[Ancient Egypt]]'s achievements in architecture included [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], [[Egyptian temple|temples]], enclosed cities, canals, and dams. The architecture of this age was not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. The most famous examples of ancient Egyptian architecture include the [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids]] and the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]] at Giza, the [[Karnak|Temple of Karnak]], and the [[Abu Simbel|Temple of Abu Simbel]]. Most buildings were built of locally available [[mud brick]] and [[limestone]] by [[Slavery in ancient Egypt|levied workers]]. Columns were typically adorned with [[Capital (architecture)#Pre-classical capitals|capitals]] decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus plant]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=ancient Egyptian architecture {{!}} Types, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture|access-date=2021-07-22|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
=====Nabta Playa=====
At [[Nabta Playa]], located in [[Egypt]] and broader region of the Eastern [[Sahara]], there is a [[megalithic]] cultural complex (e.g., [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed cow]] burial site, [[solar calendar]], [[altar]]) that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE.<ref name="Holl II">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Megaliths in Tropical Africa: Social Dynamics and Mortuary Practices in Ancient Senegambia (ca. 1350 BCE -1500 CE) |journal=International Journal of Modern Anthropology |date=2020 |volume=2 |issue=15 |pages=364–368, 372, 405 |doi=10.4314/IJMA.V2I15.1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350557762 |issn=1737-7374 |oclc=9053151421 |s2cid=236340668|doi-access=free }}</ref>
====Sudan====
=====Nubia=====
{{Main|Nubian architecture}}
[[File:Kerma city.JPG|thumb|The city of [[Kerma]]]]
[[Nubian architecture]] is one of the most ancient in the world. The earliest style of Nubian architecture includes the [[speos]], structures carved out of solid rock under the [[A-Group culture]] (3700-3250 BCE). Egyptians borrowed and made extensive use of the process at [[Speos Artemidos]] and [[Abu Simbel]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Bianchi| first = Robert Steven| title = Daily Life of the Nubians| url = https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian| url-access = limited| year = 2004| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-313-32501-4| page = [https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian/page/n249 227] }}</ref> A-Group culture led eventually to the [[C-Group culture]], which began building using light, supple materials—animal skins and [[wattle and daub]]—with larger structures of [[mudbrick]] later becoming the norm.
[[File:Nubia pyramids1.JPG|left|thumb|Nubian pyramids at Meroe]]
The C-Group culture was related to that of the city of [[Kerma]],<ref>Bietak, Manfred. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm The C-Group culture and the Pan Grave culture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511234450/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm |date=May 11, 2009 }}. Cairo: Austrian Archaeological Institute</ref> which was settled around 2400 BC. It was a walled city containing religious buildings, large circular dwellings, a palace, and well-laid-out roads. On the east side of the city, a funerary temple and chapel were laid out. It supported a population of 2,000. One of its most enduring structures was the Deffufa, a mudbrick temple, on top of which ceremonies were performed.
Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.
Thirteen temples and two palaces have been excavated in Napata, which has yet to be fully excavated. [[Sudan]] contains 223 [[Nubian pyramids]], more numerous but smaller than the [[Egyptian pyramids]], at three major sites: [[El Kurru]], [[Nuri]], and [[Meroe]]. The elements of Nubian pyramids, built for kings and queens, included steep walls, a chapel facing east, a stairway facing east, and a chamber accessed via the stairway.<ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm The 25th Dynasty] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430085438/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm |date=April 30, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}: Aswan</ref><ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm The Meroitic State: Nubia as a Hellenistic African State. 300 B.C.-350 AD] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426001841/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm |date=April 26, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}:Aswan</ref> The Meroe site has the most pyramids and is considered the largest archaeological site in the world. Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and the Napatan kingdom collapsed.<ref>Prof. James Giblin, Department of History, The University of Iowa. [http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html Issues in African History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415144652/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html |date=April 15, 2008 }}</ref>
====Tunisia====
=====Carthage=====
{{Further|Ancient Roman architecture}}
Large regions of North Africa, particularly near the coasts, came under the control of Carthage at the height of its power in the third century BC.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=24}} The remains of Carthage are found near Tunis today and contain the remains of multiple periods ranging from the Punic period (Phoenician Carthage) to the later Arab occupation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Archaeological Site of Carthage|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37/|access-date=2022-01-11|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> Vestiges of the Carthaginian Empire include the "Punic Ports" (the city's harbors) and a sanctuary and necropolis dedicated to [[Baal Hammon]], known today as the Sanctuary of Tophet.<ref name=":5"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Punic Ports {{!}} Tunis, Tunisia Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/punic-ports/a/poi-sig/1484892/355691|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sanctuary of Tophet {{!}} Tunis, Tunisia Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/sanctuary-of-tophet/a/poi-sig/1000411/355691|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref>
After defeating Carthage, Rome progressively took over the entire coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic coast of modern-day Morocco. Major Roman sites in present-day [[Tunisia]] (the former Roman province known as ''[[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]'') include [[Roman Carthage]], the [[Amphitheatre of El Jem|amphitheater of El Jem]], and the sites of Dougga (Thugga) and [[Archaeological site of Sbeitla|Sbeitla (Sufetula)]]. Well-preserved sites in Libya include [[Sabratha]] and [[Leptis Magna]]. In Algeria, major sites include [[Timgad]], [[Djémila]], and [[Tipasa]]. In Morocco, cities such as [[Ceuta|Septa (Ceuta)]], [[Chellah|Sala Colonia (Chellah)]], and [[Volubilis]] were founded or developed by Romans and retain remnants of their architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ennabli|first=Abdelmajid|date=2000|title=North Africa's Roman art. Its future.|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-11|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912130852/http://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056 |archive-date=2014-09-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nijst|first=A. L. M. T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1M3AQAAIAAJ&q=ceuta+chellah+volubilis+architecture |title=Living on the edge of the Sahara: a study of traditional forms of habitation and types of settlement in Morocco|date=1973|publisher=Govt. Pub. Office|isbn=9789012001052|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Frontiers of the Roman empire {{!}} African World Heritage Sites|url=https://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/frontiers-of-the-roman-empire.html|access-date=2022-01-11|website=www.africanworldheritagesites.org}}</ref>
=====Numidia=====
[[File:TUNISIA DOUGGA MAUSOLEE LIBYCO PUNIQUE 001.jpg|thumb|[[Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga|Numidian mausoleum of Dougga]] (2nd century BC, present-day Tunisia)]]
Further west, the kingdom of [[Numidia]] was contemporary with the [[Phoenicia]]n civilization of [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] and the [[Roman Republic]]. Among other things, the Numidians have left thousands of pre-Christian tombs. The oldest of these is [[Madghacen|Medracen]] in present-day [[Algeria]], believed to date from the time of [[Masinissa]] (202–148 BC). Possibly influenced by Greek architecture further east, or built with the help of Greek craftsmen, the tomb consists of a large [[tumulus]] constructed in well-cut [[ashlar]] masonry and featuring sixty [[Doric order|Doric]] columns and an Egyptian-style [[cornice]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|pages=27–29}} Another famous example is the [[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]] in western [[Algeria]]. This structure consists of columns, a dome, and spiral pathways that lead to a single chamber.<ref>{{cite book| last = Davidson| first = Basil| title = Africa in History| year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-684-82667-7| page = 50 | publisher = Simon & Schuster}}</ref> A number of "tower tombs" from the Numidian period can also be found in sites from Algeria to Libya. Despite their wide geographic range, they often share a similar style: a three-story structure topped by a convex pyramid. They may have initially been inspired by Greek monuments but they constitute an original type of structure associated with Numidian culture. Examples of these are found at [[Siga]], Soumaa d'el Khroub, [[Dougga]], and [[Sabratha]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|pages=29–31}}
===West Africa===
====Burkina Faso====
=====Mouhoun Bend=====
At [[Kirikongo#Archaeology of the Mouhoun Bend|Mouhoun Bend]], [[Burkina Faso]], people dwelled in a community of residences that housed multiple families in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BCE, which may have also been part of a pre-existing marketplace system of [[trade]] (e.g., [[salt]]) and [[technology transfer]] between agricultural communities (e.g., [[Jenne-Jeno]], [[Kintampo Complex|Kintampo]], Rim) throughout [[West Africa]] that persisted from the 2nd millennium BCE to the early 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Dueppen">{{cite journal |last1=Dueppen |first1=Stephen A. |last2=Gallagher |first2=Daphne |title=Networked Farmers, Ancestral Rituals, Regional Marketplaces, and Salt: New Insights into the Complexity of First Millennium BC/AD Farming Societies in West Africa |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=5 January 2023 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=21–52 |doi=10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2 |s2cid=255557451 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2}}</ref> In addition to [[farming]] undomesticated crops and maintaining domesticated animals, the people of Mouhoun Bend engaged in [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] as well as [[Iron metallurgy in Africa|iron]], salt, and [[Pottery#Africa|pottery]] production.<ref name="Dueppen" /> The [[funerary cult]]ure of the Mouhoun Bend people included ceremonial placement of food and material goods in pits and concave surfaces as well as the development of [[earth structure]]s.<ref name="Dueppen" />
====Mauritania====
=====Tichitt Culture=====
Tichitt Walata is the oldest surviving collection of settlements in [[West Africa]] and the oldest of all stone-base settlement south of the Sahara. It was built by the [[Soninke people]] and is thought to be the precursor of the [[Ghana empire]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0021853700018685 | volume=21 | issue=4 | title=Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana empire | journal=The Journal of African History | pages=457–466| year=1980 | last1=Munson | first1=Patrick J. | s2cid=161981607 }}</ref> It was settled by agropastoral people around 2000–300 BCE, which makes it almost 1000 years older than previously thought.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005 | volume=341 |issue=8–9 | title=Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP) | journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience | pages=703–712|year=2009 |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. | bibcode=2009CRGeo.341..703H | url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005/ }}</ref> One finds well-laid-out streets and fortified compounds, all made out of skilled stone masonry. In all, there were 500 settlements.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Fage| first1 = J.D.| last2 = Oliver| first2 = Roland Anthony| title = The Cambridge History of Africa| year = 1978| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-21592-3| page = 338 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 42 }}</ref>
The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE<ref name="McDougall">{{cite book |last1=McDougall |first1=E. Ann |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |chapter=Saharan Peoples and Societies |chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-285 |date=25 February 2019 |publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedias |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 |s2cid=159184437}}</ref><ref name="Holl">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071309000996 |journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience |year=2009 |volume=341 |issue=8–9 |page=703 |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005 |s2cid=128545688 |issn=1631-0713 |oclc=5900121710 |bibcode=2009CRGeo.341..703H}}</ref> to 200 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald IV">{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=K. |last2=Vernet |first2=R. |title=Fields of Change: Progress in African Archaeobotany |date=2007 |publisher=Barkhuis |pages=71–72 |isbn=9789077922309 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gTnffH-elc0C&q=%22Tichitt%22+%22metallurgy%22&pg=PA71 |chapter=Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper |s2cid=130234059 |oclc=309688961}}</ref><ref name="Kay">{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Andrea U. |title=Diversification, Intensification and Specialization: Changing Land Use in Western Africa from 1800 BC to AD 1500 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2 |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |year=2019 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=179–228 |doi=10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2 |s2cid=134223231 |hdl=10261/181848 |hdl-access=free |issn=0892-7537 |oclc=8112065264}}</ref> By 2000 BCE, as aridification followed the [[Holocene Climate Optimum]], the pastoralists had become agropastoralists and had established the Tichitt tradition in the Mauritanian settlement areas of Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, and Dhar Néma, based on a hierarchical economy composed of pastoralism, agriculture (e.g., millet), and [[stonemasonry]] (e.g., architecture).<ref name="Monroe">{{cite journal |last1=Monroe |first1=J. Cameron |title="Elephants for Want of Towns": Archaeological Perspectives on West African Cities and Their Hinterlands |url=https://www.academia.edu/35127116 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |year=2018 |volume=26 |issue=4 |page=395 |doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9114-2 |s2cid=149031750 |jstor=44984078 |issn=1059-0161 |oclc=7848239424}}</ref> In the Sahelian region of West Africa, the corded roulette ceramics of the Tichitt Tradition developed and persisted among<ref name="MacDonald" /> [[Dry stone|dry]] [[Stone wall|stonewalled]] architecture<ref name="MacDonald" /><ref name="Linares-Matás">{{cite journal |last1=Linares-Matás |first1=Gonzalo J. |title=Spatial Organization and Socio-Economic Differentiation at the Dhar Tichitt Center of Dakhlet el Atrouss I (Southeastern Mauritania) |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=April 13, 2022 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=167–188 |doi=10.1007/s10437-022-09479-5 |issn=1572-9842 |oclc=9530792981 |s2cid=248132575|doi-access=free }}</ref> in Mauritania (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant) between 1900 BCE and 400 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=K.C. |title=Betwixt Tichitt and the IND: the pottery of the Faita Facies, Tichitt Tradition |date=April 2011 |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/betwixt-tichitt-and-the-ind-the-pottery-of-the-faita-facies-tichitt-tradition.html |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=46 |pages=49, 51, 54, 56–57, 59–60 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.553485 |s2cid=161938622 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=4839360348}}</ref> Within these settled areas (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Walata) with stone walls, which vary in scale from (e.g., 2 [[hectares]], 80 hectares), there were walled agricultural land utilized for livestock or gardening as well as land with [[granaries]] and [[tumuli]].<ref name="Kay"/>
As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.<ref name="MacDonald II">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Kevin C. |last2=Vernet |first2=Robert |last3=Martinon-Torres |first3=Marcos |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q |title=Dhar Néma: From early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania |date=April 2009 |volume=44 |issue=1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232873688 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |pages=3–4, 42 |doi=10.1080/00671990902811330 |s2cid=111618144 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=4901241515}}</ref> The eastern and central areas of Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, which were primarily peopled between 2200/2000 BCE and 1200/1000 BCE and contained some areas (e.g., Akreijit, Chebka, Khimiya) with boundary walls, served as the primary areas of settlement (e.g., small [[villages]], [[hamlets]], seasonal [[Camping|camps]]) for the Dhars of Mauritania.<ref name="Holl" /> The fundamental unit of the Mauritanian Dhars (e.g., Dhar Néma, Dhar Walata, Dhar Tichitt) was the [[extended family]]<ref name="Holl III">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Dhar Tichitt, Walata and Nema |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fnda%2F1584 |journal=Les Nouvelles de l'Archéologie |date=2012 |volume=127 |issue=127 |pages=35–39 |doi=10.4000/NDA.1584 |s2cid=194063851 |issn=0242-7702 |oclc=8207522523}}</ref> or [[polygamous family]].<ref name="Monroe" /> Based on the presence of an abundant amount of enclosed areas that may have been used to pen cattle and hundreds of tumuli, intergenerational ownership of [[property]], via cattle wealth, may have been part of the Tichitt culture.<ref name="Monroe" /> [[Town planning|Planned]], level [[street]]s spanned several hundred kilometers among the 400 [[drystone]]-constructed villages, hamlets, and [[towns]].<ref name="Kea">{{cite journal |last1=Kea |first1=Ray |title=Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. - 1200/1250 A.D.) |date=November 26, 2004 |volume=X |issue=3 |pages=738–740 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/208574355 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2004.286 |issn=1076-156X |s2cid=147397386|doi-access=free }}</ref> Primary entry points of residences with access ramps (e.g., [[Compound (fortification)|fortified]], non-fortified) and [[watchtowers]] were also present.<ref name="Kea" /> Households used various tools (e.g., arrowheads, axes, borers, grindstones, grooved stones, needles, pendants).<ref name="Kea" /> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, stone pillars, stone slabs, and stone blocks, which approximate to several hundred in total, are frequently arranged and aligned in three rows of three; these erected stones may have served as stilts for granaries.<ref name="Dupuy">{{cite journal |last1=Dupuy |first1=Christian |title=Cereals and milk in the Sahara and the Sahel, from the epipaleolithic to the age of metals |date=2014 |volume=5 |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F1376 |journal=Afriques Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire |doi=10.4000/AFRIQUES.1376 |s2cid=160853354 |oclc=6733603235|doi-access=free }}</ref> There were also gardens and fields located within a walled enclosure ranging between nine and fourteen hectares.<ref name="Dupuy" /> At Dhar Nema, there are also stilted granaries, [[pottery]], and tools used for [[milling (grinding)|milling]].<ref name="Dupuy" /> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, [[copper]] was also utilized.<ref name="Kea" />
======Dhar Tichitt======
At [[Dhar Tichitt]], Dakhlet el Atrouss I, which is the largest [[archaeological site]] of the Tichitt Tradition and is 80 hectares in scale, serves as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of Tichitt culture; it features nearly 600 settlement compounds, agropastoralism, a large enclosure for cattle, and [[Funerary monument|monumental]] architecture as an aspect of its [[funerary cult]]ure, such as hundreds of [[Tumulus#West Africa|tumuli]] nearby.<ref name="Linares-Matás" /> Along with Akrejit, it also features foundations for granaries.<ref name="Linares-Matás"/>
======Dhar Walata/Oualata======
At [[Dhar Walata]], in the [[courtyard]] of nearby houses, enclosed, erected turriform [[gardens]] have been found, the earliest of which dates between 1894 cal BCE and 1435 cal BCE.<ref name="Amblard-Pison">{{cite journal |last1=Amblard-Pison |first1=Sylvie |title=Between sands and stones: eating and drinking in the Neolithic villages of a Saharan refuge area in south-eastern Mauritania |date=2014 |volume=5 |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F1496 |journal=Afriques Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire |doi=10.4000/AFRIQUES.1496 |s2cid=190294373|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Hoe (tool)|Hoes]] and fish hooks made of bone were also found.<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> Stone slabs may have been used as a [[ballast]] in order to avert the entry of animals into the village.<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> [[Reservoirs]] and dams may have been used to [[Water resource management|manage water]] from nearby rivers ([[wadis]]).<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> Millet, flour, and [[semolina]] may have been prepared to cook [[porridge]].<ref name="Amblard-Pison" />
======Dhar Néma======
In the late period of the [[Tichitt Tradition]] at [[Dhar Néma]], tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of a oval-shaped low shaft furnace; this furnace was one out of 16 iron furnaces located on elevated ground.<ref name="MacDonald IV" /> [[Iron metallurgy in Africa|Iron metallurgy]] may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald IV" />
======Dhar Tagant======
At [[Dhar Tagant]], there are approximately 276 tumuli that have been surveyed.<ref name="Lim">{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=J |title=Geometric data for tumuli in Dhar Tagant, Mauritania |chapter=Archaeology |chapter-url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:77740928-4f32-478c-924d-09ceeb61f75d |year=2020 |publisher=University of Oxford |doi=10.5287/BODLEIAN:NRYV1OB2R |s2cid=236798102}}</ref> At Dhar Tagant, there are also various geometric (e.g., rectilinear, circular) constructions, and a possible late period, involving a funerary tomb with a chapel at Foum el Hadjar from 1st millennium CE and wadis with evidence of [[crocodiles]].<ref name="Sterry">{{cite book |last1=Sterry |first1=Martin |last2=Mattingly |first2=David J. |title=Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond |date=Mar 26, 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=318 |isbn=9781108494441 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9PKDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Tichitt+culture%22&pg=PR8 |chapter=Pre-Islamic Oasis Settlements in the Southern Sahara |doi=10.1017/9781108637978.008 |s2cid=243375056 |oclc=1128066278}}</ref> As part of a broader trend of iron metallurgy developed in the West African Sahel amid 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and the iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.<ref name="MacDonald II"/>
====Niger====
In [[Niger]], there are two [[monument]]al tumuli – a [[cairn]] burial (5695 BP – 5101 BP) at [[Adrar Bous]], and a tumulus covered with gravel (6229 BP – 4933 BP) at Iwelen, in the [[Aïr Mountains]].<ref name="Garcea">{{cite book |last1=Garcea |first1=Elena A. A. |title=Gobero The No-return Frontier: Archaeology and Landscape at the Saharo-Sahelian Borderland |chapter=Regional Overview During The Time Frame of the Gobero Occupation |date=2013 |publisher=Africa Magna Verlag |page=258 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUy8gejsmSIC&q=%22Tumuli%22 |isbn=9783937248349 |oclc=849683991 |s2cid=202916401}}</ref> [[Tenerian culture|Tenerians]] did not construct the two monumental tumuli at Adrar Bous and Iwelen.<ref name="Garcea" /> Rather, Tenerians constructed cattle tumuli at a time before the two monumental tumuli were constructed.<ref name="Garcea" />
====Nigeria====
=====Nok Culture=====
[[Nok culture]] artifacts—located on the [[Jos Plateau]] in Nigeria, between the [[Niger River]] and [[Benue River]]—have been dated as far back as 790 BCE. The excavation of the Nok settlement in [[Samun Dikiya]] shows a tendency to build on hill tops and mountain peaks. However, Nok settlements have not been extensively excavated.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 44–45 }}</ref>
In the central region of [[Nigeria]], Nok [[archaeological sites]] are determined to be settlement sites, on the basis of archaeological evidence discovered at the surface level of the sites, and determined to be of the Nok culture, on the basis of the type of archaeological evidence discovered, specifically, Nok terracotta remnants and Nok pottery.<ref name="Rupp">{{cite journal |last1=Rupp |first1=Nicole |last2=Ameje |first2=James |last3=Breunig |first3=Peter |title=New Studies on the Nok Culture of Central Nigeria |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=2 |page=287 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10056 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228965010 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=5919406005 |s2cid=162190915}}</ref> Mountaintops are where the majority of Nok settlement sites are found.<ref name="Rupp" /> At the settlement site of Kochio, the edge of a cellar of a settlement wall was chiseled from a granite foundation.<ref name="Rupp" /> Additionally, a [[megalithic]] stone [[fence]] was constructed around the [[Compound (enclosure)|enclosed settlement]] site of Kochio.<ref name="Rupp" />
====Senegambia====
Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, [[Senegambian stone circles|Senegambian megaliths]] (e.g., [[tumuli]]) were constructed for the purpose of [[Veneration of the dead#Serer of Senegal and Gambia|ancestral reverence]].<ref name="Holl II" />
At [[Senegambian stone circles#Wanar|Wanar]], Senegal, [[megalithic]] [[monolith]]-circles and tumuli (1300/1100 BCE – 1400/1500 CE) were constructed by West Africans who had a complex hierarchical society.<ref name="Holl IV">{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F. C. |title=Preserving African Cultural Heritage |chapter=Megaliths and Cultural Landscape: Archaeology of the Petit Bao Bolon Drainage |page=120 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36474475 |date=May 2018 |publisher=Panafrican Archaeological Association}}</ref> In the mid-region of the [[Senegal River]] Valley, the [[Serer people]] may have created tumuli (before 13th century CE), [[shell middens]] (7th century CE – 13th century CE) in the central-west region, and shell middens (200 BCE – Present) in the southern region.<ref name="Sall">{{cite book |last1=Sall |first1=Moustapha |title=Field Manual for African Archaeology |chapter=Academic Research In West Africa: The Case Of Senegal |page=13 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316739653 |date=May 2017 |publisher=Royal Museum for Central Africa |isbn=978-9-4922-4427-7 |oclc=987859017 |s2cid=222116314}}</ref> The [[funerary]] tumuli-building tradition of [[West Africa]] was widespread and a regular practice amid 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Coutros">{{cite journal |last1=Coutros |first1=Peter R. |title=The Malian Lakes Region redefined:archaeological survey of the Gorbi Valley |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/130FA79106C62F9C5B1FAAC9C8E6AAAE/S0003598X17000308a.pdf/div-class-title-the-malian-lakes-region-redefined-archaeological-survey-of-the-gorbi-valley-div.pdf |journal=Antiquity |volume=91 |issue=356 |date=4 April 2017 |page=481 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.30 |s2cid=161053129 |issn=0003-598X |oclc=8271821798}}</ref> More than ten thousand large funerary tumuli exist in Senegal.<ref name="Coutros" />
===Eastern Africa===
====Ethiopia====
In the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] of [[Harar]], the earliest construction of [[megalith]]s occurred.<ref name="Holl II" /> From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, [[tumuli]] with burial chambers organized in cemeteries), the subsequent traditions in other areas of [[Ethiopia]] likely developed.<ref name="Holl II" /> In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of [[Axum]] developed a megalithic [[Stele#Horn of Africa|stelae]]-building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the [[Christianity in Africa#Early Church|Christian]] period of [[Kingdom of Aksum#Axumite Empire|Axum]].<ref name="Holl II" /> In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory.<ref name="Holl II" /> Sidamo Province has the most megaliths in Ethiopia.<ref name="Holl II" />
=====Aksumite=====
{{see also|Architecture of Ethiopia}}
[[File:Yeha Tigray Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The ruin of the temple at [[Yeha]], Ethiopia]]
[[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] architecture flourished in the Ethiopian region, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of [[Lalibela, Ethiopia|Lalibela]], where stelae (''hawilt''s) and, later, entire [[church (building)|church]]es were carved out of single blocks of rock. Other monumental structures include massive underground tombs often located beneath stelae. Other well-known structures employing monolithic construction include the [[Tomb of the False Door]], and the tombs of [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]] and [[Gebre Mesqel]] in [[Axum]].
Most structures, however—such as palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and monasteries—were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. Some examples of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th-century monastery of [[Yemrehanna Krestos]], which was built in Aksumite style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures, two-storey square houses, or [[roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]] of [[sandstone]] with [[basalt]] [[Foundation (architecture)|foundation]]s. Villas were generally two-to-four storeys tall and had sprawling rectangular plans (cf. [[Dungur]] ruins). A good example of still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of [[Debre Damo]] from the 6th century.
====Kenya====
In 2nd millennium BCE, [[Namoratunga]] (Monolith Circles) [[megalith]]s were constructed as burials the eastern [[Lake Turkana|Turkana]] region of northwestern [[Kenya]].<ref name="Holl II" />
===Central Africa===
Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid-2nd millennium CE, [[megalith]]s (e.g., monuments, cairn burials) were constructed in the regions (e.g., Eastern [[Adamawa Region|Adamawa]], [[Oubanguian]] Ridge, [[Chad Basin#Drainage basin extent|Chad/Congo watershed]]) in [[Central African Republic]] and [[Cameroon]], throughout various periods (e.g., Balimbé: 2000 BCE – 1000 BCE; Early Gbabiri: 950 BCE – 200 BCE; Late Gbabiri: 200 BCE – 500 CE; Bouboun: 500 CE – 1600 CE), for various purposes (e.g., ritual practices, territorial marking).<ref name="Holl II" />
====Chad====
=====Sao Civilization=====
[[Sao civilization]] sites of walled-cities are in the [[Lake Chad]] region, along the [[Chari River]]; the oldest site—at [[Archaeology of Zilum|Zilum]], Chad—dates to at least the first millennium.
====Southern Africa====
====limpompo drystonewalling culture====
[[Limpompo drystonewalling culture]] drystonewalling in the region of the limpompo existed from 200BC when the ancestors of what is the venda language speaking peoples started constructing drystonewalling to show the power of the king .
==Medieval architecture==
===North Africa===
[[File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Kairouan]], Tunisia (7th to 9th centuries)]]
The Islamic conquest of North Africa saw the development of [[Islamic architecture]] in the region. Some of the early major monuments include the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]], founded in 670 and mostly rebuilt in its current form during the 9th century,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Great Mosque of Kairouan|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&lang=en#:~:text=This%20mosque,%20the%20oldest%20and,dressed%20stone%20cut%20like%20brick.|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> and the [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun|Ibn Tulun Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], built in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mosque of Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn {{!}} building, Cairo, Egypt|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mosque-of-Ahmad-ibn-Tulun|access-date=2021-07-22|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> In the western part of North Africa, known as the [[Maghreb]], the [[Moorish architecture|"Moorish" style]] of architecture developed over time, with strong cultural connections to [[Al-Andalus]], the Islamic society of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Marçais|first=Georges|title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident|publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques|year=1954|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref> Around 1000 AD, [[Cob (material)|cob]] (''tabya'') first appears in the [[Maghreb]] and al-Andalus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |editor1-last=Rashed |editor1-first=Roshdi |editor-link1=Roshdi Rashed |editor2-last=Morelon |editor2-first=Régis |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |url=https://archive.org/stream/RoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996/Roshdi+Rashed+%28ed.%29-Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science%2C+Vol.+3-Routledge+%281996%29_djvu.txt |date=1996 |volume=3 |page=766 |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-02063-8 |ref={{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=751–95}} |access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref> To the east, Egypt continued to be more closely connected with the [[Levant]] and the rest of the Middle East.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=Architecture|editor2-last=S. Blair|editor2-first=Sheila}}</ref>
====Tunisia====
{{Main|Architecture of Tunisia}}
[[Ifriqiya]] (roughly present-day Tunisia) was an important province of Islamic North Africa, with Kairouan serving as a major cultural and political center for much of its history. Under the [[Aghlabids]] (9th century), the Great Mosque of Kairouan was rebuilt and [[Abbasid architecture|Abbasid architectural]] innovations, such as the minaret, were introduced for the first time in North Africa.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |title=The minaret |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0748637256 |location=Edinburgh |oclc=856037134}}</ref> Under the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] (10th century), Ifriqiya was temporarily the center of a new caliphate in rivalry with the Abbasid Caliphate to the east. The Fatimids initially eschewed some of the trends of Abbasid architecture (e.g. minarets), while following some of the established forms (e.g. the hypostyle format of mosques) and introducing new elements (e.g. monumental entrance portals for mosques).<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":04"/> They also founded new capital cities including [[Mahdia]] on the coast and [[Mansouria, Tunisia|al-Mansuriya]] near Kairouan. After the Fatimids departed to Cairo, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] were left in charge in the late 10th century until they were succeeded by the Almohads in the 12th century. The latter introduced some of their own architectural trends, as seen in the [[Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)|Kasbah Mosque]] of [[Tunis]] which bears strong resemblance to Almohad mosque architecture in Marrakesh.<ref name=":3" /> The Almohads in Ifriqiya were soon succeeded by the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsids]], under whose long dominion the center of power and patronage shifted to Tunis and the region's architecture increasingly deviated from that of the western Maghreb and al-Andalus. Madrasas were first built during the Hafsid period and quickly proliferated. After the advent of [[Ottoman Tunisia|Ottoman rule]] in the 16th century some elements and traditions of [[Ottoman architecture]], such as the use of pointed minarets and the creation of multi-functional religious complexes, began to penetrate local architecture, especially among the monuments built by or associated with the new Ottoman elites.<ref name=":3" />
<gallery>
File:Great Mosque of Sousse.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Sousse]] (9th century)
File:Porte Grande Mosquée El Mehdi Mahdia.JPG|Entrance of the Fatimid [[Great Mosque of Mahdiya|Great Mosque of Mahdia]] (10th century)
File:Mosquée de la Kasba 1 (retouched).jpg|[[Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)|Kasbah Mosque]] of Tunis (13th century)
File:Minaret et mausolée.jpg|[[Youssef Dey Mosque|Mosque and mausoleum of Youssef Dey]] in Tunis (17th century)
</gallery>
====Algeria====
{{Main|Architecture of Algeria}}
The territory of present-day Algeria was ruled by various dynasties in the early Islamic period, including the [[Rustamid dynasty|Rustamids]], the Idrisids (and their [[Sulaymanid dynasty|Sulaymanid]] branch), and the Zirids. In the 10th century the Zirids built a palace at [[Achir|'Ashir]] (near the present town of [[Kef Lakhdar]]) that is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated by archeologists.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=53}} The [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]], an offshoot of the Zirids, based themselves in Algeria and in 1007 they founded an entirely new fortified capital known as [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qala'at Bani Hammad]], northeast of present-day [[M'Sila, Algeria|M'Sila]]. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved sites of a medieval capital city in the Islamic world, with remains of multiple palaces and of a monumental mosque.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|125}} From the late 11th to early 13th centuries varying extents of Algerian territory were controlled by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]]. The [[Great Mosque of Tlemcen]] (1082), the [[Djamaa el Kebir|Great Mosque of Algiers]] (1096–1097), and the [[Great Mosque of Nedroma]] (1145) are all important foundations from the Almoravid period.<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":3" /> After the Almohads, the region was mostly controlled by the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanids]] (13th to early 16th centuries), based in [[Tlemcen]], with occasional incursions by the Marinids. Both the Zayyanids and the Marinids left a significant architectural legacy in Tlemcen, which became a cultural center of the region. Various mosques and monuments in the western Maghrebi-Andalusi style are still preserved in the city today.<ref name=":242">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Tlemcen |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> After the Ottomans brought the region under their control in the 16th century, Algiers became the new center of power. Many mosques, palaces, and tombs were built in the city with a blend of Ottoman and indigenous Maghrebi architectural influences. An important example is the 17th-century [[Djamaa el Djedid|New Mosque]], which has an Ottoman-influenced layout with dome and vaulted ceilings alongside a Maghrebi-style minaret.<ref name=":3" />
<gallery>
File:28-2 Kalâa de Beni Hammad (4) (cropped).jpg|Remains of the mosque of [[Qal'at Bani Hammad]] (11th century)
File:Grande mosquée et dépendance Minaret de la Mosquée 021.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Tlemcen]] (11th-12th centuries, with later additions)
File:Entrée de SBM.JPG|Zellij and muqarnas decoration at the entrance of the [[Sidi Boumediene Mosque|Sidi Bu Madyan Mosque]] in Tlemcen (14th century)
File:Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah cropped.jpg|[[Djamaa el Djedid|New Mosque]] in Algiers (17th century)
</gallery>
====Morocco====
{{Main|Moroccan architecture}}
Islamic architecture began in Morocco under the [[Idrisid dynasty]], with structures such as the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin]], founded in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Courtney Ann |title=Art and Architecture of Morocco and Muslim Spain: Bronze Age to Idrisid Dynasty |url=https://www.academia.edu/33423812 |language=en |url-access=registration |access-date=17 July 2022}}</ref> The Almoravid dynasty united northwest Africa and Iberia under one empire, and brought Andalusi architects to North Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruggles|first=D.|date=1999-04-22|title=D. Fairchild Ruggles. Review of "The Minbar from Kutubiyya Mosque" by Jonathan M. Bloom.|journal=Caa.reviews|doi=10.3202/caa.reviews.1999.75|issn=1543-950X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Arnold|first=Felix|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA215|title=Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-062455-2|language=en}}</ref> A similar situation persisted under the Almohads, whose buildings (e.g. the [[Kutubiyya Mosque]]) further cemented many stylistic trends that would characterize the architecture of the region.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|last=Bennison|first=Amira K.|title=The Almoravid and Almohad Empires|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780748646821|location=|pages=}}</ref> After them, the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinid dynasty]] used similar architectural forms with increased surface decoration, which shared many similarities with contemporary [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] architecture in the [[Emirate of Granada]].<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref> Some features of Moroccan Islamic architecture that emerged from these periods are the [[Moroccan riad|''riad'']], square-based [[minaret]]s, ''[[tadelakt]]'' plaster, and decorative features such as [[arabesque]] and ''[[zellij]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|date=2020-06-30|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-21870-1|language=en}}</ref> Under the [[Saadi dynasty]], [[Carrara marble|marble]] from [[Carrara]], bought with [[Sugar industry of Morocco|Moroccan sugar]], was used in the furnishing of palaces and mosques.<ref>{{Cite web|title="A Very Sweet Present: Moroccan Sugar Loaves" by Iziar de Miguel|url=https://henripeyrefi.ws.gc.cuny.edu/2017/01/27/a-very-sweet-present-moroccan-sugar-loaves-by-iziar-de-miguel/|last=Soo-Hoo|first=Anna|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> The traditional Moorish style of architecture continued to be followed under the [['Alawi dynasty]], which ruled Morocco from the 17th century onward.<ref name=":3" /> Between 1672 and 1727, The 'Alawi sultan [[Ismail Ibn Sharif|Moulay Isma'il]] built a new capital at Meknes, the [[Kasbah of Moulay Ismail]], which covered a vast area and featured monuments and infrastructure on a vast scale.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|pages=309–312}} The 'Alawi sultans continued to build or renovate other palaces and mosques. Some of the palaces preserved today were built by other high-ranking officials, such as the [[Bahia Palace]] in Marrakesh, which was built in the late 19th century by a family of [[vizier]]s.<ref name=":243">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Marrakesh |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:أطلال مسجد في موقع ليكسوس الأثري قرب مدينة العرائش المغربية.jpg|Remains of an Idrisid mosque at [[Lixus (ancient city)|Lixus]]
File:Al Quaraouiyine.jpg|[[University of al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fez, Morocco|Fes]] (founded in 9th century)
File:Cúpula almorávide (Marrakech).jpg|[[Almoravid Qubba]] in [[Marrakesh]] (early 12th century)
File:المسجد الأعظم تينمل 7.jpg|[[Mihrab]] of the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] [[Mosque of Tinmel]] (12th century)
File:مدرسة العطارين.jpg|[[Arabesque]], [[Maghrebi script]], and [[Zellige|''zillīj'']] at [[Al-Attarine Madrasa]] in Fes (14th century)
File:Palais El Badii - panoramio.jpg|[[El Badi Palace]] in Marrakesh (late 16th century)
</gallery>
====Egypt====
After initially being a province of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] Caliphates, with its administrative capital at [[Fustat]], Egypt became more politically independent in the 9th century under the [[Tulunids|Tulunid dynasty]].<ref name=":24" /> In the 10th century, the Fatimid Caliphate moved its base of power to Egypt and founded the city of Cairo, near Fustat. [[Fatimid architecture]] in Egypt can be witnessed in religious monuments in Cairo such as the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] (significantly modified in later centuries), the [[Al-Hakim Mosque]], and in the small but artistically significant [[Aqmar Mosque]].<ref name=":24" /> Other remains from this period include the monumental stone gates of Cairo – [[Bab al-Futuh]], [[Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)|Bab al-Nasr]], and [[Bab Zuweila]] – which were built by a Fatimid [[vizier]] in the 11th century.<ref name=":24" /> The [[Fatimid Great Palaces|Great Fatimid Palaces]], where the caliphs lived, have not been preserved. After the Fatimids, Egypt became the capital of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] founded by [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] (Saladin). The most significant monument of this era was the [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel of Cairo]], which became Egypt's center of government up until the 19th century.<ref name=":032">{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Caroline|title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2018|isbn=|edition=7th|location=Cairo|pages=}}</ref><ref name="Raymond1993">Raymond, André. 1993. ''Le Caire''. Fayard.</ref> In the mid-13th century the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]] took control and ruled an empire from Cairo that lasted until the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Ottoman conquest of 1517]]. The Mamluks were major patrons of architecture and a large part of the historic heritage of [[Islamic Cairo]] dates from their time. The major monuments of [[Mamluk architecture]] were multi-functional religious and funerary complexes whose layouts were adapted to fit into the dense urban environment. Some of the most significant examples of this period include the [[Qalawun complex|Complex of Sultan Qalawun]], the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, and the [[Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]].<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":032"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2007|isbn=9789774160776}}</ref><gallery>
File:Courtyard of Al-Azhar Mosque Cairo Egypt 2019 (6).jpg|Courtyard of the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], founded in 972
File:Cairo, porte settentrionali, 01.JPG|[[Bab al-Futuh]], a Fatimid gate in Cairo (1087–92)
File:Cairo, moschea di al-aqmar, 04.JPG|Street façade of the [[Aqmar Mosque]] (1126)
File:Flickr - HuTect ShOts - Citadel of Salah El.Din and Masjid Muhammad Ali قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي ومسجد محمد علي - Cairo - Egypt - 17 04 2010 (4).jpg|The [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel of Cairo]], founded in 1176
File:Minaret of the Qalawun complex.jpg|Exterior of the [[Qalawun complex|Funerary complex of Sultan Qalawun]] (1285), which included a mausoleum, a [[madrasa]], and a [[Bimaristan|maristan]]
File:Qaitbey4 (2133768658).jpg|Dome of the [[Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]] (1474)
File:Sultan-Hassan-Moschee 2015-11-14zc.jpg|[[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan|Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan]] (1356–1361)
</gallery>
====Sudan====
=====Nubia=====
{{Further|Nubian architecture}}
The Christianization of [[Nubia]] began in the 6th century. Its most representative architecture consists of churches, whose design is based on [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[basilica]]s, but which are relatively small and made of mud bricks. [[Vernacular architecture]] of the Christian period is scarce. [[Soba (city)|Soba]] is the only city that has been excavated. Its structures are made of sun-dried bricks, the same as today, except for an arch. During the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] phase of Islam, Nubia became [[Arabization|Arabized]]. Its most import mosque was the Mosque of Derr.<ref>Grossmann, Peter. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/christian.htm Christian Nubia and Its Churches] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516005111/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/christian.htm |date=May 16, 2009 }}. Cairo: German Archaeological Institute</ref><ref>Shinnie, P.L. [http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm Medieval Nubia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103090421/http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm |date=2018-01-03 }}. Khartoum:Sudan Antiquities Service,1954</ref>
===West Africa===
{{Further|Sudano-Sahelian}}
[[File:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]] in Mali, first built in the 13th century and reconstructed in 1906–1909, is the largest clay building in the world]]
[[File:Askia.jpg|thumb|[[Tomb of Askia]] in [[Gao, Mali]]]]
At [[Kumbi Saleh]], locals lived in dome-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by [[Abu Abdullah al-Bakri|al-Bakri]]), one of which was for [[Friday prayer]].<ref>Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81</ref> The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long and forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase, with paintings on the walls and chambers filled with sculpture.<ref>Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86</ref>
[[Sudano-Sahelian|Sahelian architecture]] initially grew from the two cities of [[Djenné]] and [[Timbuktu]]. The [[Sankore]] Mosque, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the [[Great Mosque of Djenné]].
====Ghana====
=====Ashanti=====
[[File:Kumasi.png|thumb|Palace of, [[Asante people|Ashanti]], King Kwaku Dua of [[Kumasi]], 1887]]
[[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] architecture from [[Ghana]] is perhaps best known from the reconstruction at [[Kumasi]], [[Ghana]]. Its key features are courtyard-based buildings, and walls with striking reliefs in brightly painted mud plaster. An example is the Besease [[shrine]], which can be seen at [[Kumasi]]. Four rectangular rooms, constructed from [[wattle and daub]], lie around a [[courtyard]]. Animal designs mark the walls, and [[arecaceae|palm]] leaves cut to a tiered shape provide the roof.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashante Shrine |url=https://www.zamaniproject.org/site-ghana-kumasi-asante-shrine.html |website=[[Zamani Project]] |access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
====Mali====
At [[Tondidarou]], in the Malian Lakes Region, there are [[megalith]]s of an anthropomorphic nature (e.g., face, navel, [[scarifications]]) that date between 600 CE and 700 CE.<ref name="Holl II" />
At the [[Inner Niger Delta]], in the [[Mali]] Lakes Region, there are two monumental tumuli constructed in the time period of the [[Trans-Saharan trade]] for the [[Sahelian kingdoms]] of [[West Africa]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot">{{cite book |last1=Garenne-Marot |first1=Laurence |last2=Mille |first2=Benoît |title=Metals and mines: studies in archaeometallurgy |date=January 2007 |page=160 |publisher=Archetype Publications |isbn=9781904982197 |oclc=174131337 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340772351 |chapter=Copper-based metal in the Inland Niger delta: metal and technology at the time of the Empire of Mali}}</ref> The El Oualadji monumental tumulus, which dates between 1030 CE and 1220 CE and has two human remains buried with [[horse]] remains and various items (e.g., [[horse harness]]es, horse [[trapping]]s with plaques and bells, bracelets, rings, beads, iron items), may have been, as highlighted by [[al-Bakri]], the royal burial site of a king from the [[Ghana Empire]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot" /> The Koï Gourrey monumental tumulus, which may date prior to 1326 CE and has over twenty human remains that were buried with various items (e.g., iron accessories, an abundant amount of copper bracelets, anklets and beads, an abundant amount of broken, but whole pottery, another set of distinct, intact, glazed pottery, a wooden-beaded bone necklace, a bird figurine, a lizard figurine, a crocodile figurine), and is situated within the [[Mali Empire]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot" />
====Nigeria====
Several societies in pre-colonial [[Nigeria]] built structures from earth and stone. In general, these structures were primarily defensive, repelling invaders from other tribes, but many settlements put spiritual elements into their construction. These defensive structures were primarily constructed from earth, occasionally plastered.
Dump ramparts consist of an outer ditch and inner bank and can span from 1/2 meter to 20 meters across in the largest settlements such as [[Benin City|Benin]] and [[Sungbo's Eredo]]. Coursed mud walls in the Guinea and Sudan savannas were laid in layers of mud. Each layer of mud would be held in place by wooden framing, allowed to dry, and built on top of. At the most significant settlement in Koso, these walls averaged 6 meters in height, tapering from 2 meters thick at the base to 1/2 meter thick at the top. Tubali walls in northern Nigeria have two components: sun-dried mud bricks held together with mud mortar. Walls in this style have a tendency to deteriorate in wetter climates.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=African indigenous knowledge and the sciences : journeys into the past and present|editor1=Emeagwali, Gloria T. |editor2=Shizha, Edward|isbn=9789463005159|location=Rotterdam|oclc=953458729|date = 2016-07-08}}</ref>
These mud constructions were usually plastered with mud mixed with other materials. The defensive purpose of this was to create a smoother, unscalable surface to help repel attackers. However, some plaster has been found with blood, bone remains, gold dust, oil, and straw mixed in. Some of these materials were functional, adding strength, while others had spiritual meanings, possibly to defend against evil spirits.<ref name=":0" />
Benin City in particular had sophisticated house and urban planning. Houses had several rooms and were usually roofed, enclosing private quarters, sacred spaces, and rooms for receiving guests. Usually, multiple houses would enclose a shared courtyard. When it rained, the house roofs would collect water into a space in the courtyard for later use. Houses would have public frontage along long, straight roads. The city had markets and the chief's palace in the center of the city, with dominant and subordinate roads leading outwards. HM Stanely, quoted in Asomani-Boateng, Raymond (2011-11), described the roads as "...fenced with tall [water cane] neatly set very close together in uniform rows..." possibly for privacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Asomani-Boateng|first=Raymond|date=2011-11-01|title=Borrowing from the past to sustain the present and the future: indigenous African urban forms, architecture, and sustainable urban development in contemporary Africa|journal=Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability|volume=4|issue=3|pages=239–262|doi=10.1080/17549175.2011.634573|s2cid=144469644|issn=1754-9175}}</ref>
[[File:Sukur-8.jpg|alt=Dry-laid stone structure in Sukur, in the Adamawa State. Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site|thumb|Dry-laid stone structure in [[Sukur]], in the [[Adamawa State]].]]
More sophisticated construction methods include stone and brick constructions, with and without mortar, plaster, and accompanying defensive structures. Fired brick constructions were observed in settlements in northeast Nigeria, such as historic [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] buildings. Many of the bricks have since been removed for new constructions. Laterite block walls with clay mortar were found in northwest Nigeria, possibly inspired by [[Songhai people|Songhai]] constructions. Walls built from stone without mortar have been found where societies could obtain sufficient stone, most notably in [[Sukur]]. None of these constructions have been observed with additional plastering.<ref name=":0" />
The Sukur World Heritage Site is especially significant, with extensive terraces, walls, and infrastructure. Walls separate homes, animal pens, and granaries, while terraces often include spiritual items such as sacred trees or ceramic shrines. Early iron foundries were also present, usually placed close to the homes of their owners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/938/|title=Sukur Cultural Landscape|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref>
Broadly, three styles of residential architecture can be identified in indigenous Nigerian architecture, relating to the people groups which developed them.
* [[Hausa architecture]] uses plastered adobe to create monolithic walls. Roofing is provided by shallow domes and vaults made from structural timber beams covered by laterite and earth. Homesteads are bounded by perimeter walls with both circular and linear interior divisions with one clearly defined entrance.
* [[Yoruba architecture]] uses cured earth walls to support roof timbers, over which leaf or woven grass roofing is applied. These walls are usually homogeneous mud structures, though wattle-and-daub techniques can be found in certain locations. Space is divided into individual units which are then connected by proximity and walls into a compound with courtyards and private spaces. Multiple entrances and exits allow access to accessory facilities such as kitchens.
* [[Igbo architecture]] uses similar construction techniques and materials as Yoruba architecture, but varies significantly in spatial arrangement. No unified compound walls exist in these constructions. Instead, individual units are related to a central leader's hut, with significance attached to relative position and size.
These elements are believed to affect present-day residential house design, especially when designating spaces as public, semi-public, semi-private, or private.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Osasona|first1=Cordelia O.|title=From traditional residential architecture to the vernacular: the Nigerian experience|url=http://www.obafemio.com/uploads/5/1/4/2/5142021/nigerianarchitechture.pdf|location=Ile-Ife, Nigeria|publisher=Obafemi Awolowo University|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>
=====Benin=====
{{Further|Walls of Benin}}
[[File:Drawing of Benin City made by an English officer 1897.jpg|thumb|Drawing of [[Benin City]] made by an English officer in 1897]]
The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood. [[Benin City]], destroyed during the [[Benin Expedition of 1897]], was a large complex of homes in coursed mud, with hipped roofs of [[Shake (roof)|shingles]] or palm leaves. The palace contained a sequence of ceremonial rooms and was decorated with [[Benin Bronzes|brass plaques]]. The [[Walls of Benin]] City were the world's largest man-made structure.<ref>Wesler, Kit W.(1998). Historical archaeology in Nigeria. Africa World Press pp.143,144 {{ISBN|9780865436107}}.</ref> Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist:
{{cquote|quote=They extend for some 16,000 kilometres in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 6500 square kilometres and were all dug by the [[Edo people]]. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops. They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.<ref>Pearce, Fred. [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16322035.100-the-african-queen.html?page=2 ''African Queen'']. New Scientist, 11 September 1999, Issue 2203.</ref>}}
In 1691, the Portuguese Lourenco Pinto observed: "Great Benin, where the king resides, is larger than Lisbon; all the streets run straight and as far as the eye can see. The houses are large, especially that of the king, which is richly decorated and has fine columns. The city is wealthy and industrious. It is so well governed that theft is unknown and the people live in such security that they have no doors to their houses."<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYNSEAAAQBAJ&q=Educational+Leadership+and+the+Global+Majority:+Decolonising+Narratives%0ABy+Rosemary+M.+Campbell-Stephens | title=Educational Leadership and the Global Majority: Decolonising Narratives | isbn=9783030882822 | last1=Campbell-Stephens | first1=Rosemary M. | date=28 December 2021 | publisher=Springer }}</ref>
Benin City's planning and design was done according to careful rules of symmetry, proportionality and repetition now known as fractal design.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aire |first=Ekiuwa |title=Idia of the Benin Kingdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHtrEAAAQBAJ&dq=benin+city+fractal+design&pg=PT35 |date=2021 |publisher=Our Ancestories |isbn=978-177711791-7 |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref> The main streets had underground drainage made of a sunken impluvium with an outlet to carry away storm water. Many narrower side and intersecting streets extended off them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Awuah |first=Kwasi Gyau Baffour |title=Economic Incentives in Sub-Saharan African Urban Planning: A Ghanaian Case Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRYeEAAAQBAJ&dq=benin+city+underground+drainage&pg=PT63 |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-100037333-2 |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref>
=====Hausa Kingdoms=====
{{Main|Hausa architecture}}
[[File:Kano-engraving.jpg|thumb|The city of Kano]]
The important [[Hausa Kingdoms]] city state of [[Kano (city)|Kano]] was surrounded by a wall of reinforced ramparts of stone and bricks. Kano contained a citadel near which the royal court resided. Individual residences were separated by earthen walls. The higher the status of the resident the more elaborate the wall. The entrance-way was maze-like to keep women secluded. Inside, near the entrance, were the abodes of unmarried women. Further on were slave quarters.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 123–126 }}</ref>
======Gobarau Mosque======
Gobarau Mosque is believed to have been completed during the reign of [[Muhammadu Korau]] (1398–1408), the first Muslim king of Katsina. Originally built as the central mosque of [[Katsina]] town, it was later also used as a school.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobarau Minaret Katsina State :: Nigeria Information & Guide |url=https://www.nigeriagalleria.com/Nigeria/States_Nigeria/Katsina/Gobarau-Minaret-Katsina.html |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=www.nigeriagalleria.com}}</ref> By the beginning of the 16th century, Katsina had become a very important commercial and academic center in [[Hausaland]], and Gobarau Mosque had grown into a famed Islamic institution of higher learning. Gobarau continued to be Katsina's central mosque until the beginning of the 19th century AD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobarau, Katsina, phone +234 903 249 8940 |url=https://ng.africabz.com/katsina/gobarau-198786 |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=ng.africabz.com}}</ref>
=====Yoruba=====
{{Main|Yoruba architecture}}
The [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] surrounded their settlements with massive mud walls. Their buildings had a similar plan to the Ashanti shrines, but with [[verandah]]s around the court.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} The walls were of puddled mud and [[palm oil]]. The most famous of the Yoruba fortifications, and the second largest wall edifice in Africa, is [[Sungbo's Eredo]], a structure that was built in honour of a traditional [[Oba (ruler)#Aristocratic titles among the Yoruba|oloye]] by the name of [[Bilikisu Sungbo]], in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} The structure is made up of sprawling mud walls among the valleys that surrounded the town of [[Ijebu-Ode]] in [[Ogun State]]. [[Sungbo's Eredo]] is the largest pre-colonial monument in [[Africa]], larger than the [[Great Pyramids]] or [[Great Zimbabwe]].
===Eastern Africa===
====Burundi====
[[Burundi]] never had a fixed capital. The closest thing to it was a royal hill. When the king moved, his new location became the ''insago''. The compound itself was enclosed inside a high fence and had two entrances. One was for herders and herds. The other was to the royal palace, which was itself surrounded by a fence. The royal palace had three royal courtyards, each serving a particular function: one for herders, one as a sanctuary, and one encompassed by kitchen and granary.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 68 }}</ref>
====Ethiopia====
[[File:Bet Medhane Alem church Lalibela.jpg|thumb|150px|Bete Medhane Alem, [[Lalibela, Ethiopia|Lalibela]], the largest monolithic church in the world]]
Throughout the medieval period, the monolithic influences of Aksumite architecture persisted, with its influence felt strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially during the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout [[Ethiopia]], especially in the northernmost region of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]], which was the heart of the [[Aksumite Empire]]. However, rock-hewn churches have been found as far south as [[Adadi Maryam]] (15th century), about {{convert|100|km}} south of [[Addis Ababa]].
The most famous examples of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the 11 monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. Although later medieval hagiographies attribute all 11 structures to the eponymous king [[Gebre Mesqel Lalibela|Lalibela]] (the town was called Roha and Adefa before his reign), new evidence indicates that they may have been built separately over a period of a few centuries, with only a few of the more recent churches having been built under his reign. Archaeologist and ''Ethiopisant'' David Phillipson postulates that [[Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el]] was actually built in the very early medieval period, some time between 600 and 800 AD, originally as a fortress but later turned into a church.
====Kenya====
[[Thimlich Ohinga]] is a complex of dry-stone walled enclosures near [[Migori]] town in Western Kenya. Thimlich Ohinga was built around the 16th century CE by sedentary, pastoralist [[Bantus]] who later on abandoned the site, later on replaced by members of the [[Luo people]]. The site consists of four main "Ohingni" (i.e. settlements) surrounded by walls with low entrances, the walls were built by stacking irregularly-shaped stones without the use of any mortar, the result being an interlocked wall with immense stability similar to walls of [[Great Zimbabwe]] 3600 kilometers to the south of the settlement.<ref>{{cite web| title = Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site| url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1450/| year = 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Secrets in stone. Who built the stone settlements of Nyanza Province. Kenya Past and Present| year = 2006}}</ref> The walls of Thimlich Ohinga also included vents for water drainage, [[buttresses]] to reinforce the free-standing walls and a watchtower.Within the walls of the settlement were livestock enclosures, houses and [[granaries]]. The inhabitants of Thimlich Ohinga engaged in craft industries, most notably pottery and [[metallurgy]]. Imported glass beads at the site indicate that Thimlich Ohinga was part of a network of long-distance trade.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}
====Rwanda====
[[File:King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg|thumb|King's palace in Nyanza, Rwanda]]
[[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]] was the royal capital of [[Rwanda]]. The king's residence, the Ibwami, was built on a hill. Surrounding hills were occupied by permanent or temporary dwellings. These dwellings were round huts surrounded by big yards and tall hedges to separate the compounds. The ''[[Rugo]]'', the royal compound, was encircled by reed fences encompassing thatched houses. The houses for the king's entourage were carpeted with mats and had clay hearths in the center. For the king and his wife, the royal house was close to 200-100 yards in length and looked like a huge maze of connected huts and granaries. It had one entrance that lead to a large public square called the ''karubanda''.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 69–70 }}</ref>
====Somalia====
{{Main|Somali architecture}}
[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the dry [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]] in Zeila, Somalia]]
Somali architecture has a rich and diverse tradition of designing and engineering different types of construction, such as masonry, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, temples, [[aqueduct (water supply)|aqueducts]], lighthouses, towers and tombs, during the ancient, medieval, and [[early modern]] periods in [[Somalia]]. It also encompasses the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with Western designs in modern times.
In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in [[Somali language|Somali]] as ''taalo'' were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these [[dry stone]] monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of [[Stonemasonry|dressed stone]] similar to the ones in [[Ancient Egypt]],<ref>Man, God and Civilization pg 216</ref> and there are examples of courtyards, and large stone walls, such as the [[Wargaade Wall]], enclosing settlements.
The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]], which stimulated a shift in construction from dry stone, and other related materials, to [[Masonry|coral stone]], [[mud-brick|sun-dried bricks]], and the widespread use of [[limestone]] in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.<ref>Diriye, p.102</ref>
=====Dhulbahante garesa=====
[[File:Eyl Castle.jpg|thumb|Sideway view of a Dervish fort/Dhulbahante garesa in [[Eyl]], [[Somalia]]]]
In the official Dervish-written letter's description of the 1920 air, sea and land campaign and the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent ''Governatori della Somalia'', the British are described taking twenty-seven ''garesas'' or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan:<ref name="caroselli">Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."[https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/handle/2307/4173 viewable link]</ref>{{efn|name=fn2|*To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2021 June 9#Colonial fort quote|this link]] and [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2022 January 7#Caroselli|this link]]<br>*The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).}}
{{Verse translation
| Ai primi di aprile giungeva, a mezzo di corrieri dervisc di Belet Uen, una lettera diretta dal Mulla "Agli Italiani" con la quale, in sostanza, giustificando la sua rapida sconfitta coll'attriburla a defezione dei suoi seguaci Dulbohanta, chiedeva la nostra mediazione presso gli Inglesi ... Gl'Inglesi che sapevano questo ci son piombati addosso con tutta la gente e con sei volatili (aeroplani) ... i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro.
| In early April there came, by way of dervish couriers of Beledweyne, a letter sent by the Mullah "To The Italians" in which, in substance, he justified his rapid defeat by attributing it to the defection of his Dhulbahante followers and asked for our mediation with the English. The English, who knew this, descended on us with all their men and with six birds (airplanes)." ... the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them.}}
====Tanzania====
[[Engaruka]] is a ruined settlement on the slopes of [[Mount Ngorongoro]] in northern [[Tanzania]]. Seven stone-terraced villages comprised the settlement. A complex structure of stone channels along the mountain's base was used to dike, dam, and level surrounding river waters for [[irrigation]] of individual plots of land. Some of these irrigation channels were several kilometers long. The channels irrigated a total area of {{convert|5000|acre|km2}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Hull| first = Richard W.| title = African Cities and Towns Before the European Conquest| year = 1976| publisher = New York : Norton| isbn = 978-0-393-05581-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = Encyclopedia of African history| year = 2004| isbn = 978-1-57958-453-5| page = 1368 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn}}</ref>
=====Swahili States=====
{{Main|Swahili architecture}}
Farther south, increased trade with Arab merchants, and the development of ports, saw the birth of [[Swahili architecture]]. An outgrowth of indigenous Bantu settlements,<ref>African Archaeological Review, Volume 15, Number 3, September 1998, pp. 199-218(20)</ref> one of the earliest examples is the [[Palace of Husuni Kubwa]], lying west of [[Kilwa (district)|Kilwa]], built about 1245. As with many other early Swahili buildings, [[coral rag]] was the main construction material, and even the roof was constructed by attaching coral to timbers. The palace at [[Kilwa Kisiwani]] was a two-story tower, in a walled enclosure. Other notable structures from the period include the [[pillar tomb]]s of [[Malindi]] and [[Mnarani]] in Kenya and elsewhere, originally made of coral rag, and later from stone. Later examples include [[Zanzibar]]'s [[Stone Town]], with its famous carved doors and the [[Great Mosque of Kilwa]].
A visitor in 1331 AD considered the Tanzanian city Kilwa to be of world class. He wrote that it was the "principal city on the coast the greater part of whose inhabitants are Zanj of very black complexion." Later on he says that: "Kilwa is one of the most beautiful and well-constructed cities in the world. The whole of it is elegantly built."
====Uganda====
=====Buganda=====
Initially, the hilltop capital, or ''[[kibuga]]'', of [[Buganda]] would be moved to a new hill with each new ruler, or ''[[Kabaka of Buganda|Kabaka]]''. In the late 19th century, a permanent kibuga of Buganda was established at [[Mengo, Uganda|Mengo Hill]]. The capital, 1.5 miles across, was divided into quarters corresponding to provinces, with each chief building dwellings for his wife, slaves, dependents and visitors. Large plots of land were available for planting bananas and fruits. Roads were wide and well maintained.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 74 }}</ref>
=====Kitara and Bunyoro=====
In western Uganda, there are numerous earthworks near the [[Katonga River]]. These earthworks have been attributed to the Empire of Kitara. The most famous, [[Bigo bya Mugenyi]], is about {{convert|4|sqmi}}. The ditch was dug by cutting through {{convert|200000|m3}} of solid bedrock and earth. The earthwork rampart was about {{convert|12|ft|m}} high. It is not certain whether its function was for defense or pastoral use. Little is known about the Ugandan earthworks.<ref>{{cite book| last = Tracy| first = James D.| title = City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective| year = 2000| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-65221-6| page = 24 }}</ref>
===Central Africa===
====Chad====
=====Kanem-Bornu=====
[[Kanem-Bornu]]'s capital city, [[Birni N'Gazargamu]], may have had a population of 200,000. It had four mosques, which could hold up to 12,000 worshippers. It was surrounded by a {{convert|25|ft|m|adj=mid|-high}} wall more than {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} in circumference. Many large streets extended from the esplanade and connected to 660 roads. The main buildings were built with red brick. Other buildings were built with straw and adobe.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 106–107 }}</ref>
====Democratic Republic of the Congo====
=====Kongo=====
[[File:The Bansa, or residence of the King of Kongo, called St. Salvador (M'Banza Kongo), Astley 1745.jpg|thumb|The capital of the Kingdom of Kongo]]
With a population of more than 30,000, [[Mbanza Congo]] was the capital of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]]. The city sat atop a cliff, with a river running below through a forested valley. The king's dwelling was described as an enclosure, a mile-and-a-half in extent, with walled pathways, courtyard, gardens, decorated huts, and palisades. An early explorer described it as looking like a [[Labyrinth#Cretan labyrinth|Cretan labyrinth]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 77 }}</ref>
=====Kuba=====
The capital of the [[Kuba Kingdom]] was surrounded by a {{convert|40|in|m|adj=mid|-high}} fence. Inside the fence were roads, a walled royal palace, and urban buildings. The palace was rectangular and in the center of the city.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 83 }}</ref>
=====Luba=====
The [[Luba Empire|Luba]] tended to cluster in small villages, with rectangular houses facing a single street. ''Kilolo'', patrilineal chieftains, headed the local village government, under the protection of the king. Cultural life centered around the ''[[kitenta]]'', the royal compound, which later came to be a permanent capital. The kitenta drew artists, poets, musicians and craftsmen, spurred by royal and court patronage.
=====Lunda=====
[[File:Lunda houses-1854.jpg|thumb|left|Lunda dwellings displaying the square and the cone-on-ground types of African vernacular architecture]]
[[Musumba]] the capital of the [[Kingdom of Lunda]], was {{convert|100|km}} from the [[Kasai River]], in open woodland, between two rivers {{convert|15|km}} apart. The city was surrounded by fortified earthen ramparts and dry moats. The compound of the ''[[Mwato Yamvo]]'' (sovereign ruler) was surrounded by large fortifications of double-layered tree, or wood, ramparts. Musumba had multiple courtyards with designated functions, straight roads, and public squares. Its cleanliness was noted by European observers.<ref>{{cite book| last = Birmingham| first = David| title = Central Africa to 1870 Zambezia, Zaire and the South Atlantic| year = 1981| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-28444-8| page = [https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95 95]| url = https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95}}</ref>
====Mozambique====
=====Maravi=====
The [[Maravi]] people built bridges (''uraro'') of [[bamboo]] because of changing river depths. Bamboo was placed parallel to each other and tied together by bark (''maruze''). One end of the bridge would be tied to a tree. The bridge would curve downward.
====Zambia====
=====Eastern Lunda=====
The [[Eastern Lunda]] dwelling of the [[Kazembe]] was described as containing fenced roads a mile long. The enclosing walls were made of grass, 12 to 13 [[span (unit)|span]] in height. The enclosed roads led to a rectangular hut opened on the west side. In the center was a wooden base with a statue on top of about 3 span in height.<ref>{{cite book| title = African Civilization Revisiteed From Antiquity to Modern Times| year = 1991| isbn = 978-0-86543-124-9| pages = [https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343 343–344]| last1 = Davidson| first1 = Basil| publisher = Africa World Press| url = https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343}}</ref>
===Southern Africa===
====Madagascar====
{{Main|Architecture of Madagascar}}
[[File:Mix of architectural materials in Antananarivo 1905.jpg|thumb|Architecture in [[Antananarivo]], Madagascar, in 1905]]
The Southeast Asian origins of the first settlers of [[Madagascar]] are reflected in the island's architecture, typified by rectangular dwellings topped with peaked roofs and often built on short stilts. Coastal dwellings, generally made of plant materials, are more like those of East Africa; those of the central highlands tend to be constructed in cob or brick. The introduction of brick-making, by European missionaries in the 19th century, led to the emergence of a distinctly Malagasy architectural style that blends the norms of traditional wooden aristocratic homes with European details.<ref>Acquier, Jean-Louis. Architectures de Madagascar. Paris: Berger-Levrault.</ref>
In the mid-2nd millennium CE, the [[megalithic]] funerary monuments of [[Madagascar]] were constructed amid the [[History of Madagascar#Rise of the great kingdoms|emergent period]] of the [[Merina Kingdom]].<ref name="Holl II" /> Some of the megaliths remain utilized by [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]-speakers for funerary practices (e.g., ceremony of turning the dead) in present-day.<ref name="Holl II" />
====Namibia====
The fortress of [[ǁKhauxaǃnas]], built by the [[Oorlam]] in southeastern Namibia, included a wall that was {{convert|700|m}} in length and {{convert|2|m}} in height. It was built with stone slabs and displays features of both the Zimbabwean and Transvaal-Free-State styles of stone construction.<ref>{{cite book| last = Tracy| first = James D.| title = City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective| year = 2000| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-65221-6| page = 23 }}</ref>
====South Africa====
=====Sotho-Tswana=====
[[Sotho–Tswana peoples|Sotho–Tswana]] architecture represents the other stone-building tradition of southern Africa, centered in the transvaal, highveld north and south of the Vaal. Numerous large stonewalled enclosures and stone-house foundations have been found in the region.<ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition| year = 2005| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-0-333-59957-0 }}</ref> Tswana, the capital of the ''Kwena'' (ruler), was a stone-walled town as large as the capital of Eastern Lunda.<ref>{{cite book| last = Iliffe| first = John| title = Africans The History of a Continent| year = 2007| isbn = 978-0-521-68297-8| page = [https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122 122]| publisher = Cambridge University Press| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122}}</ref>
At sites such as [[Kweneng' Ruins]], the Tswana lived in city states with stone walls and complex sociopolitical structures that they built in the 1300s or earlier. These cities had populations of up to 20,000 people, which at the time rivalled Cape Town in size.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livescience.com/64694-lost-african-city-lidar.html | title=Lost City in South Africa Discovered Hiding Beneath Thick Vegetation | website=[[Live Science]] | date=6 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iEtAQAAIAAJ&q=These+populous+Tswana%0Asettlements+were+characterized+by%0Acomplex+sociopolitical+structures,|title = Nyame Akuma|year = 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDZjDwAAQBAJ&dq=tswana+cities+rivalled+capetown+in+size&pg=PT24|title = A Search for Origins: Science, history and South Africa's 'Cradle of Humankind'|isbn = 9781776142309|last1 = Jenkins|first1 = Trefor|last2 = Bonner|first2 = Phil|last3 = Esterhuysen|first3 = Amanda|date = October 2007| publisher=NYU Press }}</ref>
=====Zulu and Nguni=====
[[Zulu Architecture]] was constructed with more perishable materials. Dome-shaped huts typically come to mind when one thinks of [[Zulu people|Zulu]] dwellings, but later on their design evolved into dome over cylinder-shaped walls. Zulu capital cities were elliptical in plan. The exterior was lined with a durable wood palisade. Domed huts, in rows of 6 to 8, stood just inside the palisade. In the center was the kraal, used by the king to examine his soldiers, hold cattle, or conduct ceremonies. It was an empty circular area at the center of the capital, enclosed by a less durable interior palisade, compared to the exterior. The entrance to the city was opposite to the fortified royal enclosure called the ''Isigodlo''.
====Zimbabwe====
=====Mapungubwe=====
[[Mapungubwe]] is considered the most socially complex society in southern Africa{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and the first southern African culture to display economic differentiation. The elite lived separately in a mountain settlement made of sandstone. It was the precursor to [[Great Zimbabwe]]. Large amounts of dirt were carried to the top of the hill. At the bottom of the hill was a natural amphitheater, and at the top an elite graveyard. There were only two pathways to the top, one following a narrow steep cleft along the side of the hill of which observers at the top had a clear view.
=====Great Zimbabwe=====
[[File:Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg|thumb|The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in [[Great Zimbabwe]], a medieval city built by a prosperous culture]]
Great Zimbabwe was the largest medieval city in sub-Saharan Africa.{{Citation needed|date=January 2014}} It was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in a local style that eschewed rectilinearity for flowing curves. Neither the first nor the last of some 300 similar complexes located on the Zimbabwean plateau, Great Zimbabwe is set apart by the large scale of its structures. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has dressed stone walls as high as {{convert|36|ft|m}} extending for approximately {{convert|820|ft|m}},<ref>{{cite book| last = Ireland| first = Jeannie| title = History of Interior Design| year = 2009| publisher = Fairchild Books & Visuals| isbn = 978-1-56367-462-4| page = 65 }}</ref> making it the largest ancient structure south of the [[Sahara]]. Houses within the enclosure were circular and constructed of [[wattle and daub]], with conical thatched roofs.
=====Torwa State=====
[[File:Khamiruins2.jpg|thumb|left| Terraced hill, entranceway of [[Khami]], capital of the Torwa State]]
[[Khami]] was the capital of the [[Kingdom of Butua]] during the [[Torwa dynasty]]. It was the successor to Great Zimbabwe and where the techniques of Great Zimbabwe were further refined and developed. Elaborate walls were constructed by connecting carefully cut stones to form terraced hills.<ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition| year = 2005| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-0-333-59957-0| page = 151 }}</ref>
==Modern architecture==
=== African rural architecture ===
[[File:A mud house in a rural area in Nigeria.jpg|thumb|250x250px|A mud house in a rural area in Nigeria]]
Rural African architecture research has generally been viewed in a limited perspective and has widely been considered ''primitive'' in building technology and techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berndt |first=Catherine H. |date=1960 |title=The Concept of Primitive |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43643992 |journal=Sociologus |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=52 [A] |jstor=43643992 |issn=0038-0377 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> Architecture as a practice in rural Africa also extends to the construction of religious dwellings as well.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=183–205 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Typically, materials such as wood, metal, terra-cotta, and stone were used in the construction of armature, walls, floors, and roofing for rural homes and community buildings. Changes in structure and material are based on changes in the climate, what building materials are available, and the techniques and skills of an area. As the construction of these buildings required many individual procedures, the overall execution of constructing homes and communal dwellings within a rural village is a communal process. However, the owner [of the dwelling] has the most control over the construction process and is considered the master builder.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=191 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
=== Sub-Saharan African rural architecture ===
[[File:Togo Taberma house 04.jpg|thumb|Taberma houses in Togo]]
Although there generally a wide range of architectural styles across Africa, sub-saharan Africa encompasses the widest diversity in architectural styles due to the extensive scope of physical [climate] settings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=185 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
==== Coastal rainforest ====
In the coastal rainforest belt of Africa, where temperatures are regularly torrid and humid regardless of daytime or nighttime, rural dwellings require interior cross-ventilation to ensure maximum bodily comfort. To achieve this, the craftsperson would incorporate openings into the dwelling. Open, screen-like walls and elevated floorings would be built to provide natural airflow throughout the building.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=185–186 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
==== Inland savannah ====
In contrast to the coastal rainforest belt, the inland savannah climate, which is composed of an annual, brief rainy season and a long, dry season in which chilling winds blow into the region from the Sahara, require an architectural solution that can both cut the biting cold of dusk and prevent individuals from enduring the overwhelming heat of the midday sun.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=186 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
=== Modern African Rural Architecture [Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa] ===
====Ethiopia====
[[File:Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG|thumb|245x245px|Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)]]
Structures neighboring the city of Lalibela, Ethiopia like the Monolithic churches have been hewed from stones within the ground.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Asrat |first=Asfawossen |date=2002-09-27 |title=The rock-hewn churches of Tigrai, Northern Ethiopia: A geological perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gea.10035 |journal=Geoarchaeology |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=649–663 |doi=10.1002/gea.10035 |s2cid=129444518 |issn=0883-6353}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Document - Report of the UNESCO/ICOMOS/ICCROM Advisory mission to Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela (Ethiopia), 20-25 May 2018 |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/169702/ |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> Systems of catacombs were built inside for ceremonial purposes as were ditches imitating the River Jordan in Jerusalem and the ditches separate the churches into three groups, five in the north, five in the east and two in west. These churches were carved out in the 12th century during King Lalibela's reign. Another church that can illustrate the architecture style and design in Ethiopia in the modern era is the [[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa]] which contains the tombs of Emperor Haile Salassie, his wife, and those who were executed during the Italian regime's occupation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schiavon |first1=Nick |last2=Caro |first2=Tilde |last3=Kiros |first3=Alemayehu |last4=Caldeira |first4=Ana Teresa |last5=Parisi |first5=Isabella Erica |last6=Riccucci |first6=Cristina |last7=Gigante |first7=Giovanni Ettore |date=2013-05-22 |title=A multianalytical approach to investigate stone biodeterioration at a UNESCO world heritage site: the volcanic rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00339-013-7757-5 |journal=Applied Physics A |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=843–854 |doi=10.1007/s00339-013-7757-5 |bibcode=2013ApPhA.113..843S |hdl=10174/9557 |s2cid=253853684 |issn=0947-8396|hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is at the epicenter of the capital and in close proximity to the imperial palace. Materials used in this structure includes a huge quantity of copper for the dome and statues positioned in various locations on and around the cathedral. It should also be noted that it imitates the Aksumites (Kingdom of Axum) artistic design.
====Ghana====
In Ghana, [[Larabanga Mosque]] is a prime example in building from packed earth which was and continues to be a method used today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=32–74 |doi=10.2307/3334324|jstor=3334324 }}</ref> Sudanese architecture influences this mosque but it is notably smaller than many mosques that exist in West Africa. As construction of the mosque depends on the natural materials available, there is an environmental strain in Ghana and surrounding countries that use this method of building housing. The mosque is held together by the logs protruding from the building surface. The exterior of the mosque has whitewashed walls which are renewed every year.
====Nigeria====
The Demas Nwoko is a chapel constructed between 1967 and 1975 using locally sourced materials such as concrete stone, brick, stained glass and wood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vlach |first=John Michael |date=1976 |title=Affecting Architecture of the Yoruba |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3335257 |journal=African Arts |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=48–99 |doi=10.2307/3335257 |jstor=3335257 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> The interior walls of the chapel are covered with crosses of all sizes and it appears as if they are stained glass as they are luminescent. Unlike chapels, housing compounds in Nigeria frequently had a communal area like courtyards or shared spaces which were an important social aspect for residents. Emir's Palace also known as The Hausa Architecture in Zaria is traditionally divided into three parts: a private area (women's area), semi private area, and public area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Umar |first1=Gali Kabir |last2=Yusuf |first2=Danjuma Abdu |last3=Ahmed |first3=Abubakar |last4=Usman |first4=Abdullahi M. |date=2019 |title=The practice of Hausa traditional architecture: Towards conservation and restoration of spatial morphology and techniques |journal=Scientific African |volume=5 |pages=e00142 |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00142 |bibcode=2019SciAf...500142U |s2cid=202901961 |issn=2468-2276|doi-access=free }}</ref> The palace is surrounded by the city. Nigerian architecture was shaped by Islamic culture where the women were sheltered and protected by private spaces the compound provided. Like Emir's palace, the Yoruba structure has large family residential areas in them and courtyards were commonly used by everyone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okoye |first=Ikem Stanley |date=2002–2009 |title=Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/61/3/381/59560/Architecture-History-and-the-Debate-on-Identity-in |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=381–396 |doi=10.2307/991791|jstor=991791 }}</ref>
====South Africa====
In 1948 architecture in South Africa was heavily influenced by the Apartheid as segregation was enforced in all aspects of life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peters |first=Walter |date=2004–2007 |title=Apartheid politics and architecture in South Africa |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1350463042000258953 |journal=Social Identities |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=537–547 |doi=10.1080/1350463042000258953 |s2cid=144887604 |issn=1350-4630}}</ref> The Windhoek Airport, today known as Eros, was built in 1957, and the post office in Polokwane, South Africa, was constructed in the capital of Limpopo Province and had similar groundwork to the airport. The floor plan for the airport terminal had European and non-European entrances and exits. The post office is U-shaped and like the airport there are separate entrances and exits. Brazilian modernism affected how architecture changed in the mid-twentieth century in South Africa.
=== Modern Islamic African Architecture ===
In other areas of the world Islamic architecture consists of palaces, tombs, and mosques. In West Africa, the mosque itself embodies Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=36 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> The layout of a mosque is predetermined by Islamic orthodoxy coming from the idea that rejecting certain elements, like a minaret, is seen as offensive to the religion itself. The main focus of material can be seen in mud architecture. From this architectural method came several variations, the most recent being the Bobo Dioulasso and the Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong].<ref name="Prussin 1968 72">{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=72 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> These types have a focus on expression of a politico-religious structure within a village, different from the earlier mosques focused on imperial organization and which were much bigger in size.<ref name="Prussin 1968 72"/> These two types of mosques are smaller. The difference between the Bobo and Kongo type lies in having to adapt to climate conditions as opposed to cultural tradition. While the basics of mosques remains the same throughout the region, there are variations within Africa mostly dependent on the climate of the area and the accommodations that need to be made for that specific region.
==== [[Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso]] ====
[[File:Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg|thumb|273x273px|[[Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso]]]]
At Bobo-Dioulasso, vertical buttresses minarets are a part of the mosques, flaring out and thickening of the buttresses at the base of these elements are still evident but disappearing due to reduced scale and changes in the climate.<ref name="Prussin 1968 72"/> Projecting timbers and horizontal bracing are added due to the increased humidity of the southern savannah. There are parts of the classic mosque within the modern mosque that still remain. This can be seen in the enclosed prayer hall and interior courtyard.
==== Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong] ====
Heavier buttressing is required in the Mosque of Kong because of more rain in the area. This area also sits closer to a rainforest, making wood a material that can be more easily accessed for reinforcement within the structure. Due to the generally wet climate, this mosque also requires more maintenance due to consistent erosion.
==== Kawara Mosque ====
One last example can be seen within the Kawara mosque. The Kawara lacks verticality or monumentality, but is clear in its three dimensions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=74 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref>
===Ethiopia===
====External influences====
[[File:Fasilides Palace 01.jpg|thumb|Fasiledes's castle, [[Fasil Ghebbi]], [[Gondar]], Ethiopia ]]
In the early modern period, Ethiopia's absorption of diverse new influences—such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles—began with the arrival of Portuguese [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese soldiers had initially come in the mid-16th century as allies to aid Ethiopia in [[Ethiopian-Adal War|its fight against Adal]], and the Jesuits came hoping to convert the country.
Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during Ethiopia's war with the Ottoman Empire (see [[Habesh]]), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally hard to defensible because of its numerous [[amba (geology)|amba]]s or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, gained little tactical use from these structures, in contrast to advantages they bestowed when placed on the flat terrain of Europe and other areas; and so Ethiopia had not nurtured the tradition. Castle building, especially around the [[Lake Tana]] region, began with the reign of [[Sarsa Dengel]]; and subsequent emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of the ''[[Fasil Ghebbi]]'' (royal enclosure of castles) in the newly founded capital, [[Gondar]] (1635).
Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] (r. 1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion, declaring it as such from 1624 until his abdication. During this time, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the Jesuits), Jesuit and local masons, some of whom were [[Beta Israel]], and adopted their styles. With the reign of his son [[Fasilides of Ethiopia|Fasilides]], most of these foreigners were expelled, although some of their architectural styles were absorbed into the prevailing Ethiopian architectural style. This style of the Gondarine dynasty would persist throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, especially, and influenced modern 19th-century-and-later styles.
===Europeans and European influences===
====Afrikaner====
{{Main|Cape Dutch architecture}}
[[Image:Burgher House, Stellenbosch.JPG|thumb|Typical Cape Dutch styled house in [[Stellenbosch]]]]
Cape Dutch architecture is traditional [[Afrikaner]] architecture and is one of the most distinctive types of settler architecture in the world.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} It was developed during the century-and-a-half that the Cape was a Dutch colony. Even by the end of that period, the early 19th-century, the colony was inhabited by fewer than fifty thousand people, spread over an area roughly the size of the [[United Kingdom]]. The Cape Dutch–style buildings showed a remarkable consistency and were clearly related to rural architecture in northwestern Europe but equally clearly having its own unmistakable African character and features.<ref>Jona Schellekens, "Dutch Origins of South-African Colonial Architecture," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 56 (1997), pp. 204–206.</ref>
====Colonial fortifications in West Africa====
Early European colonies on the West African coast built large forts, as can be seen at [[Elmina Castle]], [[Cape Coast Castle]], [[Osu Castle|Christiansborg]], [[Fort Jesus]], and elsewhere. These were usually plain, with little ornamentation, but with more adornment at [[Dixcove Fort]]. Other embellishments were gradually accreted, with the style inspiring later buildings such as [[Lamu Fort]] and the stone palace of [[Kumasi]].
====Eclecticism====
European artists in the 18th century would go out to Africa and the Middle East in hopes of finding new inspiration to include in their art. These travels became common and changed political and cultural relations between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jiménez-Vicario|first1=Pedro Miguel|last2=García-Martínez|first2=Pedro|last3=Ródenas-López|first3=Manuel Alejandro|date=2018-07-03|title=The influence of North African and Middle Eastern architectures in the birth and development of modern architecture in Central Europe (1898–1937)|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394|journal=Mediterranean Historical Review|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=179–198|doi=10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394|s2cid=165308576|issn=0951-8967}}</ref> By the late 19th century, most buildings reflected the fashionable European [[eclecticism]] and transplanted Mediterranean, or even Northern European, styles. Examples of colonial towns from this era survive at [[Saint-Louis, Senegal|Saint-Louis]], [[Grand-Bassam]], [[Swakopmund]], [[Cape Town]], [[Luanda]]. A few buildings were [[pre-fabricated]] in Europe and shipped over for erection. This European tradition continued well into the 20th century, with the construction of European-style [[manor house]]s, such as [[Shiwa Ng'andu]] in what is now Zambia, or the [[Boer]] homesteads in South Africa, and with many town buildings.
===Modernism===
The effect of modern architecture began to be felt in the 1920s and 1930s. [[Le Corbusier]] designed several never-built schemes for Algeria, including ones for [[Nemours]] and for the reconstruction of Algiers. Elsewhere, [[Steffen Ahrends]] was active in South Africa, and [[Ernst May]] in Nairobi and [[Mombasa]].
====Eritrea====
Italian [[futurist architecture]] heavily influenced the designs of [[Asmara]]. Planned villages were constructed in Libya and [[Italian East Africa]], including the new town of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], all utilising modern designs.
After 1945, [[Maxwell Fry]] and [[Jane Drew]] extended their work on British schools into Ghana, and also designed the [[University of Ibadan]]. The reconstruction of Algiers offered more opportunities, with [[Cathédrale du Sacré-Cœur d'Alger|Sacred Heart Cathedral of Algiers]], and universities by [[Oscar Niemeyer]], [[Kenzo Tange]], {{ill|Jakob Zweifel|de|Jakob Zweifel}}, and [[Skidmore, Owings and Merrill]]. But modern architecture in this sense largely remained the preserve of European architects until the 1960s, one notable exception being {{ill|Le Groupe Transvaal|af|Transvaal-groep}} in South Africa, which built homes inspired by [[Walter Gropius]] and Le Corbusier.
====Morocco====
[[Elie Azagury]] became the first [[Morocco|Moroccan]] modernist architect in the 1950s.<ref name=":8222">{{Cite book|last1=Dahmani|first1=Iman|title=Modern Casablanca Map|last2=El moumni|first2=Lahbib|last3=Meslil|first3=El mahdi|publisher=[[MAMMA.|MAMMA Group]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2|location=Casablanca|translator-last=Borim|translator-first=Ian}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |script-title=ar:إيلي أزاجوري.. استعادة عميد المعماريين المغاربة |trans-title=Elie Azagoury .. Acknowledging the Dean of Moroccan Architects |url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/culture/2019/12/19/إيلي-أزاجوري-استعادة-عميد-المعماريين-المغاربة |date=19 December 2019 |website=[[The New Arab|Al-Araby]] |language=ar |access-date=5 May 2021}}</ref> The {{Lang|fr|[[Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains]]}}—at first led by [[Michel Écochard]], director of urban planning under the [[French Protectorate in Morocco|French Protectorate]]—was active building [[public housing]] in the [[Hay Mohammadi|Hay Mohammedi]] neighborhood of [[Casablanca]] that provided a "culturally specific living tissue" for laborers and migrants [[Rural flight|from the countryside]].<ref name=":8222"/> [[Sémiramis (Casablanca)|Sémiramis]], {{Lang|fr|[[Nid d'Abeille]]}} (Honeycomb), and [[Carrières Centrales]] were some of the first examples of this [[Vernacular Modernism]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Adaptations of Vernacular Modernism in Casablanca|url=https://www.thepolisblog.org/2012/07/adaptations-of-vernacular-modernism.html|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> [[Carrières Centrales]] was the first project to employ the 8x8 grid associated with GAMMA.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-08-09|title=Casablanca 1952: Architecture For the Anti-Colonial Struggle or the Counter-Revolution|url=https://thefunambulist.net/history/casablanca-1952-architects-and-the-colonial-counter-revolution|access-date=2020-04-17|website=THE FUNAMBULIST MAGAZINE|language=en-US}}</ref>
=====1953 CIAM=====
At the 1953 [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|''Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture'' Moderne]] (CIAM), Écochard presented, along with [[Georges Candilis]], the work of [[ATBAT-Afrique]]—the Africa branch of {{Lang|fr|[[Atelier des Bâtisseurs]]}}, founded in 1947 by figures including [[Le Corbusier]], [[Vladimir Bodiansky]], and [[André Wogenscky]]. It was a study of Casablanca's [[Shanty town|bidonvilles]] entitled "Habitat for the Greatest Number".<ref>{{Cite web|title=TEAM 10|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/candilis/index.html|access-date=2020-04-17|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rouissi|first=Karim|date=2019-11-17|title=Housing for the greatest number: Casablanca's under-appreciated public housing developments|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=439–464|doi=10.1080/13629387.2019.1692411|s2cid=210539858|issn=1362-9387}}</ref> It argued against doctrine, arguing that architects must consider local culture and climate in their designs.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=The Gamma Grid {{!}} Model House|url=http://transculturalmodernism.org/article/12|access-date=2019-10-18|website=transculturalmodernism.org}}</ref><ref name=":8222"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=TEAM 10|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/meetings/1953-Aix.htm|access-date=2020-04-17|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref> This generated great debate among modernist architects around the world and eventually [[Team 10|provoked a schism]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pedret|first=Annie|title=TEAM 10 Introduction|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/meetings/1953-Aix.htm|access-date=2019-10-18|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chnaoui|first=Aziza|title=Third World Modernism: Architecture, Development and Identity|date=2010-11-02|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136895487|editor-last=Lu|editor-first=Duanfang|language=en|chapter=Depoliticizing Group GAMMA: contesting modernism in Morocco}}</ref>
=====Post-independence=====
The French-Moroccan architect [[Jean-François Zevaco]] built experimental modernist works in Morocco.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hofbauer|first=Lucy|date=2010-07-01|title=Transferts de modèles architecturaux au Maroc. L'exemple de Jean-François Zévaco, architecte (1916-2003)|url=http://journals.openedition.org/emam/77|journal=Les Cahiers d'EMAM. Études sur le Monde Arabe et la Méditerranée|language=fr|issue=20|pages=71–86|doi=10.4000/emam.77|issn=1969-248X|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Abdeslam Faraoui]], [[Patrice de Mazières]], and [[Mourad Ben Embarek]] were also notable modernist architects in Morocco.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last1=Dahmani|first1=Iman|title=Modern Casablanca Map|last2=El moumni|first2=Lahbib|last3=Meslil|first3=El mahdi|publisher=MAMMA Group|year=2019|isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2|location=Casablanca|translator-last=Borim|translator-first=Ian}}</ref>
===Post-colonial architecture===
[[File:Downtown Lusaka.JPG|thumb|Downtown [[Lusaka]], capital city of Zambia with [[FINDECO House]] on the right]]
A number of new cities were built following the end of [[colonialism]], while others were greatly expanded. Perhaps the best known example is that of [[Abidjan]], where the majority of buildings were still designed by high-profile non-African architects. In [[Yamoussoukro]], the [[Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro]] is an example of a desire for monumentality in these new cities, but [[Arch 22]] in the old [[The Gambia|Gambia]]n capital of [[Banjul]] displays the same bravado.
Experimental designs have also appeared, most notably the [[Eastgate Centre, Harare|Eastgate Centre]] in Zimbabwe. With an advanced form of natural air-conditioning, this building was designed to respond precisely to Harare's climate and needs, rather than import less suitable designs. Neo-[[vernacular architecture]] continues, for instance with the [[Great Mosque of Niono]] or [[Hassan Fathy]]'s [[New Gourna]].
Other notable structures of recent years have been some of the world's largest dams. The [[Aswan Dam|Aswan High Dam]] and [[Akosombo Dam]] hold back the world's largest [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]]. In recent years, there has also been renewed [[bridge]] building in many nations, while the [[Trans-Gabon Railway]] is perhaps the last of the great railways to be constructed.
===Traditional revival===
[[File:Lamu housing structure.jpg|thumb|Modern housing in [[Lamu]], [[Kenya]]]]
The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced to [[Cairo]] in the early 19th century. This had spread to [[Algiers]] and Morocco by the early 20th century, from which time colonial buildings across the continent began to consist of recreations of traditional African architecture, the [[Jamia Mosque (Kenya)|Jamia Mosque]] in [[Nairobi]] being a typical example. In some cases, architects attempted to mix local and European styles, such as at [[Bagamoyo]].
==See also==
{{Portal|Africa|Architecture}}
* [[ArchiAfrika]]
* [[List of World Heritage Sites in Africa]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Architecture of Africa}}
* [http://www.greatbuildings.com/places/africa.html Architecture of Africa - Great Buildings Online]
* [https://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/ African Vernacular Architecture - Images of vernacular architecture throughout Africa, grouped by country]
{{Africa in topic|Architecture of}}
{{African architecture styles}}
{{Africa topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Architecture Of Africa}}
[[Category:Architecture of Africa| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Africa]]' |
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[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]] are regarded as one of the greatest architectural feats of all time and are one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] ]]
Like other aspects of the [[culture of Africa]], the '''architecture of Africa''' is exceptionally diverse. Throughout the [[history of Africa]], [[African people|Africans]] have developed their own local [[architecture|architectural]] traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as the [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture]] of [[West Africa]]. A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of [[fractal]] scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.<ref>{{cite book| last = Eglash| first = Ron| title = African Fractals Modern Computing and Indigenous Design| year = 1999| publisher = Rutgers University Press| isbn = 978-0-8135-2613-3 }}</ref>
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, [[mudbrick]], [[rammed earth]], and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the [[Horn of Africa]] for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
==Prehistoric architecture==
===North Africa===
====Nile Valley====
[[Affad 23]] is an [[archaeological site]] located in the [[Affad Basin|Affad]] region of southern Dongola Reach in northern [[Sudan]],<ref name="Osypiński">{{cite journal |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |last2=Osypińska |first2=Marta |last3=Gautier |first3=Achilles |title=Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10186 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=7787802958 |jstor=43135549 |s2cid=161078189}}</ref> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest [[Natural environment|open-air]] [[hut]] in the world) and diverse [[hunting]] and [[Hunter-gatherer|gathering]] loci some 50,000 years old".<ref name="Osypiński II">{{cite web |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |title=Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory |url=https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |publisher=National Science Centre |date=2020}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |page=460 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Animals in the history of the Middle Nile}}</ref><ref name="Osypińska II">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |last2=Osypiński |first2=Piotr |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |pages=187–188 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa}}</ref>
====Central Sahara====
=====Kel Essuf Period=====
Concealed remnants of dismantled [[furnishing|furnished]] flooring are found in 75% of the Central Saharan rockshelters where Kel Essuf rock artforms are found.<ref name="Ferhat">{{cite journal |last1=Ferhat |first1=Nadjib |last2=Striedter |first2=Karl Heinz |last3=Tauveron |first3=Michel |title=Les " Kel Essuf " : un nouveau faciès de l'art rupestre du Sahara central |date=April 30, 2000 |volume=330 |issue=8 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3715024 |journal= Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA |pages=577–580 |doi=10.1016/S1251-8050(00)00177-4 |s2cid=126951785 |issn=1251-8050 |oclc=4931567223 |bibcode=2000CRASE.330..577F}}</ref> The furnished flooring in these rockshelters were likely created for the purpose of [[rainwater harvesting|collecting water]] and were subsequently dismantled after the earliest [[Round Head rock art]] began to be created.<ref name="Ferhat" /> Based on these furnished floors purposed for the collection of spring water, the [[Kel Essuf rock art]], which are cultural [[facies]], may date at least as early as 12,000 [[Before Present|BP]] amid the [[Late Pleistocene|late period of the Pleistocene]].<ref name="Aïn-Séba">{{cite journal |last1=Aïn-Séba |first1=Nagète |title=Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara |journal=Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología |date=June 3, 2022 |volume=22 |issue=22 |page=308 |doi=10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 |url=https://riull.ull.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/915/27450/TB_22_%282022%29_15.pdf |issn=2530-8327 |s2cid=249349324}}</ref> Given the occurrences of furnished flooring for collecting water and production of engraved Kel Essuf rock art, these [[rockshelters]] may have been inhabited during periods of decreased availability of local water sources.<ref name="Ferhat" /> Consequently, there may have been increasing regional isolation due to adverse [[Climate of Africa|climate]] within the region.<ref name="Aïn-Séba" />
=====Round Head Period=====
At the start of the 10th millennium BP, amid the [[Epipaleolithic]], the walls of rock shelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a [[Foundation (engineering)|foundation]] for proto-village [[huts]] that families resided in, as well as [[hearths]], which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers.<ref name="Soukopova">{{cite book |last1=Soukopova |first1=Jitka |title=Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara |date=16 January 2013 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=20 |isbn=9781443845793 |oclc=826685273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07wwBwAAQBAJ&q=Tuareg&pg=PR5}}</ref> Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers of the [[Round Head Period]] built a simple [[stone wall]], dated to 10,508±429 cal BP/9260±290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a [[windbreak]].<ref name="Soukopova" />
=====Pastoral Period=====
In the collective memory of [[Pastoral period#Early Pastoral Period 2|Early Pastoral peoples]], rockshelters (e.g., Fozzigiaren, Imenennaden, [[Takarkori]]) in the Tadrart Acacus region may have served as monumental areas for women and children, as these were where their burial sites were primarily found.<ref name="Di Lernia">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |title=Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara |date=June 2013 |volume=48 |issue=2 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867 |s2cid=162877973 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271666951 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |pages=176, 179–181, 183–186 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=5136086464}}</ref> Engraved rock art has been found on various kinds of stone structures (e.g., stone arrangements, standing stones, corbeilles – ceremonial monuments) in the Messak Plateau.<ref name="Di Lernia" /> Stone monuments are also often found in proximity to these engraved Pastoral rock art.<ref name="Di Lernia II">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |display-authors=etal |title=Inside the "African Cattle Complex": Animal Burials in the Holocene Central Sahara |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=e56879 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0056879 |pmid=23437260 |pmc=3577651 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...856879D |doi-access=free |s2cid=4057938 |issn=1932-6203 |oclc=828565064}}</ref> A complete cattle pastoral economy (e.g., dairying) developed in the Acacus and Messak regions of southwestern Libya.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Semi-sedentary settlements were used seasonally by [[Pastoral period#Middle Pastoral Period 2|Middle Pastoral peoples]] depending on the weather patterns (e.g., [[West African Monsoon|monsoon]]).<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> [[Wadi]] Bedis [[meander]] had 42 stone monuments (e.g., mostly corbeilles, stone structures and platforms, tumuli). Ceramics (e.g., potsherds) and stone implements were found along with 9 monuments bearing engraved rock art.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> From 5200 BCE to 3800 BCE, burial of animals occurred.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Nine decorated ceramics (e.g., mostly rocker stamp/plain edge design, sometimes alternately pivoting stamp design) and sixteen stone maces were found.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> Some stone maces, used literally or symbolically to [[Ritual slaughter|slaughter]] the cattle (e.g., Bos taurus), were ceremonially set near the head of sacrificed cattle or stone monuments.<ref name="Di Lernia II" /> In 5000 BP, the development of [[megalithic]] [[monuments]] (e.g., [[architecture]]) increased in the Central Sahara.<ref name="Di Lernia" /> In the Central Sahara, the tumuli tradition originated in the Middle Pastoral Period and transformed amid the Late Pastoral Period (4500 BP – 2500 BP).<ref name="Muscat">{{cite book |last1=Muscat |first1=Iona |title=Megalithism and monumentality in prehistoric North Africa |date=January 2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6584373 |publisher=University of Malta |s2cid=133240608}}</ref> At Takarkori rockshelter, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, [[Pastoral period#Late Pastoral Period 2|Late Pastoral peoples]] herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were buried in stone-covered [[tumuli]] that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP.<ref name="Di Lernia III">{{cite journal |last1=Di Lernia |first1=Savino |last2=Tafuri |first2=Mary Anne |title=Persistent deathplaces and mobile landmarks: The Holocene mortuary and isotopic record from Wadi Takarkori (SW Libya) |date=March 2013 |volume=32 |pages=3–5, 8–14 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257118118 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |doi=10.1016/J.JAA.2012.07.002 |s2cid=144968825 |issn=0278-4165 |oclc=5902856678}}</ref> At Takarkori rockshelter, [[Pastoral period#Final Pastoral Period 2|Final Pastoral peoples]] created burial sites for several hundred individuals that contained non-local, luxury goods and drum-type architecture in 3000 BP, which made way for the development of the [[Garamantian]] civilization.<ref name="Di Lernia III" />
[[Pastoralism]], possibly along with social stratification, and [[Pastoral rock art]], emerged in the Central Sahara between 5200 BCE and 4800 BCE.<ref name="Hassan">{{cite book |last1=Hassan |first1=F. A. |title=Droughts, Food and Culture |chapter=Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 |year=2002 |page=17 |publisher=Droughts, Food and Culture|doi=10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 |isbn=0-306-46755-0 |s2cid=126608903 |oclc=51874863}}</ref> Funerary monuments and sites, within possible territories that had chiefdoms, developed in the Saharan region of Niger between 4700 BCE and 4200 BCE.<ref name="Hassan" /> Cattle funerary sites developed in [[Nabta Playa]] (6450 BP/5400 cal BCE), [[Adrar Bous]] (6350 BP), in Chin Tafidet, and in Tuduf (2400 cal BCE – 2000 cal BCE).<ref name="Hassan" /> Thus, by this time, [[Cattle in religion and mythology|cattle religion]] (e.g., myths, rituals) and cultural distinctions between genders (e.g., men associated with bulls, violence, hunting, and dogs as well as burials at monumental funerary sites; women associated with cows, birth, nursing, and possibly the afterlife) had developed.<ref name="Hassan" /> Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern [[Sahara]], tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of [[Niger]].<ref name="Hassan" /> These megalithic monuments in the [[Sahara]]n region of [[Niger]] and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the [[mastabas]] and [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] of [[ancient Egypt]].<ref name="Hassan" /> During [[Predynastic Egypt]], tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., [[Naqada]], [[Helwan]]).<ref name="Hassan" /> Between 7500 BP and 7400 BP, amid the Late Pastoral Neolithic, religious ceremony and ceremonial burials, with megaliths, may have served as a cultural precedent for the latter religious reverence of the goddess [[Hathor]] during the dynastic period of ancient Egypt.<ref name="Holl V">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=A. |title=The Dawn of African Pastoralisms: An Introductory Note |url=https://www.academia.edu/2558487 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |year=1998 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=81–83 |doi=10.1006/jaar.1998.0318 |s2cid=144518526 |issn=0278-4165 |oclc=361174899}}</ref>
==Early architecture==
Probably the most famous class of structure in all Africa, the [[Pyramid]]s of [[Egypt]] remain one of the world's greatest early architectural achievements, regardless of practicality and origins in a funerary context. Egyptian architectural traditions also favored the building of vast temple complexes.
Little is known of ancient architecture south and west of the Sahara. Harder to date than the pyramids are the monoliths around the [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross River]], which have geometric or human designs. The vast number of [[Senegambian stone circles]] is also evidence of an emerging architecture.
===North Africa===
Likely part of [[Copper Age]] and [[Bronze Age]] [[Traditional Berber religion#Megalithic culture|cultural traditions of megalith-building]], [[megalith]]s (e.g., [[dolmens]]) were constructed in [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] North Africa.<ref name="Holl II" />
====Algeria====
=====Garamantes=====
Some of the earliest evidence of original [[Berbers|Amazigh]] (Berber) culture in North Africa has been found in the highlands of the Sahara and dates from the second millennium BC, when the region was much less arid than it is today and when the Amazigh population was most likely in the process of spreading across North Africa.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Brett|first1=Michael|title=The Berbers|last2=Fentress|first2=Elizabeth|publisher=Blackwell|year=1996|isbn=9780631207672|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=15–22}} One of the earliest groups for which there are historical records are the [[Garamantes]], who were later mentioned by [[Herodotus]]. Numerous archaeological sites associated with them have been found in the [[Fezzan]] (in present-day [[Libya]]), attesting to the existence of small villages, towns, and tombs. At least one settlement dates from as early as 1000 BC. The structures were initially built in [[dry stone]], but around the middle of the millennium (c. 500 BC) they began to be built with [[mudbrick]] instead.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=23}} By the second century AD there is evidence of large [[villa]]s and more sophisticated tombs associated with the aristocracy of this society, in particular at [[Germa]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=24}}
====Egypt====
=====Ancient Egypt=====
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
[[Ancient Egypt]]'s achievements in architecture included [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], [[Egyptian temple|temples]], enclosed cities, canals, and dams. The architecture of this age was not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. The most famous examples of ancient Egyptian architecture include the [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids]] and the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]] at Giza, the [[Karnak|Temple of Karnak]], and the [[Abu Simbel|Temple of Abu Simbel]]. Most buildings were built of locally available [[mud brick]] and [[limestone]] by [[Slavery in ancient Egypt|levied workers]]. Columns were typically adorned with [[Capital (architecture)#Pre-classical capitals|capitals]] decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus plant]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=ancient Egyptian architecture {{!}} Types, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture|access-date=2021-07-22|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
=====Nabta Playa=====
At [[Nabta Playa]], located in [[Egypt]] and broader region of the Eastern [[Sahara]], there is a [[megalithic]] cultural complex (e.g., [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed cow]] burial site, [[solar calendar]], [[altar]]) that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE.<ref name="Holl II">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Megaliths in Tropical Africa: Social Dynamics and Mortuary Practices in Ancient Senegambia (ca. 1350 BCE -1500 CE) |journal=International Journal of Modern Anthropology |date=2020 |volume=2 |issue=15 |pages=364–368, 372, 405 |doi=10.4314/IJMA.V2I15.1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350557762 |issn=1737-7374 |oclc=9053151421 |s2cid=236340668|doi-access=free }}</ref>
====Sudan====
=====Nubia=====
{{Main|Nubian architecture}}
[[File:Kerma city.JPG|thumb|The city of [[Kerma]]]]
[[Nubian architecture]] is one of the most ancient in the world. The earliest style of Nubian architecture includes the [[speos]], structures carved out of solid rock under the [[A-Group culture]] (3700-3250 BCE). Egyptians borrowed and made extensive use of the process at [[Speos Artemidos]] and [[Abu Simbel]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Bianchi| first = Robert Steven| title = Daily Life of the Nubians| url = https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian| url-access = limited| year = 2004| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-313-32501-4| page = [https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian/page/n249 227] }}</ref> A-Group culture led eventually to the [[C-Group culture]], which began building using light, supple materials—animal skins and [[wattle and daub]]—with larger structures of [[mudbrick]] later becoming the norm.
[[File:Nubia pyramids1.JPG|left|thumb|Nubian pyramids at Meroe]]
The C-Group culture was related to that of the city of [[Kerma]],<ref>Bietak, Manfred. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm The C-Group culture and the Pan Grave culture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511234450/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm |date=May 11, 2009 }}. Cairo: Austrian Archaeological Institute</ref> which was settled around 2400 BC. It was a walled city containing religious buildings, large circular dwellings, a palace, and well-laid-out roads. On the east side of the city, a funerary temple and chapel were laid out. It supported a population of 2,000. One of its most enduring structures was the Deffufa, a mudbrick temple, on top of which ceremonies were performed.
Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.Shake that booty
Thirteen temples and two palaces have been excavated in Napata, which has yet to be fully excavated. [[Sudan]] contains 223 [[Nubian pyramids]], more numerous but smaller than the [[Egyptian pyramids]], at three major sites: [[El Kurru]], [[Nuri]], and [[Meroe]]. The elements of Nubian pyramids, built for kings and queens, included steep walls, a chapel facing east, a stairway facing east, and a chamber accessed via the stairway.<ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm The 25th Dynasty] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430085438/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm |date=April 30, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}: Aswan</ref><ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm The Meroitic State: Nubia as a Hellenistic African State. 300 B.C.-350 AD] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426001841/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm |date=April 26, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}:Aswan</ref> The Meroe site has the most pyramids and is considered the largest archaeological site in the world. Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and the Napatan kingdom collapsed.<ref>Prof. James Giblin, Department of History, The University of Iowa. [http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html Issues in African History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415144652/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html |date=April 15, 2008 }}</ref>
====Tunisia====
=====Carthage=====
{{Further|Ancient Roman architecture}}
Large regions of North Africa, particularly near the coasts, came under the control of Carthage at the height of its power in the third century BC.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=24}} The remains of Carthage are found near Tunis today and contain the remains of multiple periods ranging from the Punic period (Phoenician Carthage) to the later Arab occupation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Archaeological Site of Carthage|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37/|access-date=2022-01-11|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> Vestiges of the Carthaginian Empire include the "Punic Ports" (the city's harbors) and a sanctuary and necropolis dedicated to [[Baal Hammon]], known today as the Sanctuary of Tophet.<ref name=":5"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Punic Ports {{!}} Tunis, Tunisia Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/punic-ports/a/poi-sig/1484892/355691|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sanctuary of Tophet {{!}} Tunis, Tunisia Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/sanctuary-of-tophet/a/poi-sig/1000411/355691|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref>
After defeating Carthage, Rome progressively took over the entire coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic coast of modern-day Morocco. Major Roman sites in present-day [[Tunisia]] (the former Roman province known as ''[[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]'') include [[Roman Carthage]], the [[Amphitheatre of El Jem|amphitheater of El Jem]], and the sites of Dougga (Thugga) and [[Archaeological site of Sbeitla|Sbeitla (Sufetula)]]. Well-preserved sites in Libya include [[Sabratha]] and [[Leptis Magna]]. In Algeria, major sites include [[Timgad]], [[Djémila]], and [[Tipasa]]. In Morocco, cities such as [[Ceuta|Septa (Ceuta)]], [[Chellah|Sala Colonia (Chellah)]], and [[Volubilis]] were founded or developed by Romans and retain remnants of their architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ennabli|first=Abdelmajid|date=2000|title=North Africa's Roman art. Its future.|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-11|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912130852/http://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056 |archive-date=2014-09-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nijst|first=A. L. M. T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1M3AQAAIAAJ&q=ceuta+chellah+volubilis+architecture |title=Living on the edge of the Sahara: a study of traditional forms of habitation and types of settlement in Morocco|date=1973|publisher=Govt. Pub. Office|isbn=9789012001052|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Frontiers of the Roman empire {{!}} African World Heritage Sites|url=https://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/frontiers-of-the-roman-empire.html|access-date=2022-01-11|website=www.africanworldheritagesites.org}}</ref>
=====Numidia=====
[[File:TUNISIA DOUGGA MAUSOLEE LIBYCO PUNIQUE 001.jpg|thumb|[[Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga|Numidian mausoleum of Dougga]] (2nd century BC, present-day Tunisia)]]
Further west, the kingdom of [[Numidia]] was contemporary with the [[Phoenicia]]n civilization of [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] and the [[Roman Republic]]. Among other things, the Numidians have left thousands of pre-Christian tombs. The oldest of these is [[Madghacen|Medracen]] in present-day [[Algeria]], believed to date from the time of [[Masinissa]] (202–148 BC). Possibly influenced by Greek architecture further east, or built with the help of Greek craftsmen, the tomb consists of a large [[tumulus]] constructed in well-cut [[ashlar]] masonry and featuring sixty [[Doric order|Doric]] columns and an Egyptian-style [[cornice]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|pages=27–29}} Another famous example is the [[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]] in western [[Algeria]]. This structure consists of columns, a dome, and spiral pathways that lead to a single chamber.<ref>{{cite book| last = Davidson| first = Basil| title = Africa in History| year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-684-82667-7| page = 50 | publisher = Simon & Schuster}}</ref> A number of "tower tombs" from the Numidian period can also be found in sites from Algeria to Libya. Despite their wide geographic range, they often share a similar style: a three-story structure topped by a convex pyramid. They may have initially been inspired by Greek monuments but they constitute an original type of structure associated with Numidian culture. Examples of these are found at [[Siga]], Soumaa d'el Khroub, [[Dougga]], and [[Sabratha]].<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|pages=29–31}}
===West Africa===
====Burkina Faso====
=====Mouhoun Bend=====
At [[Kirikongo#Archaeology of the Mouhoun Bend|Mouhoun Bend]], [[Burkina Faso]], people dwelled in a community of residences that housed multiple families in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BCE, which may have also been part of a pre-existing marketplace system of [[trade]] (e.g., [[salt]]) and [[technology transfer]] between agricultural communities (e.g., [[Jenne-Jeno]], [[Kintampo Complex|Kintampo]], Rim) throughout [[West Africa]] that persisted from the 2nd millennium BCE to the early 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Dueppen">{{cite journal |last1=Dueppen |first1=Stephen A. |last2=Gallagher |first2=Daphne |title=Networked Farmers, Ancestral Rituals, Regional Marketplaces, and Salt: New Insights into the Complexity of First Millennium BC/AD Farming Societies in West Africa |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=5 January 2023 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=21–52 |doi=10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2 |s2cid=255557451 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2}}</ref> In addition to [[farming]] undomesticated crops and maintaining domesticated animals, the people of Mouhoun Bend engaged in [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] as well as [[Iron metallurgy in Africa|iron]], salt, and [[Pottery#Africa|pottery]] production.<ref name="Dueppen" /> The [[funerary cult]]ure of the Mouhoun Bend people included ceremonial placement of food and material goods in pits and concave surfaces as well as the development of [[earth structure]]s.<ref name="Dueppen" />
====Mauritania====
=====Tichitt Culture=====
Tichitt Walata is the oldest surviving collection of settlements in [[West Africa]] and the oldest of all stone-base settlement south of the Sahara. It was built by the [[Soninke people]] and is thought to be the precursor of the [[Ghana empire]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0021853700018685 | volume=21 | issue=4 | title=Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana empire | journal=The Journal of African History | pages=457–466| year=1980 | last1=Munson | first1=Patrick J. | s2cid=161981607 }}</ref> It was settled by agropastoral people around 2000–300 BCE, which makes it almost 1000 years older than previously thought.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005 | volume=341 |issue=8–9 | title=Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP) | journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience | pages=703–712|year=2009 |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. | bibcode=2009CRGeo.341..703H | url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005/ }}</ref> One finds well-laid-out streets and fortified compounds, all made out of skilled stone masonry. In all, there were 500 settlements.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Fage| first1 = J.D.| last2 = Oliver| first2 = Roland Anthony| title = The Cambridge History of Africa| year = 1978| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-21592-3| page = 338 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 42 }}</ref>
The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE<ref name="McDougall">{{cite book |last1=McDougall |first1=E. Ann |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |chapter=Saharan Peoples and Societies |chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-285 |date=25 February 2019 |publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedias |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 |s2cid=159184437}}</ref><ref name="Holl">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071309000996 |journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience |year=2009 |volume=341 |issue=8–9 |page=703 |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005 |s2cid=128545688 |issn=1631-0713 |oclc=5900121710 |bibcode=2009CRGeo.341..703H}}</ref> to 200 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald IV">{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=K. |last2=Vernet |first2=R. |title=Fields of Change: Progress in African Archaeobotany |date=2007 |publisher=Barkhuis |pages=71–72 |isbn=9789077922309 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gTnffH-elc0C&q=%22Tichitt%22+%22metallurgy%22&pg=PA71 |chapter=Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper |s2cid=130234059 |oclc=309688961}}</ref><ref name="Kay">{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Andrea U. |title=Diversification, Intensification and Specialization: Changing Land Use in Western Africa from 1800 BC to AD 1500 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2 |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |year=2019 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=179–228 |doi=10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2 |s2cid=134223231 |hdl=10261/181848 |hdl-access=free |issn=0892-7537 |oclc=8112065264}}</ref> By 2000 BCE, as aridification followed the [[Holocene Climate Optimum]], the pastoralists had become agropastoralists and had established the Tichitt tradition in the Mauritanian settlement areas of Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, and Dhar Néma, based on a hierarchical economy composed of pastoralism, agriculture (e.g., millet), and [[stonemasonry]] (e.g., architecture).<ref name="Monroe">{{cite journal |last1=Monroe |first1=J. Cameron |title="Elephants for Want of Towns": Archaeological Perspectives on West African Cities and Their Hinterlands |url=https://www.academia.edu/35127116 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |year=2018 |volume=26 |issue=4 |page=395 |doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9114-2 |s2cid=149031750 |jstor=44984078 |issn=1059-0161 |oclc=7848239424}}</ref> In the Sahelian region of West Africa, the corded roulette ceramics of the Tichitt Tradition developed and persisted among<ref name="MacDonald" /> [[Dry stone|dry]] [[Stone wall|stonewalled]] architecture<ref name="MacDonald" /><ref name="Linares-Matás">{{cite journal |last1=Linares-Matás |first1=Gonzalo J. |title=Spatial Organization and Socio-Economic Differentiation at the Dhar Tichitt Center of Dakhlet el Atrouss I (Southeastern Mauritania) |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=April 13, 2022 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=167–188 |doi=10.1007/s10437-022-09479-5 |issn=1572-9842 |oclc=9530792981 |s2cid=248132575|doi-access=free }}</ref> in Mauritania (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant) between 1900 BCE and 400 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=K.C. |title=Betwixt Tichitt and the IND: the pottery of the Faita Facies, Tichitt Tradition |date=April 2011 |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/betwixt-tichitt-and-the-ind-the-pottery-of-the-faita-facies-tichitt-tradition.html |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=46 |pages=49, 51, 54, 56–57, 59–60 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.553485 |s2cid=161938622 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=4839360348}}</ref> Within these settled areas (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Walata) with stone walls, which vary in scale from (e.g., 2 [[hectares]], 80 hectares), there were walled agricultural land utilized for livestock or gardening as well as land with [[granaries]] and [[tumuli]].<ref name="Kay"/>
As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.<ref name="MacDonald II">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Kevin C. |last2=Vernet |first2=Robert |last3=Martinon-Torres |first3=Marcos |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q |title=Dhar Néma: From early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania |date=April 2009 |volume=44 |issue=1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232873688 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |pages=3–4, 42 |doi=10.1080/00671990902811330 |s2cid=111618144 |issn=0067-270X |oclc=4901241515}}</ref> The eastern and central areas of Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, which were primarily peopled between 2200/2000 BCE and 1200/1000 BCE and contained some areas (e.g., Akreijit, Chebka, Khimiya) with boundary walls, served as the primary areas of settlement (e.g., small [[villages]], [[hamlets]], seasonal [[Camping|camps]]) for the Dhars of Mauritania.<ref name="Holl" /> The fundamental unit of the Mauritanian Dhars (e.g., Dhar Néma, Dhar Walata, Dhar Tichitt) was the [[extended family]]<ref name="Holl III">{{cite journal |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F.C. |title=Dhar Tichitt, Walata and Nema |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fnda%2F1584 |journal=Les Nouvelles de l'Archéologie |date=2012 |volume=127 |issue=127 |pages=35–39 |doi=10.4000/NDA.1584 |s2cid=194063851 |issn=0242-7702 |oclc=8207522523}}</ref> or [[polygamous family]].<ref name="Monroe" /> Based on the presence of an abundant amount of enclosed areas that may have been used to pen cattle and hundreds of tumuli, intergenerational ownership of [[property]], via cattle wealth, may have been part of the Tichitt culture.<ref name="Monroe" /> [[Town planning|Planned]], level [[street]]s spanned several hundred kilometers among the 400 [[drystone]]-constructed villages, hamlets, and [[towns]].<ref name="Kea">{{cite journal |last1=Kea |first1=Ray |title=Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. - 1200/1250 A.D.) |date=November 26, 2004 |volume=X |issue=3 |pages=738–740 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/208574355 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2004.286 |issn=1076-156X |s2cid=147397386|doi-access=free }}</ref> Primary entry points of residences with access ramps (e.g., [[Compound (fortification)|fortified]], non-fortified) and [[watchtowers]] were also present.<ref name="Kea" /> Households used various tools (e.g., arrowheads, axes, borers, grindstones, grooved stones, needles, pendants).<ref name="Kea" /> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, stone pillars, stone slabs, and stone blocks, which approximate to several hundred in total, are frequently arranged and aligned in three rows of three; these erected stones may have served as stilts for granaries.<ref name="Dupuy">{{cite journal |last1=Dupuy |first1=Christian |title=Cereals and milk in the Sahara and the Sahel, from the epipaleolithic to the age of metals |date=2014 |volume=5 |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F1376 |journal=Afriques Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire |doi=10.4000/AFRIQUES.1376 |s2cid=160853354 |oclc=6733603235|doi-access=free }}</ref> There were also gardens and fields located within a walled enclosure ranging between nine and fourteen hectares.<ref name="Dupuy" /> At Dhar Nema, there are also stilted granaries, [[pottery]], and tools used for [[milling (grinding)|milling]].<ref name="Dupuy" /> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, [[copper]] was also utilized.<ref name="Kea" />
======Dhar Tichitt======
At [[Dhar Tichitt]], Dakhlet el Atrouss I, which is the largest [[archaeological site]] of the Tichitt Tradition and is 80 hectares in scale, serves as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of Tichitt culture; it features nearly 600 settlement compounds, agropastoralism, a large enclosure for cattle, and [[Funerary monument|monumental]] architecture as an aspect of its [[funerary cult]]ure, such as hundreds of [[Tumulus#West Africa|tumuli]] nearby.<ref name="Linares-Matás" /> Along with Akrejit, it also features foundations for granaries.<ref name="Linares-Matás"/>
======Dhar Walata/Oualata======
At [[Dhar Walata]], in the [[courtyard]] of nearby houses, enclosed, erected turriform [[gardens]] have been found, the earliest of which dates between 1894 cal BCE and 1435 cal BCE.<ref name="Amblard-Pison">{{cite journal |last1=Amblard-Pison |first1=Sylvie |title=Between sands and stones: eating and drinking in the Neolithic villages of a Saharan refuge area in south-eastern Mauritania |date=2014 |volume=5 |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F1496 |journal=Afriques Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire |doi=10.4000/AFRIQUES.1496 |s2cid=190294373|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Hoe (tool)|Hoes]] and fish hooks made of bone were also found.<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> Stone slabs may have been used as a [[ballast]] in order to avert the entry of animals into the village.<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> [[Reservoirs]] and dams may have been used to [[Water resource management|manage water]] from nearby rivers ([[wadis]]).<ref name="Amblard-Pison" /> Millet, flour, and [[semolina]] may have been prepared to cook [[porridge]].<ref name="Amblard-Pison" />
======Dhar Néma======
In the late period of the [[Tichitt Tradition]] at [[Dhar Néma]], tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of a oval-shaped low shaft furnace; this furnace was one out of 16 iron furnaces located on elevated ground.<ref name="MacDonald IV" /> [[Iron metallurgy in Africa|Iron metallurgy]] may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.<ref name="MacDonald IV" />
======Dhar Tagant======
At [[Dhar Tagant]], there are approximately 276 tumuli that have been surveyed.<ref name="Lim">{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=J |title=Geometric data for tumuli in Dhar Tagant, Mauritania |chapter=Archaeology |chapter-url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:77740928-4f32-478c-924d-09ceeb61f75d |year=2020 |publisher=University of Oxford |doi=10.5287/BODLEIAN:NRYV1OB2R |s2cid=236798102}}</ref> At Dhar Tagant, there are also various geometric (e.g., rectilinear, circular) constructions, and a possible late period, involving a funerary tomb with a chapel at Foum el Hadjar from 1st millennium CE and wadis with evidence of [[crocodiles]].<ref name="Sterry">{{cite book |last1=Sterry |first1=Martin |last2=Mattingly |first2=David J. |title=Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond |date=Mar 26, 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=318 |isbn=9781108494441 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9PKDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Tichitt+culture%22&pg=PR8 |chapter=Pre-Islamic Oasis Settlements in the Southern Sahara |doi=10.1017/9781108637978.008 |s2cid=243375056 |oclc=1128066278}}</ref> As part of a broader trend of iron metallurgy developed in the West African Sahel amid 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and the iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.<ref name="MacDonald II"/>
====Niger====
In [[Niger]], there are two [[monument]]al tumuli – a [[cairn]] burial (5695 BP – 5101 BP) at [[Adrar Bous]], and a tumulus covered with gravel (6229 BP – 4933 BP) at Iwelen, in the [[Aïr Mountains]].<ref name="Garcea">{{cite book |last1=Garcea |first1=Elena A. A. |title=Gobero The No-return Frontier: Archaeology and Landscape at the Saharo-Sahelian Borderland |chapter=Regional Overview During The Time Frame of the Gobero Occupation |date=2013 |publisher=Africa Magna Verlag |page=258 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUy8gejsmSIC&q=%22Tumuli%22 |isbn=9783937248349 |oclc=849683991 |s2cid=202916401}}</ref> [[Tenerian culture|Tenerians]] did not construct the two monumental tumuli at Adrar Bous and Iwelen.<ref name="Garcea" /> Rather, Tenerians constructed cattle tumuli at a time before the two monumental tumuli were constructed.<ref name="Garcea" />
====Nigeria====
=====Nok Culture=====
[[Nok culture]] artifacts—located on the [[Jos Plateau]] in Nigeria, between the [[Niger River]] and [[Benue River]]—have been dated as far back as 790 BCE. The excavation of the Nok settlement in [[Samun Dikiya]] shows a tendency to build on hill tops and mountain peaks. However, Nok settlements have not been extensively excavated.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 44–45 }}</ref>
In the central region of [[Nigeria]], Nok [[archaeological sites]] are determined to be settlement sites, on the basis of archaeological evidence discovered at the surface level of the sites, and determined to be of the Nok culture, on the basis of the type of archaeological evidence discovered, specifically, Nok terracotta remnants and Nok pottery.<ref name="Rupp">{{cite journal |last1=Rupp |first1=Nicole |last2=Ameje |first2=James |last3=Breunig |first3=Peter |title=New Studies on the Nok Culture of Central Nigeria |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=2 |page=287 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10056 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228965010 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=5919406005 |s2cid=162190915}}</ref> Mountaintops are where the majority of Nok settlement sites are found.<ref name="Rupp" /> At the settlement site of Kochio, the edge of a cellar of a settlement wall was chiseled from a granite foundation.<ref name="Rupp" /> Additionally, a [[megalithic]] stone [[fence]] was constructed around the [[Compound (enclosure)|enclosed settlement]] site of Kochio.<ref name="Rupp" />
====Senegambia====
Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, [[Senegambian stone circles|Senegambian megaliths]] (e.g., [[tumuli]]) were constructed for the purpose of [[Veneration of the dead#Serer of Senegal and Gambia|ancestral reverence]].<ref name="Holl II" />
At [[Senegambian stone circles#Wanar|Wanar]], Senegal, [[megalithic]] [[monolith]]-circles and tumuli (1300/1100 BCE – 1400/1500 CE) were constructed by West Africans who had a complex hierarchical society.<ref name="Holl IV">{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F. C. |title=Preserving African Cultural Heritage |chapter=Megaliths and Cultural Landscape: Archaeology of the Petit Bao Bolon Drainage |page=120 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36474475 |date=May 2018 |publisher=Panafrican Archaeological Association}}</ref> In the mid-region of the [[Senegal River]] Valley, the [[Serer people]] may have created tumuli (before 13th century CE), [[shell middens]] (7th century CE – 13th century CE) in the central-west region, and shell middens (200 BCE – Present) in the southern region.<ref name="Sall">{{cite book |last1=Sall |first1=Moustapha |title=Field Manual for African Archaeology |chapter=Academic Research In West Africa: The Case Of Senegal |page=13 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316739653 |date=May 2017 |publisher=Royal Museum for Central Africa |isbn=978-9-4922-4427-7 |oclc=987859017 |s2cid=222116314}}</ref> The [[funerary]] tumuli-building tradition of [[West Africa]] was widespread and a regular practice amid 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Coutros">{{cite journal |last1=Coutros |first1=Peter R. |title=The Malian Lakes Region redefined:archaeological survey of the Gorbi Valley |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/130FA79106C62F9C5B1FAAC9C8E6AAAE/S0003598X17000308a.pdf/div-class-title-the-malian-lakes-region-redefined-archaeological-survey-of-the-gorbi-valley-div.pdf |journal=Antiquity |volume=91 |issue=356 |date=4 April 2017 |page=481 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.30 |s2cid=161053129 |issn=0003-598X |oclc=8271821798}}</ref> More than ten thousand large funerary tumuli exist in Senegal.<ref name="Coutros" />
===Eastern Africa===
====Ethiopia====
In the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] of [[Harar]], the earliest construction of [[megalith]]s occurred.<ref name="Holl II" /> From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, [[tumuli]] with burial chambers organized in cemeteries), the subsequent traditions in other areas of [[Ethiopia]] likely developed.<ref name="Holl II" /> In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of [[Axum]] developed a megalithic [[Stele#Horn of Africa|stelae]]-building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the [[Christianity in Africa#Early Church|Christian]] period of [[Kingdom of Aksum#Axumite Empire|Axum]].<ref name="Holl II" /> In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory.<ref name="Holl II" /> Sidamo Province has the most megaliths in Ethiopia.<ref name="Holl II" />
=====Aksumite=====
{{see also|Architecture of Ethiopia}}
[[File:Yeha Tigray Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The ruin of the temple at [[Yeha]], Ethiopia]]
[[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] architecture flourished in the Ethiopian region, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of [[Lalibela, Ethiopia|Lalibela]], where stelae (''hawilt''s) and, later, entire [[church (building)|church]]es were carved out of single blocks of rock. Other monumental structures include massive underground tombs often located beneath stelae. Other well-known structures employing monolithic construction include the [[Tomb of the False Door]], and the tombs of [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]] and [[Gebre Mesqel]] in [[Axum]].
Most structures, however—such as palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and monasteries—were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. Some examples of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th-century monastery of [[Yemrehanna Krestos]], which was built in Aksumite style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures, two-storey square houses, or [[roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]] of [[sandstone]] with [[basalt]] [[Foundation (architecture)|foundation]]s. Villas were generally two-to-four storeys tall and had sprawling rectangular plans (cf. [[Dungur]] ruins). A good example of still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of [[Debre Damo]] from the 6th century.
====Kenya====
In 2nd millennium BCE, [[Namoratunga]] (Monolith Circles) [[megalith]]s were constructed as burials the eastern [[Lake Turkana|Turkana]] region of northwestern [[Kenya]].<ref name="Holl II" />
===Central Africa===
Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid-2nd millennium CE, [[megalith]]s (e.g., monuments, cairn burials) were constructed in the regions (e.g., Eastern [[Adamawa Region|Adamawa]], [[Oubanguian]] Ridge, [[Chad Basin#Drainage basin extent|Chad/Congo watershed]]) in [[Central African Republic]] and [[Cameroon]], throughout various periods (e.g., Balimbé: 2000 BCE – 1000 BCE; Early Gbabiri: 950 BCE – 200 BCE; Late Gbabiri: 200 BCE – 500 CE; Bouboun: 500 CE – 1600 CE), for various purposes (e.g., ritual practices, territorial marking).<ref name="Holl II" />
====Chad====
=====Sao Civilization=====
[[Sao civilization]] sites of walled-cities are in the [[Lake Chad]] region, along the [[Chari River]]; the oldest site—at [[Archaeology of Zilum|Zilum]], Chad—dates to at least the first millennium.
====Southern Africa====
====limpompo drystonewalling culture====
[[Limpompo drystonewalling culture]] drystonewalling in the region of the limpompo existed from 200BC when the ancestors of what is the venda language speaking peoples started constructing drystonewalling to show the power of the king .
==Medieval architecture==
===North Africa===
[[File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Kairouan]], Tunisia (7th to 9th centuries)]]
The Islamic conquest of North Africa saw the development of [[Islamic architecture]] in the region. Some of the early major monuments include the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]], founded in 670 and mostly rebuilt in its current form during the 9th century,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Great Mosque of Kairouan|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&lang=en#:~:text=This%20mosque,%20the%20oldest%20and,dressed%20stone%20cut%20like%20brick.|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> and the [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun|Ibn Tulun Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], built in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mosque of Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn {{!}} building, Cairo, Egypt|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mosque-of-Ahmad-ibn-Tulun|access-date=2021-07-22|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> In the western part of North Africa, known as the [[Maghreb]], the [[Moorish architecture|"Moorish" style]] of architecture developed over time, with strong cultural connections to [[Al-Andalus]], the Islamic society of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Marçais|first=Georges|title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident|publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques|year=1954|isbn=|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref> Around 1000 AD, [[Cob (material)|cob]] (''tabya'') first appears in the [[Maghreb]] and al-Andalus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |editor1-last=Rashed |editor1-first=Roshdi |editor-link1=Roshdi Rashed |editor2-last=Morelon |editor2-first=Régis |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |url=https://archive.org/stream/RoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996/Roshdi+Rashed+%28ed.%29-Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science%2C+Vol.+3-Routledge+%281996%29_djvu.txt |date=1996 |volume=3 |page=766 |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-02063-8 |ref={{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=751–95}} |access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref> To the east, Egypt continued to be more closely connected with the [[Levant]] and the rest of the Middle East.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=Architecture|editor2-last=S. Blair|editor2-first=Sheila}}</ref>
====Tunisia====
{{Main|Architecture of Tunisia}}
[[Ifriqiya]] (roughly present-day Tunisia) was an important province of Islamic North Africa, with Kairouan serving as a major cultural and political center for much of its history. Under the [[Aghlabids]] (9th century), the Great Mosque of Kairouan was rebuilt and [[Abbasid architecture|Abbasid architectural]] innovations, such as the minaret, were introduced for the first time in North Africa.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |title=The minaret |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0748637256 |location=Edinburgh |oclc=856037134}}</ref> Under the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] (10th century), Ifriqiya was temporarily the center of a new caliphate in rivalry with the Abbasid Caliphate to the east. The Fatimids initially eschewed some of the trends of Abbasid architecture (e.g. minarets), while following some of the established forms (e.g. the hypostyle format of mosques) and introducing new elements (e.g. monumental entrance portals for mosques).<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":04"/> They also founded new capital cities including [[Mahdia]] on the coast and [[Mansouria, Tunisia|al-Mansuriya]] near Kairouan. After the Fatimids departed to Cairo, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] were left in charge in the late 10th century until they were succeeded by the Almohads in the 12th century. The latter introduced some of their own architectural trends, as seen in the [[Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)|Kasbah Mosque]] of [[Tunis]] which bears strong resemblance to Almohad mosque architecture in Marrakesh.<ref name=":3" /> The Almohads in Ifriqiya were soon succeeded by the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsids]], under whose long dominion the center of power and patronage shifted to Tunis and the region's architecture increasingly deviated from that of the western Maghreb and al-Andalus. Madrasas were first built during the Hafsid period and quickly proliferated. After the advent of [[Ottoman Tunisia|Ottoman rule]] in the 16th century some elements and traditions of [[Ottoman architecture]], such as the use of pointed minarets and the creation of multi-functional religious complexes, began to penetrate local architecture, especially among the monuments built by or associated with the new Ottoman elites.<ref name=":3" />
<gallery>
File:Great Mosque of Sousse.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Sousse]] (9th century)
File:Porte Grande Mosquée El Mehdi Mahdia.JPG|Entrance of the Fatimid [[Great Mosque of Mahdiya|Great Mosque of Mahdia]] (10th century)
File:Mosquée de la Kasba 1 (retouched).jpg|[[Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)|Kasbah Mosque]] of Tunis (13th century)
File:Minaret et mausolée.jpg|[[Youssef Dey Mosque|Mosque and mausoleum of Youssef Dey]] in Tunis (17th century)
</gallery>
====Algeria====
{{Main|Architecture of Algeria}}
The territory of present-day Algeria was ruled by various dynasties in the early Islamic period, including the [[Rustamid dynasty|Rustamids]], the Idrisids (and their [[Sulaymanid dynasty|Sulaymanid]] branch), and the Zirids. In the 10th century the Zirids built a palace at [[Achir|'Ashir]] (near the present town of [[Kef Lakhdar]]) that is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated by archeologists.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=53}} The [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]], an offshoot of the Zirids, based themselves in Algeria and in 1007 they founded an entirely new fortified capital known as [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qala'at Bani Hammad]], northeast of present-day [[M'Sila, Algeria|M'Sila]]. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved sites of a medieval capital city in the Islamic world, with remains of multiple palaces and of a monumental mosque.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|125}} From the late 11th to early 13th centuries varying extents of Algerian territory were controlled by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]]. The [[Great Mosque of Tlemcen]] (1082), the [[Djamaa el Kebir|Great Mosque of Algiers]] (1096–1097), and the [[Great Mosque of Nedroma]] (1145) are all important foundations from the Almoravid period.<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":3" /> After the Almohads, the region was mostly controlled by the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanids]] (13th to early 16th centuries), based in [[Tlemcen]], with occasional incursions by the Marinids. Both the Zayyanids and the Marinids left a significant architectural legacy in Tlemcen, which became a cultural center of the region. Various mosques and monuments in the western Maghrebi-Andalusi style are still preserved in the city today.<ref name=":242">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Tlemcen |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> After the Ottomans brought the region under their control in the 16th century, Algiers became the new center of power. Many mosques, palaces, and tombs were built in the city with a blend of Ottoman and indigenous Maghrebi architectural influences. An important example is the 17th-century [[Djamaa el Djedid|New Mosque]], which has an Ottoman-influenced layout with dome and vaulted ceilings alongside a Maghrebi-style minaret.<ref name=":3" />
<gallery>
File:28-2 Kalâa de Beni Hammad (4) (cropped).jpg|Remains of the mosque of [[Qal'at Bani Hammad]] (11th century)
File:Grande mosquée et dépendance Minaret de la Mosquée 021.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Tlemcen]] (11th-12th centuries, with later additions)
File:Entrée de SBM.JPG|Zellij and muqarnas decoration at the entrance of the [[Sidi Boumediene Mosque|Sidi Bu Madyan Mosque]] in Tlemcen (14th century)
File:Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah cropped.jpg|[[Djamaa el Djedid|New Mosque]] in Algiers (17th century)
</gallery>
====Morocco====
{{Main|Moroccan architecture}}
Islamic architecture began in Morocco under the [[Idrisid dynasty]], with structures such as the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin]], founded in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Courtney Ann |title=Art and Architecture of Morocco and Muslim Spain: Bronze Age to Idrisid Dynasty |url=https://www.academia.edu/33423812 |language=en |url-access=registration |access-date=17 July 2022}}</ref> The Almoravid dynasty united northwest Africa and Iberia under one empire, and brought Andalusi architects to North Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruggles|first=D.|date=1999-04-22|title=D. Fairchild Ruggles. Review of "The Minbar from Kutubiyya Mosque" by Jonathan M. Bloom.|journal=Caa.reviews|doi=10.3202/caa.reviews.1999.75|issn=1543-950X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Arnold|first=Felix|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA215|title=Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-062455-2|language=en}}</ref> A similar situation persisted under the Almohads, whose buildings (e.g. the [[Kutubiyya Mosque]]) further cemented many stylistic trends that would characterize the architecture of the region.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|last=Bennison|first=Amira K.|title=The Almoravid and Almohad Empires|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780748646821|location=|pages=}}</ref> After them, the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinid dynasty]] used similar architectural forms with increased surface decoration, which shared many similarities with contemporary [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] architecture in the [[Emirate of Granada]].<ref name=":022" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref> Some features of Moroccan Islamic architecture that emerged from these periods are the [[Moroccan riad|''riad'']], square-based [[minaret]]s, ''[[tadelakt]]'' plaster, and decorative features such as [[arabesque]] and ''[[zellij]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|date=2020-06-30|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-21870-1|language=en}}</ref> Under the [[Saadi dynasty]], [[Carrara marble|marble]] from [[Carrara]], bought with [[Sugar industry of Morocco|Moroccan sugar]], was used in the furnishing of palaces and mosques.<ref>{{Cite web|title="A Very Sweet Present: Moroccan Sugar Loaves" by Iziar de Miguel|url=https://henripeyrefi.ws.gc.cuny.edu/2017/01/27/a-very-sweet-present-moroccan-sugar-loaves-by-iziar-de-miguel/|last=Soo-Hoo|first=Anna|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> The traditional Moorish style of architecture continued to be followed under the [['Alawi dynasty]], which ruled Morocco from the 17th century onward.<ref name=":3" /> Between 1672 and 1727, The 'Alawi sultan [[Ismail Ibn Sharif|Moulay Isma'il]] built a new capital at Meknes, the [[Kasbah of Moulay Ismail]], which covered a vast area and featured monuments and infrastructure on a vast scale.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|pages=309–312}} The 'Alawi sultans continued to build or renovate other palaces and mosques. Some of the palaces preserved today were built by other high-ranking officials, such as the [[Bahia Palace]] in Marrakesh, which was built in the late 19th century by a family of [[vizier]]s.<ref name=":243">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Marrakesh |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:أطلال مسجد في موقع ليكسوس الأثري قرب مدينة العرائش المغربية.jpg|Remains of an Idrisid mosque at [[Lixus (ancient city)|Lixus]]
File:Al Quaraouiyine.jpg|[[University of al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fez, Morocco|Fes]] (founded in 9th century)
File:Cúpula almorávide (Marrakech).jpg|[[Almoravid Qubba]] in [[Marrakesh]] (early 12th century)
File:المسجد الأعظم تينمل 7.jpg|[[Mihrab]] of the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] [[Mosque of Tinmel]] (12th century)
File:مدرسة العطارين.jpg|[[Arabesque]], [[Maghrebi script]], and [[Zellige|''zillīj'']] at [[Al-Attarine Madrasa]] in Fes (14th century)
File:Palais El Badii - panoramio.jpg|[[El Badi Palace]] in Marrakesh (late 16th century)
</gallery>
====Egypt====
After initially being a province of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] Caliphates, with its administrative capital at [[Fustat]], Egypt became more politically independent in the 9th century under the [[Tulunids|Tulunid dynasty]].<ref name=":24" /> In the 10th century, the Fatimid Caliphate moved its base of power to Egypt and founded the city of Cairo, near Fustat. [[Fatimid architecture]] in Egypt can be witnessed in religious monuments in Cairo such as the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] (significantly modified in later centuries), the [[Al-Hakim Mosque]], and in the small but artistically significant [[Aqmar Mosque]].<ref name=":24" /> Other remains from this period include the monumental stone gates of Cairo – [[Bab al-Futuh]], [[Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)|Bab al-Nasr]], and [[Bab Zuweila]] – which were built by a Fatimid [[vizier]] in the 11th century.<ref name=":24" /> The [[Fatimid Great Palaces|Great Fatimid Palaces]], where the caliphs lived, have not been preserved. After the Fatimids, Egypt became the capital of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] founded by [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] (Saladin). The most significant monument of this era was the [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel of Cairo]], which became Egypt's center of government up until the 19th century.<ref name=":032">{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Caroline|title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2018|isbn=|edition=7th|location=Cairo|pages=}}</ref><ref name="Raymond1993">Raymond, André. 1993. ''Le Caire''. Fayard.</ref> In the mid-13th century the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]] took control and ruled an empire from Cairo that lasted until the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Ottoman conquest of 1517]]. The Mamluks were major patrons of architecture and a large part of the historic heritage of [[Islamic Cairo]] dates from their time. The major monuments of [[Mamluk architecture]] were multi-functional religious and funerary complexes whose layouts were adapted to fit into the dense urban environment. Some of the most significant examples of this period include the [[Qalawun complex|Complex of Sultan Qalawun]], the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, and the [[Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]].<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":032"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2007|isbn=9789774160776}}</ref><gallery>
File:Courtyard of Al-Azhar Mosque Cairo Egypt 2019 (6).jpg|Courtyard of the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], founded in 972
File:Cairo, porte settentrionali, 01.JPG|[[Bab al-Futuh]], a Fatimid gate in Cairo (1087–92)
File:Cairo, moschea di al-aqmar, 04.JPG|Street façade of the [[Aqmar Mosque]] (1126)
File:Flickr - HuTect ShOts - Citadel of Salah El.Din and Masjid Muhammad Ali قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي ومسجد محمد علي - Cairo - Egypt - 17 04 2010 (4).jpg|The [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel of Cairo]], founded in 1176
File:Minaret of the Qalawun complex.jpg|Exterior of the [[Qalawun complex|Funerary complex of Sultan Qalawun]] (1285), which included a mausoleum, a [[madrasa]], and a [[Bimaristan|maristan]]
File:Qaitbey4 (2133768658).jpg|Dome of the [[Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]] (1474)
File:Sultan-Hassan-Moschee 2015-11-14zc.jpg|[[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan|Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan]] (1356–1361)
</gallery>
====Sudan====
=====Nubia=====
{{Further|Nubian architecture}}
The Christianization of [[Nubia]] began in the 6th century. Its most representative architecture consists of churches, whose design is based on [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[basilica]]s, but which are relatively small and made of mud bricks. [[Vernacular architecture]] of the Christian period is scarce. [[Soba (city)|Soba]] is the only city that has been excavated. Its structures are made of sun-dried bricks, the same as today, except for an arch. During the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] phase of Islam, Nubia became [[Arabization|Arabized]]. Its most import mosque was the Mosque of Derr.<ref>Grossmann, Peter. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/christian.htm Christian Nubia and Its Churches] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516005111/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/christian.htm |date=May 16, 2009 }}. Cairo: German Archaeological Institute</ref><ref>Shinnie, P.L. [http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm Medieval Nubia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103090421/http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm |date=2018-01-03 }}. Khartoum:Sudan Antiquities Service,1954</ref>
===West Africa===
{{Further|Sudano-Sahelian}}
[[File:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]] in Mali, first built in the 13th century and reconstructed in 1906–1909, is the largest clay building in the world]]
[[File:Askia.jpg|thumb|[[Tomb of Askia]] in [[Gao, Mali]]]]
At [[Kumbi Saleh]], locals lived in dome-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by [[Abu Abdullah al-Bakri|al-Bakri]]), one of which was for [[Friday prayer]].<ref>Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81</ref> The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long and forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase, with paintings on the walls and chambers filled with sculpture.<ref>Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86</ref>
[[Sudano-Sahelian|Sahelian architecture]] initially grew from the two cities of [[Djenné]] and [[Timbuktu]]. The [[Sankore]] Mosque, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the [[Great Mosque of Djenné]].
====Ghana====
=====Ashanti=====
[[File:Kumasi.png|thumb|Palace of, [[Asante people|Ashanti]], King Kwaku Dua of [[Kumasi]], 1887]]
[[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] architecture from [[Ghana]] is perhaps best known from the reconstruction at [[Kumasi]], [[Ghana]]. Its key features are courtyard-based buildings, and walls with striking reliefs in brightly painted mud plaster. An example is the Besease [[shrine]], which can be seen at [[Kumasi]]. Four rectangular rooms, constructed from [[wattle and daub]], lie around a [[courtyard]]. Animal designs mark the walls, and [[arecaceae|palm]] leaves cut to a tiered shape provide the roof.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashante Shrine |url=https://www.zamaniproject.org/site-ghana-kumasi-asante-shrine.html |website=[[Zamani Project]] |access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
====Mali====
At [[Tondidarou]], in the Malian Lakes Region, there are [[megalith]]s of an anthropomorphic nature (e.g., face, navel, [[scarifications]]) that date between 600 CE and 700 CE.<ref name="Holl II" />
At the [[Inner Niger Delta]], in the [[Mali]] Lakes Region, there are two monumental tumuli constructed in the time period of the [[Trans-Saharan trade]] for the [[Sahelian kingdoms]] of [[West Africa]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot">{{cite book |last1=Garenne-Marot |first1=Laurence |last2=Mille |first2=Benoît |title=Metals and mines: studies in archaeometallurgy |date=January 2007 |page=160 |publisher=Archetype Publications |isbn=9781904982197 |oclc=174131337 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340772351 |chapter=Copper-based metal in the Inland Niger delta: metal and technology at the time of the Empire of Mali}}</ref> The El Oualadji monumental tumulus, which dates between 1030 CE and 1220 CE and has two human remains buried with [[horse]] remains and various items (e.g., [[horse harness]]es, horse [[trapping]]s with plaques and bells, bracelets, rings, beads, iron items), may have been, as highlighted by [[al-Bakri]], the royal burial site of a king from the [[Ghana Empire]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot" /> The Koï Gourrey monumental tumulus, which may date prior to 1326 CE and has over twenty human remains that were buried with various items (e.g., iron accessories, an abundant amount of copper bracelets, anklets and beads, an abundant amount of broken, but whole pottery, another set of distinct, intact, glazed pottery, a wooden-beaded bone necklace, a bird figurine, a lizard figurine, a crocodile figurine), and is situated within the [[Mali Empire]].<ref name="Garenne-Marot" />
====Nigeria====
Several societies in pre-colonial [[Nigeria]] built structures from earth and stone. In general, these structures were primarily defensive, repelling invaders from other tribes, but many settlements put spiritual elements into their construction. These defensive structures were primarily constructed from earth, occasionally plastered.
Dump ramparts consist of an outer ditch and inner bank and can span from 1/2 meter to 20 meters across in the largest settlements such as [[Benin City|Benin]] and [[Sungbo's Eredo]]. Coursed mud walls in the Guinea and Sudan savannas were laid in layers of mud. Each layer of mud would be held in place by wooden framing, allowed to dry, and built on top of. At the most significant settlement in Koso, these walls averaged 6 meters in height, tapering from 2 meters thick at the base to 1/2 meter thick at the top. Tubali walls in northern Nigeria have two components: sun-dried mud bricks held together with mud mortar. Walls in this style have a tendency to deteriorate in wetter climates.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=African indigenous knowledge and the sciences : journeys into the past and present|editor1=Emeagwali, Gloria T. |editor2=Shizha, Edward|isbn=9789463005159|location=Rotterdam|oclc=953458729|date = 2016-07-08}}</ref>
These mud constructions were usually plastered with mud mixed with other materials. The defensive purpose of this was to create a smoother, unscalable surface to help repel attackers. However, some plaster has been found with blood, bone remains, gold dust, oil, and straw mixed in. Some of these materials were functional, adding strength, while others had spiritual meanings, possibly to defend against evil spirits.<ref name=":0" />
Benin City in particular had sophisticated house and urban planning. Houses had several rooms and were usually roofed, enclosing private quarters, sacred spaces, and rooms for receiving guests. Usually, multiple houses would enclose a shared courtyard. When it rained, the house roofs would collect water into a space in the courtyard for later use. Houses would have public frontage along long, straight roads. The city had markets and the chief's palace in the center of the city, with dominant and subordinate roads leading outwards. HM Stanely, quoted in Asomani-Boateng, Raymond (2011-11), described the roads as "...fenced with tall [water cane] neatly set very close together in uniform rows..." possibly for privacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Asomani-Boateng|first=Raymond|date=2011-11-01|title=Borrowing from the past to sustain the present and the future: indigenous African urban forms, architecture, and sustainable urban development in contemporary Africa|journal=Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability|volume=4|issue=3|pages=239–262|doi=10.1080/17549175.2011.634573|s2cid=144469644|issn=1754-9175}}</ref>
[[File:Sukur-8.jpg|alt=Dry-laid stone structure in Sukur, in the Adamawa State. Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site|thumb|Dry-laid stone structure in [[Sukur]], in the [[Adamawa State]].]]
More sophisticated construction methods include stone and brick constructions, with and without mortar, plaster, and accompanying defensive structures. Fired brick constructions were observed in settlements in northeast Nigeria, such as historic [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] buildings. Many of the bricks have since been removed for new constructions. Laterite block walls with clay mortar were found in northwest Nigeria, possibly inspired by [[Songhai people|Songhai]] constructions. Walls built from stone without mortar have been found where societies could obtain sufficient stone, most notably in [[Sukur]]. None of these constructions have been observed with additional plastering.<ref name=":0" />
The Sukur World Heritage Site is especially significant, with extensive terraces, walls, and infrastructure. Walls separate homes, animal pens, and granaries, while terraces often include spiritual items such as sacred trees or ceramic shrines. Early iron foundries were also present, usually placed close to the homes of their owners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/938/|title=Sukur Cultural Landscape|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref>
Broadly, three styles of residential architecture can be identified in indigenous Nigerian architecture, relating to the people groups which developed them.
* [[Hausa architecture]] uses plastered adobe to create monolithic walls. Roofing is provided by shallow domes and vaults made from structural timber beams covered by laterite and earth. Homesteads are bounded by perimeter walls with both circular and linear interior divisions with one clearly defined entrance.
* [[Yoruba architecture]] uses cured earth walls to support roof timbers, over which leaf or woven grass roofing is applied. These walls are usually homogeneous mud structures, though wattle-and-daub techniques can be found in certain locations. Space is divided into individual units which are then connected by proximity and walls into a compound with courtyards and private spaces. Multiple entrances and exits allow access to accessory facilities such as kitchens.
* [[Igbo architecture]] uses similar construction techniques and materials as Yoruba architecture, but varies significantly in spatial arrangement. No unified compound walls exist in these constructions. Instead, individual units are related to a central leader's hut, with significance attached to relative position and size.
These elements are believed to affect present-day residential house design, especially when designating spaces as public, semi-public, semi-private, or private.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Osasona|first1=Cordelia O.|title=From traditional residential architecture to the vernacular: the Nigerian experience|url=http://www.obafemio.com/uploads/5/1/4/2/5142021/nigerianarchitechture.pdf|location=Ile-Ife, Nigeria|publisher=Obafemi Awolowo University|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>
=====Benin=====
{{Further|Walls of Benin}}
[[File:Drawing of Benin City made by an English officer 1897.jpg|thumb|Drawing of [[Benin City]] made by an English officer in 1897]]
The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood. [[Benin City]], destroyed during the [[Benin Expedition of 1897]], was a large complex of homes in coursed mud, with hipped roofs of [[Shake (roof)|shingles]] or palm leaves. The palace contained a sequence of ceremonial rooms and was decorated with [[Benin Bronzes|brass plaques]]. The [[Walls of Benin]] City were the world's largest man-made structure.<ref>Wesler, Kit W.(1998). Historical archaeology in Nigeria. Africa World Press pp.143,144 {{ISBN|9780865436107}}.</ref> Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist:
{{cquote|quote=They extend for some 16,000 kilometres in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 6500 square kilometres and were all dug by the [[Edo people]]. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops. They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.<ref>Pearce, Fred. [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16322035.100-the-african-queen.html?page=2 ''African Queen'']. New Scientist, 11 September 1999, Issue 2203.</ref>}}
In 1691, the Portuguese Lourenco Pinto observed: "Great Benin, where the king resides, is larger than Lisbon; all the streets run straight and as far as the eye can see. The houses are large, especially that of the king, which is richly decorated and has fine columns. The city is wealthy and industrious. It is so well governed that theft is unknown and the people live in such security that they have no doors to their houses."<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYNSEAAAQBAJ&q=Educational+Leadership+and+the+Global+Majority:+Decolonising+Narratives%0ABy+Rosemary+M.+Campbell-Stephens | title=Educational Leadership and the Global Majority: Decolonising Narratives | isbn=9783030882822 | last1=Campbell-Stephens | first1=Rosemary M. | date=28 December 2021 | publisher=Springer }}</ref>
Benin City's planning and design was done according to careful rules of symmetry, proportionality and repetition now known as fractal design.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aire |first=Ekiuwa |title=Idia of the Benin Kingdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHtrEAAAQBAJ&dq=benin+city+fractal+design&pg=PT35 |date=2021 |publisher=Our Ancestories |isbn=978-177711791-7 |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref> The main streets had underground drainage made of a sunken impluvium with an outlet to carry away storm water. Many narrower side and intersecting streets extended off them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Awuah |first=Kwasi Gyau Baffour |title=Economic Incentives in Sub-Saharan African Urban Planning: A Ghanaian Case Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRYeEAAAQBAJ&dq=benin+city+underground+drainage&pg=PT63 |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-100037333-2 |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref>
=====Hausa Kingdoms=====
{{Main|Hausa architecture}}
[[File:Kano-engraving.jpg|thumb|The city of Kano]]
The important [[Hausa Kingdoms]] city state of [[Kano (city)|Kano]] was surrounded by a wall of reinforced ramparts of stone and bricks. Kano contained a citadel near which the royal court resided. Individual residences were separated by earthen walls. The higher the status of the resident the more elaborate the wall. The entrance-way was maze-like to keep women secluded. Inside, near the entrance, were the abodes of unmarried women. Further on were slave quarters.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 123–126 }}</ref>
======Gobarau Mosque======
Gobarau Mosque is believed to have been completed during the reign of [[Muhammadu Korau]] (1398–1408), the first Muslim king of Katsina. Originally built as the central mosque of [[Katsina]] town, it was later also used as a school.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobarau Minaret Katsina State :: Nigeria Information & Guide |url=https://www.nigeriagalleria.com/Nigeria/States_Nigeria/Katsina/Gobarau-Minaret-Katsina.html |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=www.nigeriagalleria.com}}</ref> By the beginning of the 16th century, Katsina had become a very important commercial and academic center in [[Hausaland]], and Gobarau Mosque had grown into a famed Islamic institution of higher learning. Gobarau continued to be Katsina's central mosque until the beginning of the 19th century AD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobarau, Katsina, phone +234 903 249 8940 |url=https://ng.africabz.com/katsina/gobarau-198786 |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=ng.africabz.com}}</ref>
=====Yoruba=====
{{Main|Yoruba architecture}}
The [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] surrounded their settlements with massive mud walls. Their buildings had a similar plan to the Ashanti shrines, but with [[verandah]]s around the court.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} The walls were of puddled mud and [[palm oil]]. The most famous of the Yoruba fortifications, and the second largest wall edifice in Africa, is [[Sungbo's Eredo]], a structure that was built in honour of a traditional [[Oba (ruler)#Aristocratic titles among the Yoruba|oloye]] by the name of [[Bilikisu Sungbo]], in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} The structure is made up of sprawling mud walls among the valleys that surrounded the town of [[Ijebu-Ode]] in [[Ogun State]]. [[Sungbo's Eredo]] is the largest pre-colonial monument in [[Africa]], larger than the [[Great Pyramids]] or [[Great Zimbabwe]].
===Eastern Africa===
====Burundi====
[[Burundi]] never had a fixed capital. The closest thing to it was a royal hill. When the king moved, his new location became the ''insago''. The compound itself was enclosed inside a high fence and had two entrances. One was for herders and herds. The other was to the royal palace, which was itself surrounded by a fence. The royal palace had three royal courtyards, each serving a particular function: one for herders, one as a sanctuary, and one encompassed by kitchen and granary.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 68 }}</ref>
====Ethiopia====
[[File:Bet Medhane Alem church Lalibela.jpg|thumb|150px|Bete Medhane Alem, [[Lalibela, Ethiopia|Lalibela]], the largest monolithic church in the world]]
Throughout the medieval period, the monolithic influences of Aksumite architecture persisted, with its influence felt strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially during the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout [[Ethiopia]], especially in the northernmost region of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]], which was the heart of the [[Aksumite Empire]]. However, rock-hewn churches have been found as far south as [[Adadi Maryam]] (15th century), about {{convert|100|km}} south of [[Addis Ababa]].
The most famous examples of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the 11 monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. Although later medieval hagiographies attribute all 11 structures to the eponymous king [[Gebre Mesqel Lalibela|Lalibela]] (the town was called Roha and Adefa before his reign), new evidence indicates that they may have been built separately over a period of a few centuries, with only a few of the more recent churches having been built under his reign. Archaeologist and ''Ethiopisant'' David Phillipson postulates that [[Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el]] was actually built in the very early medieval period, some time between 600 and 800 AD, originally as a fortress but later turned into a church.
====Kenya====
[[Thimlich Ohinga]] is a complex of dry-stone walled enclosures near [[Migori]] town in Western Kenya. Thimlich Ohinga was built around the 16th century CE by sedentary, pastoralist [[Bantus]] who later on abandoned the site, later on replaced by members of the [[Luo people]]. The site consists of four main "Ohingni" (i.e. settlements) surrounded by walls with low entrances, the walls were built by stacking irregularly-shaped stones without the use of any mortar, the result being an interlocked wall with immense stability similar to walls of [[Great Zimbabwe]] 3600 kilometers to the south of the settlement.<ref>{{cite web| title = Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site| url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1450/| year = 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Secrets in stone. Who built the stone settlements of Nyanza Province. Kenya Past and Present| year = 2006}}</ref> The walls of Thimlich Ohinga also included vents for water drainage, [[buttresses]] to reinforce the free-standing walls and a watchtower.Within the walls of the settlement were livestock enclosures, houses and [[granaries]]. The inhabitants of Thimlich Ohinga engaged in craft industries, most notably pottery and [[metallurgy]]. Imported glass beads at the site indicate that Thimlich Ohinga was part of a network of long-distance trade.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}
====Rwanda====
[[File:King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg|thumb|King's palace in Nyanza, Rwanda]]
[[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]] was the royal capital of [[Rwanda]]. The king's residence, the Ibwami, was built on a hill. Surrounding hills were occupied by permanent or temporary dwellings. These dwellings were round huts surrounded by big yards and tall hedges to separate the compounds. The ''[[Rugo]]'', the royal compound, was encircled by reed fences encompassing thatched houses. The houses for the king's entourage were carpeted with mats and had clay hearths in the center. For the king and his wife, the royal house was close to 200-100 yards in length and looked like a huge maze of connected huts and granaries. It had one entrance that lead to a large public square called the ''karubanda''.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 69–70 }}</ref>
====Somalia====
{{Main|Somali architecture}}
[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the dry [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]] in Zeila, Somalia]]
Somali architecture has a rich and diverse tradition of designing and engineering different types of construction, such as masonry, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, temples, [[aqueduct (water supply)|aqueducts]], lighthouses, towers and tombs, during the ancient, medieval, and [[early modern]] periods in [[Somalia]]. It also encompasses the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with Western designs in modern times.
In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in [[Somali language|Somali]] as ''taalo'' were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these [[dry stone]] monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of [[Stonemasonry|dressed stone]] similar to the ones in [[Ancient Egypt]],<ref>Man, God and Civilization pg 216</ref> and there are examples of courtyards, and large stone walls, such as the [[Wargaade Wall]], enclosing settlements.
The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]], which stimulated a shift in construction from dry stone, and other related materials, to [[Masonry|coral stone]], [[mud-brick|sun-dried bricks]], and the widespread use of [[limestone]] in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.<ref>Diriye, p.102</ref>
=====Dhulbahante garesa=====
[[File:Eyl Castle.jpg|thumb|Sideway view of a Dervish fort/Dhulbahante garesa in [[Eyl]], [[Somalia]]]]
In the official Dervish-written letter's description of the 1920 air, sea and land campaign and the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent ''Governatori della Somalia'', the British are described taking twenty-seven ''garesas'' or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan:<ref name="caroselli">Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."[https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/handle/2307/4173 viewable link]</ref>{{efn|name=fn2|*To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2021 June 9#Colonial fort quote|this link]] and [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2022 January 7#Caroselli|this link]]<br>*The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).}}
{{Verse translation
| Ai primi di aprile giungeva, a mezzo di corrieri dervisc di Belet Uen, una lettera diretta dal Mulla "Agli Italiani" con la quale, in sostanza, giustificando la sua rapida sconfitta coll'attriburla a defezione dei suoi seguaci Dulbohanta, chiedeva la nostra mediazione presso gli Inglesi ... Gl'Inglesi che sapevano questo ci son piombati addosso con tutta la gente e con sei volatili (aeroplani) ... i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro.
| In early April there came, by way of dervish couriers of Beledweyne, a letter sent by the Mullah "To The Italians" in which, in substance, he justified his rapid defeat by attributing it to the defection of his Dhulbahante followers and asked for our mediation with the English. The English, who knew this, descended on us with all their men and with six birds (airplanes)." ... the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them.}}
====Tanzania====
[[Engaruka]] is a ruined settlement on the slopes of [[Mount Ngorongoro]] in northern [[Tanzania]]. Seven stone-terraced villages comprised the settlement. A complex structure of stone channels along the mountain's base was used to dike, dam, and level surrounding river waters for [[irrigation]] of individual plots of land. Some of these irrigation channels were several kilometers long. The channels irrigated a total area of {{convert|5000|acre|km2}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Hull| first = Richard W.| title = African Cities and Towns Before the European Conquest| year = 1976| publisher = New York : Norton| isbn = 978-0-393-05581-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = Encyclopedia of African history| year = 2004| isbn = 978-1-57958-453-5| page = 1368 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn}}</ref>
=====Swahili States=====
{{Main|Swahili architecture}}
Farther south, increased trade with Arab merchants, and the development of ports, saw the birth of [[Swahili architecture]]. An outgrowth of indigenous Bantu settlements,<ref>African Archaeological Review, Volume 15, Number 3, September 1998, pp. 199-218(20)</ref> one of the earliest examples is the [[Palace of Husuni Kubwa]], lying west of [[Kilwa (district)|Kilwa]], built about 1245. As with many other early Swahili buildings, [[coral rag]] was the main construction material, and even the roof was constructed by attaching coral to timbers. The palace at [[Kilwa Kisiwani]] was a two-story tower, in a walled enclosure. Other notable structures from the period include the [[pillar tomb]]s of [[Malindi]] and [[Mnarani]] in Kenya and elsewhere, originally made of coral rag, and later from stone. Later examples include [[Zanzibar]]'s [[Stone Town]], with its famous carved doors and the [[Great Mosque of Kilwa]].
A visitor in 1331 AD considered the Tanzanian city Kilwa to be of world class. He wrote that it was the "principal city on the coast the greater part of whose inhabitants are Zanj of very black complexion." Later on he says that: "Kilwa is one of the most beautiful and well-constructed cities in the world. The whole of it is elegantly built."
====Uganda====
=====Buganda=====
Initially, the hilltop capital, or ''[[kibuga]]'', of [[Buganda]] would be moved to a new hill with each new ruler, or ''[[Kabaka of Buganda|Kabaka]]''. In the late 19th century, a permanent kibuga of Buganda was established at [[Mengo, Uganda|Mengo Hill]]. The capital, 1.5 miles across, was divided into quarters corresponding to provinces, with each chief building dwellings for his wife, slaves, dependents and visitors. Large plots of land were available for planting bananas and fruits. Roads were wide and well maintained.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 74 }}</ref>
=====Kitara and Bunyoro=====
In western Uganda, there are numerous earthworks near the [[Katonga River]]. These earthworks have been attributed to the Empire of Kitara. The most famous, [[Bigo bya Mugenyi]], is about {{convert|4|sqmi}}. The ditch was dug by cutting through {{convert|200000|m3}} of solid bedrock and earth. The earthwork rampart was about {{convert|12|ft|m}} high. It is not certain whether its function was for defense or pastoral use. Little is known about the Ugandan earthworks.<ref>{{cite book| last = Tracy| first = James D.| title = City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective| year = 2000| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-65221-6| page = 24 }}</ref>
===Central Africa===
====Chad====
=====Kanem-Bornu=====
[[Kanem-Bornu]]'s capital city, [[Birni N'Gazargamu]], may have had a population of 200,000. It had four mosques, which could hold up to 12,000 worshippers. It was surrounded by a {{convert|25|ft|m|adj=mid|-high}} wall more than {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} in circumference. Many large streets extended from the esplanade and connected to 660 roads. The main buildings were built with red brick. Other buildings were built with straw and adobe.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| pages = 106–107 }}</ref>
====Democratic Republic of the Congo====
=====Kongo=====
[[File:The Bansa, or residence of the King of Kongo, called St. Salvador (M'Banza Kongo), Astley 1745.jpg|thumb|The capital of the Kingdom of Kongo]]
With a population of more than 30,000, [[Mbanza Congo]] was the capital of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]]. The city sat atop a cliff, with a river running below through a forested valley. The king's dwelling was described as an enclosure, a mile-and-a-half in extent, with walled pathways, courtyard, gardens, decorated huts, and palisades. An early explorer described it as looking like a [[Labyrinth#Cretan labyrinth|Cretan labyrinth]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 77 }}</ref>
=====Kuba=====
The capital of the [[Kuba Kingdom]] was surrounded by a {{convert|40|in|m|adj=mid|-high}} fence. Inside the fence were roads, a walled royal palace, and urban buildings. The palace was rectangular and in the center of the city.<ref>{{cite book| last = Coquery-Vidrovitch| first = Catherine| title = The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization| year = 2005| publisher = Markus Wiener Pub| isbn = 978-1-55876-303-6| page = 83 }}</ref>
=====Luba=====
The [[Luba Empire|Luba]] tended to cluster in small villages, with rectangular houses facing a single street. ''Kilolo'', patrilineal chieftains, headed the local village government, under the protection of the king. Cultural life centered around the ''[[kitenta]]'', the royal compound, which later came to be a permanent capital. The kitenta drew artists, poets, musicians and craftsmen, spurred by royal and court patronage.
=====Lunda=====
[[File:Lunda houses-1854.jpg|thumb|left|Lunda dwellings displaying the square and the cone-on-ground types of African vernacular architecture]]
[[Musumba]] the capital of the [[Kingdom of Lunda]], was {{convert|100|km}} from the [[Kasai River]], in open woodland, between two rivers {{convert|15|km}} apart. The city was surrounded by fortified earthen ramparts and dry moats. The compound of the ''[[Mwato Yamvo]]'' (sovereign ruler) was surrounded by large fortifications of double-layered tree, or wood, ramparts. Musumba had multiple courtyards with designated functions, straight roads, and public squares. Its cleanliness was noted by European observers.<ref>{{cite book| last = Birmingham| first = David| title = Central Africa to 1870 Zambezia, Zaire and the South Atlantic| year = 1981| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-28444-8| page = [https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95 95]| url = https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95}}</ref>
====Mozambique====
=====Maravi=====
The [[Maravi]] people built bridges (''uraro'') of [[bamboo]] because of changing river depths. Bamboo was placed parallel to each other and tied together by bark (''maruze''). One end of the bridge would be tied to a tree. The bridge would curve downward.
====Zambia====
=====Eastern Lunda=====
The [[Eastern Lunda]] dwelling of the [[Kazembe]] was described as containing fenced roads a mile long. The enclosing walls were made of grass, 12 to 13 [[span (unit)|span]] in height. The enclosed roads led to a rectangular hut opened on the west side. In the center was a wooden base with a statue on top of about 3 span in height.<ref>{{cite book| title = African Civilization Revisiteed From Antiquity to Modern Times| year = 1991| isbn = 978-0-86543-124-9| pages = [https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343 343–344]| last1 = Davidson| first1 = Basil| publisher = Africa World Press| url = https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343}}</ref>
===Southern Africa===
====Madagascar====
{{Main|Architecture of Madagascar}}
[[File:Mix of architectural materials in Antananarivo 1905.jpg|thumb|Architecture in [[Antananarivo]], Madagascar, in 1905]]
The Southeast Asian origins of the first settlers of [[Madagascar]] are reflected in the island's architecture, typified by rectangular dwellings topped with peaked roofs and often built on short stilts. Coastal dwellings, generally made of plant materials, are more like those of East Africa; those of the central highlands tend to be constructed in cob or brick. The introduction of brick-making, by European missionaries in the 19th century, led to the emergence of a distinctly Malagasy architectural style that blends the norms of traditional wooden aristocratic homes with European details.<ref>Acquier, Jean-Louis. Architectures de Madagascar. Paris: Berger-Levrault.</ref>
In the mid-2nd millennium CE, the [[megalithic]] funerary monuments of [[Madagascar]] were constructed amid the [[History of Madagascar#Rise of the great kingdoms|emergent period]] of the [[Merina Kingdom]].<ref name="Holl II" /> Some of the megaliths remain utilized by [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]-speakers for funerary practices (e.g., ceremony of turning the dead) in present-day.<ref name="Holl II" />
====Namibia====
The fortress of [[ǁKhauxaǃnas]], built by the [[Oorlam]] in southeastern Namibia, included a wall that was {{convert|700|m}} in length and {{convert|2|m}} in height. It was built with stone slabs and displays features of both the Zimbabwean and Transvaal-Free-State styles of stone construction.<ref>{{cite book| last = Tracy| first = James D.| title = City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective| year = 2000| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-65221-6| page = 23 }}</ref>
====South Africa====
=====Sotho-Tswana=====
[[Sotho–Tswana peoples|Sotho–Tswana]] architecture represents the other stone-building tradition of southern Africa, centered in the transvaal, highveld north and south of the Vaal. Numerous large stonewalled enclosures and stone-house foundations have been found in the region.<ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition| year = 2005| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-0-333-59957-0 }}</ref> Tswana, the capital of the ''Kwena'' (ruler), was a stone-walled town as large as the capital of Eastern Lunda.<ref>{{cite book| last = Iliffe| first = John| title = Africans The History of a Continent| year = 2007| isbn = 978-0-521-68297-8| page = [https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122 122]| publisher = Cambridge University Press| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122}}</ref>
At sites such as [[Kweneng' Ruins]], the Tswana lived in city states with stone walls and complex sociopolitical structures that they built in the 1300s or earlier. These cities had populations of up to 20,000 people, which at the time rivalled Cape Town in size.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livescience.com/64694-lost-african-city-lidar.html | title=Lost City in South Africa Discovered Hiding Beneath Thick Vegetation | website=[[Live Science]] | date=6 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iEtAQAAIAAJ&q=These+populous+Tswana%0Asettlements+were+characterized+by%0Acomplex+sociopolitical+structures,|title = Nyame Akuma|year = 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDZjDwAAQBAJ&dq=tswana+cities+rivalled+capetown+in+size&pg=PT24|title = A Search for Origins: Science, history and South Africa's 'Cradle of Humankind'|isbn = 9781776142309|last1 = Jenkins|first1 = Trefor|last2 = Bonner|first2 = Phil|last3 = Esterhuysen|first3 = Amanda|date = October 2007| publisher=NYU Press }}</ref>
=====Zulu and Nguni=====
[[Zulu Architecture]] was constructed with more perishable materials. Dome-shaped huts typically come to mind when one thinks of [[Zulu people|Zulu]] dwellings, but later on their design evolved into dome over cylinder-shaped walls. Zulu capital cities were elliptical in plan. The exterior was lined with a durable wood palisade. Domed huts, in rows of 6 to 8, stood just inside the palisade. In the center was the kraal, used by the king to examine his soldiers, hold cattle, or conduct ceremonies. It was an empty circular area at the center of the capital, enclosed by a less durable interior palisade, compared to the exterior. The entrance to the city was opposite to the fortified royal enclosure called the ''Isigodlo''.
====Zimbabwe====
=====Mapungubwe=====
[[Mapungubwe]] is considered the most socially complex society in southern Africa{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}} and the first southern African culture to display economic differentiation. The elite lived separately in a mountain settlement made of sandstone. It was the precursor to [[Great Zimbabwe]]. Large amounts of dirt were carried to the top of the hill. At the bottom of the hill was a natural amphitheater, and at the top an elite graveyard. There were only two pathways to the top, one following a narrow steep cleft along the side of the hill of which observers at the top had a clear view.
=====Great Zimbabwe=====
[[File:Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg|thumb|The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in [[Great Zimbabwe]], a medieval city built by a prosperous culture]]
Great Zimbabwe was the largest medieval city in sub-Saharan Africa.{{Citation needed|date=January 2014}} It was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in a local style that eschewed rectilinearity for flowing curves. Neither the first nor the last of some 300 similar complexes located on the Zimbabwean plateau, Great Zimbabwe is set apart by the large scale of its structures. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has dressed stone walls as high as {{convert|36|ft|m}} extending for approximately {{convert|820|ft|m}},<ref>{{cite book| last = Ireland| first = Jeannie| title = History of Interior Design| year = 2009| publisher = Fairchild Books & Visuals| isbn = 978-1-56367-462-4| page = 65 }}</ref> making it the largest ancient structure south of the [[Sahara]]. Houses within the enclosure were circular and constructed of [[wattle and daub]], with conical thatched roofs.
=====Torwa State=====
[[File:Khamiruins2.jpg|thumb|left| Terraced hill, entranceway of [[Khami]], capital of the Torwa State]]
[[Khami]] was the capital of the [[Kingdom of Butua]] during the [[Torwa dynasty]]. It was the successor to Great Zimbabwe and where the techniques of Great Zimbabwe were further refined and developed. Elaborate walls were constructed by connecting carefully cut stones to form terraced hills.<ref>{{cite book| last = Shillington| first = Kevin| title = History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition| year = 2005| publisher = Palgrave MacMillan| isbn = 978-0-333-59957-0| page = 151 }}</ref>
==Modern architecture==
=== African rural architecture ===
[[File:A mud house in a rural area in Nigeria.jpg|thumb|250x250px|A mud house in a rural area in Nigeria]]
Rural African architecture research has generally been viewed in a limited perspective and has widely been considered ''primitive'' in building technology and techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berndt |first=Catherine H. |date=1960 |title=The Concept of Primitive |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43643992 |journal=Sociologus |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=52 [A] |jstor=43643992 |issn=0038-0377 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> Architecture as a practice in rural Africa also extends to the construction of religious dwellings as well.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=183–205 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Typically, materials such as wood, metal, terra-cotta, and stone were used in the construction of armature, walls, floors, and roofing for rural homes and community buildings. Changes in structure and material are based on changes in the climate, what building materials are available, and the techniques and skills of an area. As the construction of these buildings required many individual procedures, the overall execution of constructing homes and communal dwellings within a rural village is a communal process. However, the owner [of the dwelling] has the most control over the construction process and is considered the master builder.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=191 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
=== Sub-Saharan African rural architecture ===
[[File:Togo Taberma house 04.jpg|thumb|Taberma houses in Togo]]
Although there generally a wide range of architectural styles across Africa, sub-saharan Africa encompasses the widest diversity in architectural styles due to the extensive scope of physical [climate] settings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=185 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
==== Coastal rainforest ====
In the coastal rainforest belt of Africa, where temperatures are regularly torrid and humid regardless of daytime or nighttime, rural dwellings require interior cross-ventilation to ensure maximum bodily comfort. To achieve this, the craftsperson would incorporate openings into the dwelling. Open, screen-like walls and elevated floorings would be built to provide natural airflow throughout the building.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=185–186 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
==== Inland savannah ====
In contrast to the coastal rainforest belt, the inland savannah climate, which is composed of an annual, brief rainy season and a long, dry season in which chilling winds blow into the region from the Sahara, require an architectural solution that can both cut the biting cold of dusk and prevent individuals from enduring the overwhelming heat of the midday sun.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1974-10-01 |title=An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=186 |doi=10.2307/988854 |jstor=988854 |issn=0037-9808 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>
=== Modern African Rural Architecture [Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa] ===
====Ethiopia====
[[File:Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG|thumb|245x245px|Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)]]
Structures neighboring the city of Lalibela, Ethiopia like the Monolithic churches have been hewed from stones within the ground.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Asrat |first=Asfawossen |date=2002-09-27 |title=The rock-hewn churches of Tigrai, Northern Ethiopia: A geological perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gea.10035 |journal=Geoarchaeology |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=649–663 |doi=10.1002/gea.10035 |s2cid=129444518 |issn=0883-6353}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Document - Report of the UNESCO/ICOMOS/ICCROM Advisory mission to Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela (Ethiopia), 20-25 May 2018 |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/169702/ |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> Systems of catacombs were built inside for ceremonial purposes as were ditches imitating the River Jordan in Jerusalem and the ditches separate the churches into three groups, five in the north, five in the east and two in west. These churches were carved out in the 12th century during King Lalibela's reign. Another church that can illustrate the architecture style and design in Ethiopia in the modern era is the [[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa]] which contains the tombs of Emperor Haile Salassie, his wife, and those who were executed during the Italian regime's occupation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schiavon |first1=Nick |last2=Caro |first2=Tilde |last3=Kiros |first3=Alemayehu |last4=Caldeira |first4=Ana Teresa |last5=Parisi |first5=Isabella Erica |last6=Riccucci |first6=Cristina |last7=Gigante |first7=Giovanni Ettore |date=2013-05-22 |title=A multianalytical approach to investigate stone biodeterioration at a UNESCO world heritage site: the volcanic rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Northern Ethiopia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00339-013-7757-5 |journal=Applied Physics A |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=843–854 |doi=10.1007/s00339-013-7757-5 |bibcode=2013ApPhA.113..843S |hdl=10174/9557 |s2cid=253853684 |issn=0947-8396|hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is at the epicenter of the capital and in close proximity to the imperial palace. Materials used in this structure includes a huge quantity of copper for the dome and statues positioned in various locations on and around the cathedral. It should also be noted that it imitates the Aksumites (Kingdom of Axum) artistic design.
====Ghana====
In Ghana, [[Larabanga Mosque]] is a prime example in building from packed earth which was and continues to be a method used today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=32–74 |doi=10.2307/3334324|jstor=3334324 }}</ref> Sudanese architecture influences this mosque but it is notably smaller than many mosques that exist in West Africa. As construction of the mosque depends on the natural materials available, there is an environmental strain in Ghana and surrounding countries that use this method of building housing. The mosque is held together by the logs protruding from the building surface. The exterior of the mosque has whitewashed walls which are renewed every year.
====Nigeria====
The Demas Nwoko is a chapel constructed between 1967 and 1975 using locally sourced materials such as concrete stone, brick, stained glass and wood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vlach |first=John Michael |date=1976 |title=Affecting Architecture of the Yoruba |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3335257 |journal=African Arts |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=48–99 |doi=10.2307/3335257 |jstor=3335257 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> The interior walls of the chapel are covered with crosses of all sizes and it appears as if they are stained glass as they are luminescent. Unlike chapels, housing compounds in Nigeria frequently had a communal area like courtyards or shared spaces which were an important social aspect for residents. Emir's Palace also known as The Hausa Architecture in Zaria is traditionally divided into three parts: a private area (women's area), semi private area, and public area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Umar |first1=Gali Kabir |last2=Yusuf |first2=Danjuma Abdu |last3=Ahmed |first3=Abubakar |last4=Usman |first4=Abdullahi M. |date=2019 |title=The practice of Hausa traditional architecture: Towards conservation and restoration of spatial morphology and techniques |journal=Scientific African |volume=5 |pages=e00142 |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00142 |bibcode=2019SciAf...500142U |s2cid=202901961 |issn=2468-2276|doi-access=free }}</ref> The palace is surrounded by the city. Nigerian architecture was shaped by Islamic culture where the women were sheltered and protected by private spaces the compound provided. Like Emir's palace, the Yoruba structure has large family residential areas in them and courtyards were commonly used by everyone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okoye |first=Ikem Stanley |date=2002–2009 |title=Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/61/3/381/59560/Architecture-History-and-the-Debate-on-Identity-in |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=381–396 |doi=10.2307/991791|jstor=991791 }}</ref>
====South Africa====
In 1948 architecture in South Africa was heavily influenced by the Apartheid as segregation was enforced in all aspects of life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peters |first=Walter |date=2004–2007 |title=Apartheid politics and architecture in South Africa |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1350463042000258953 |journal=Social Identities |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=537–547 |doi=10.1080/1350463042000258953 |s2cid=144887604 |issn=1350-4630}}</ref> The Windhoek Airport, today known as Eros, was built in 1957, and the post office in Polokwane, South Africa, was constructed in the capital of Limpopo Province and had similar groundwork to the airport. The floor plan for the airport terminal had European and non-European entrances and exits. The post office is U-shaped and like the airport there are separate entrances and exits. Brazilian modernism affected how architecture changed in the mid-twentieth century in South Africa.
=== Modern Islamic African Architecture ===
In other areas of the world Islamic architecture consists of palaces, tombs, and mosques. In West Africa, the mosque itself embodies Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=36 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> The layout of a mosque is predetermined by Islamic orthodoxy coming from the idea that rejecting certain elements, like a minaret, is seen as offensive to the religion itself. The main focus of material can be seen in mud architecture. From this architectural method came several variations, the most recent being the Bobo Dioulasso and the Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong].<ref name="Prussin 1968 72">{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=72 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref> These types have a focus on expression of a politico-religious structure within a village, different from the earlier mosques focused on imperial organization and which were much bigger in size.<ref name="Prussin 1968 72"/> These two types of mosques are smaller. The difference between the Bobo and Kongo type lies in having to adapt to climate conditions as opposed to cultural tradition. While the basics of mosques remains the same throughout the region, there are variations within Africa mostly dependent on the climate of the area and the accommodations that need to be made for that specific region.
==== [[Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso]] ====
[[File:Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg|thumb|273x273px|[[Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso]]]]
At Bobo-Dioulasso, vertical buttresses minarets are a part of the mosques, flaring out and thickening of the buttresses at the base of these elements are still evident but disappearing due to reduced scale and changes in the climate.<ref name="Prussin 1968 72"/> Projecting timbers and horizontal bracing are added due to the increased humidity of the southern savannah. There are parts of the classic mosque within the modern mosque that still remain. This can be seen in the enclosed prayer hall and interior courtyard.
==== Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong] ====
Heavier buttressing is required in the Mosque of Kong because of more rain in the area. This area also sits closer to a rainforest, making wood a material that can be more easily accessed for reinforcement within the structure. Due to the generally wet climate, this mosque also requires more maintenance due to consistent erosion.
==== Kawara Mosque ====
One last example can be seen within the Kawara mosque. The Kawara lacks verticality or monumentality, but is clear in its three dimensions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prussin |first=Labelle |date=1968 |title=The Architecture of Islam in West Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324 |journal=African Arts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=74 |doi=10.2307/3334324 |jstor=3334324 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref>
===Ethiopia===
====External influences====
[[File:Fasilides Palace 01.jpg|thumb|Fasiledes's castle, [[Fasil Ghebbi]], [[Gondar]], Ethiopia ]]
In the early modern period, Ethiopia's absorption of diverse new influences—such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles—began with the arrival of Portuguese [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese soldiers had initially come in the mid-16th century as allies to aid Ethiopia in [[Ethiopian-Adal War|its fight against Adal]], and the Jesuits came hoping to convert the country.
Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during Ethiopia's war with the Ottoman Empire (see [[Habesh]]), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally hard to defensible because of its numerous [[amba (geology)|amba]]s or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, gained little tactical use from these structures, in contrast to advantages they bestowed when placed on the flat terrain of Europe and other areas; and so Ethiopia had not nurtured the tradition. Castle building, especially around the [[Lake Tana]] region, began with the reign of [[Sarsa Dengel]]; and subsequent emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of the ''[[Fasil Ghebbi]]'' (royal enclosure of castles) in the newly founded capital, [[Gondar]] (1635).
Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] (r. 1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion, declaring it as such from 1624 until his abdication. During this time, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the Jesuits), Jesuit and local masons, some of whom were [[Beta Israel]], and adopted their styles. With the reign of his son [[Fasilides of Ethiopia|Fasilides]], most of these foreigners were expelled, although some of their architectural styles were absorbed into the prevailing Ethiopian architectural style. This style of the Gondarine dynasty would persist throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, especially, and influenced modern 19th-century-and-later styles.
===Europeans and European influences===
====Afrikaner====
{{Main|Cape Dutch architecture}}
[[Image:Burgher House, Stellenbosch.JPG|thumb|Typical Cape Dutch styled house in [[Stellenbosch]]]]
Cape Dutch architecture is traditional [[Afrikaner]] architecture and is one of the most distinctive types of settler architecture in the world.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} It was developed during the century-and-a-half that the Cape was a Dutch colony. Even by the end of that period, the early 19th-century, the colony was inhabited by fewer than fifty thousand people, spread over an area roughly the size of the [[United Kingdom]]. The Cape Dutch–style buildings showed a remarkable consistency and were clearly related to rural architecture in northwestern Europe but equally clearly having its own unmistakable African character and features.<ref>Jona Schellekens, "Dutch Origins of South-African Colonial Architecture," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 56 (1997), pp. 204–206.</ref>
====Colonial fortifications in West Africa====
Early European colonies on the West African coast built large forts, as can be seen at [[Elmina Castle]], [[Cape Coast Castle]], [[Osu Castle|Christiansborg]], [[Fort Jesus]], and elsewhere. These were usually plain, with little ornamentation, but with more adornment at [[Dixcove Fort]]. Other embellishments were gradually accreted, with the style inspiring later buildings such as [[Lamu Fort]] and the stone palace of [[Kumasi]].
====Eclecticism====
European artists in the 18th century would go out to Africa and the Middle East in hopes of finding new inspiration to include in their art. These travels became common and changed political and cultural relations between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jiménez-Vicario|first1=Pedro Miguel|last2=García-Martínez|first2=Pedro|last3=Ródenas-López|first3=Manuel Alejandro|date=2018-07-03|title=The influence of North African and Middle Eastern architectures in the birth and development of modern architecture in Central Europe (1898–1937)|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394|journal=Mediterranean Historical Review|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=179–198|doi=10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394|s2cid=165308576|issn=0951-8967}}</ref> By the late 19th century, most buildings reflected the fashionable European [[eclecticism]] and transplanted Mediterranean, or even Northern European, styles. Examples of colonial towns from this era survive at [[Saint-Louis, Senegal|Saint-Louis]], [[Grand-Bassam]], [[Swakopmund]], [[Cape Town]], [[Luanda]]. A few buildings were [[pre-fabricated]] in Europe and shipped over for erection. This European tradition continued well into the 20th century, with the construction of European-style [[manor house]]s, such as [[Shiwa Ng'andu]] in what is now Zambia, or the [[Boer]] homesteads in South Africa, and with many town buildings.
===Modernism===
The effect of modern architecture began to be felt in the 1920s and 1930s. [[Le Corbusier]] designed several never-built schemes for Algeria, including ones for [[Nemours]] and for the reconstruction of Algiers. Elsewhere, [[Steffen Ahrends]] was active in South Africa, and [[Ernst May]] in Nairobi and [[Mombasa]].
====Eritrea====
Italian [[futurist architecture]] heavily influenced the designs of [[Asmara]]. Planned villages were constructed in Libya and [[Italian East Africa]], including the new town of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], all utilising modern designs.
After 1945, [[Maxwell Fry]] and [[Jane Drew]] extended their work on British schools into Ghana, and also designed the [[University of Ibadan]]. The reconstruction of Algiers offered more opportunities, with [[Cathédrale du Sacré-Cœur d'Alger|Sacred Heart Cathedral of Algiers]], and universities by [[Oscar Niemeyer]], [[Kenzo Tange]], {{ill|Jakob Zweifel|de|Jakob Zweifel}}, and [[Skidmore, Owings and Merrill]]. But modern architecture in this sense largely remained the preserve of European architects until the 1960s, one notable exception being {{ill|Le Groupe Transvaal|af|Transvaal-groep}} in South Africa, which built homes inspired by [[Walter Gropius]] and Le Corbusier.
====Morocco====
[[Elie Azagury]] became the first [[Morocco|Moroccan]] modernist architect in the 1950s.<ref name=":8222">{{Cite book|last1=Dahmani|first1=Iman|title=Modern Casablanca Map|last2=El moumni|first2=Lahbib|last3=Meslil|first3=El mahdi|publisher=[[MAMMA.|MAMMA Group]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2|location=Casablanca|translator-last=Borim|translator-first=Ian}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |script-title=ar:إيلي أزاجوري.. استعادة عميد المعماريين المغاربة |trans-title=Elie Azagoury .. Acknowledging the Dean of Moroccan Architects |url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/culture/2019/12/19/إيلي-أزاجوري-استعادة-عميد-المعماريين-المغاربة |date=19 December 2019 |website=[[The New Arab|Al-Araby]] |language=ar |access-date=5 May 2021}}</ref> The {{Lang|fr|[[Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains]]}}—at first led by [[Michel Écochard]], director of urban planning under the [[French Protectorate in Morocco|French Protectorate]]—was active building [[public housing]] in the [[Hay Mohammadi|Hay Mohammedi]] neighborhood of [[Casablanca]] that provided a "culturally specific living tissue" for laborers and migrants [[Rural flight|from the countryside]].<ref name=":8222"/> [[Sémiramis (Casablanca)|Sémiramis]], {{Lang|fr|[[Nid d'Abeille]]}} (Honeycomb), and [[Carrières Centrales]] were some of the first examples of this [[Vernacular Modernism]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Adaptations of Vernacular Modernism in Casablanca|url=https://www.thepolisblog.org/2012/07/adaptations-of-vernacular-modernism.html|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> [[Carrières Centrales]] was the first project to employ the 8x8 grid associated with GAMMA.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-08-09|title=Casablanca 1952: Architecture For the Anti-Colonial Struggle or the Counter-Revolution|url=https://thefunambulist.net/history/casablanca-1952-architects-and-the-colonial-counter-revolution|access-date=2020-04-17|website=THE FUNAMBULIST MAGAZINE|language=en-US}}</ref>
=====1953 CIAM=====
At the 1953 [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|''Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture'' Moderne]] (CIAM), Écochard presented, along with [[Georges Candilis]], the work of [[ATBAT-Afrique]]—the Africa branch of {{Lang|fr|[[Atelier des Bâtisseurs]]}}, founded in 1947 by figures including [[Le Corbusier]], [[Vladimir Bodiansky]], and [[André Wogenscky]]. It was a study of Casablanca's [[Shanty town|bidonvilles]] entitled "Habitat for the Greatest Number".<ref>{{Cite web|title=TEAM 10|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/candilis/index.html|access-date=2020-04-17|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rouissi|first=Karim|date=2019-11-17|title=Housing for the greatest number: Casablanca's under-appreciated public housing developments|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=439–464|doi=10.1080/13629387.2019.1692411|s2cid=210539858|issn=1362-9387}}</ref> It argued against doctrine, arguing that architects must consider local culture and climate in their designs.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=The Gamma Grid {{!}} Model House|url=http://transculturalmodernism.org/article/12|access-date=2019-10-18|website=transculturalmodernism.org}}</ref><ref name=":8222"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=TEAM 10|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/meetings/1953-Aix.htm|access-date=2020-04-17|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref> This generated great debate among modernist architects around the world and eventually [[Team 10|provoked a schism]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pedret|first=Annie|title=TEAM 10 Introduction|url=http://www.team10online.org/team10/meetings/1953-Aix.htm|access-date=2019-10-18|website=www.team10online.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chnaoui|first=Aziza|title=Third World Modernism: Architecture, Development and Identity|date=2010-11-02|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136895487|editor-last=Lu|editor-first=Duanfang|language=en|chapter=Depoliticizing Group GAMMA: contesting modernism in Morocco}}</ref>
=====Post-independence=====
The French-Moroccan architect [[Jean-François Zevaco]] built experimental modernist works in Morocco.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hofbauer|first=Lucy|date=2010-07-01|title=Transferts de modèles architecturaux au Maroc. L'exemple de Jean-François Zévaco, architecte (1916-2003)|url=http://journals.openedition.org/emam/77|journal=Les Cahiers d'EMAM. Études sur le Monde Arabe et la Méditerranée|language=fr|issue=20|pages=71–86|doi=10.4000/emam.77|issn=1969-248X|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Abdeslam Faraoui]], [[Patrice de Mazières]], and [[Mourad Ben Embarek]] were also notable modernist architects in Morocco.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last1=Dahmani|first1=Iman|title=Modern Casablanca Map|last2=El moumni|first2=Lahbib|last3=Meslil|first3=El mahdi|publisher=MAMMA Group|year=2019|isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2|location=Casablanca|translator-last=Borim|translator-first=Ian}}</ref>
===Post-colonial architecture===
[[File:Downtown Lusaka.JPG|thumb|Downtown [[Lusaka]], capital city of Zambia with [[FINDECO House]] on the right]]
A number of new cities were built following the end of [[colonialism]], while others were greatly expanded. Perhaps the best known example is that of [[Abidjan]], where the majority of buildings were still designed by high-profile non-African architects. In [[Yamoussoukro]], the [[Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro]] is an example of a desire for monumentality in these new cities, but [[Arch 22]] in the old [[The Gambia|Gambia]]n capital of [[Banjul]] displays the same bravado.
Experimental designs have also appeared, most notably the [[Eastgate Centre, Harare|Eastgate Centre]] in Zimbabwe. With an advanced form of natural air-conditioning, this building was designed to respond precisely to Harare's climate and needs, rather than import less suitable designs. Neo-[[vernacular architecture]] continues, for instance with the [[Great Mosque of Niono]] or [[Hassan Fathy]]'s [[New Gourna]].
Other notable structures of recent years have been some of the world's largest dams. The [[Aswan Dam|Aswan High Dam]] and [[Akosombo Dam]] hold back the world's largest [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]]. In recent years, there has also been renewed [[bridge]] building in many nations, while the [[Trans-Gabon Railway]] is perhaps the last of the great railways to be constructed.
===Traditional revival===
[[File:Lamu housing structure.jpg|thumb|Modern housing in [[Lamu]], [[Kenya]]]]
The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced to [[Cairo]] in the early 19th century. This had spread to [[Algiers]] and Morocco by the early 20th century, from which time colonial buildings across the continent began to consist of recreations of traditional African architecture, the [[Jamia Mosque (Kenya)|Jamia Mosque]] in [[Nairobi]] being a typical example. In some cases, architects attempted to mix local and European styles, such as at [[Bagamoyo]].
==See also==
{{Portal|Africa|Architecture}}
* [[ArchiAfrika]]
* [[List of World Heritage Sites in Africa]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Architecture of Africa}}
* [http://www.greatbuildings.com/places/africa.html Architecture of Africa - Great Buildings Online]
* [https://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/ African Vernacular Architecture - Images of vernacular architecture throughout Africa, grouped by country]
{{Africa in topic|Architecture of}}
{{African architecture styles}}
{{Africa topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Architecture Of Africa}}
[[Category:Architecture of Africa| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Africa]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -59,5 +59,5 @@
The C-Group culture was related to that of the city of [[Kerma]],<ref>Bietak, Manfred. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm The C-Group culture and the Pan Grave culture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511234450/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm |date=May 11, 2009 }}. Cairo: Austrian Archaeological Institute</ref> which was settled around 2400 BC. It was a walled city containing religious buildings, large circular dwellings, a palace, and well-laid-out roads. On the east side of the city, a funerary temple and chapel were laid out. It supported a population of 2,000. One of its most enduring structures was the Deffufa, a mudbrick temple, on top of which ceremonies were performed.
-Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.
+Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.Shake that booty
Thirteen temples and two palaces have been excavated in Napata, which has yet to be fully excavated. [[Sudan]] contains 223 [[Nubian pyramids]], more numerous but smaller than the [[Egyptian pyramids]], at three major sites: [[El Kurru]], [[Nuri]], and [[Meroe]]. The elements of Nubian pyramids, built for kings and queens, included steep walls, a chapel facing east, a stairway facing east, and a chamber accessed via the stairway.<ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm The 25th Dynasty] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430085438/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm |date=April 30, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}: Aswan</ref><ref>Kendall, Timothy. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm The Meroitic State: Nubia as a Hellenistic African State. 300 B.C.-350 AD] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426001841/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm |date=April 26, 2009 }}. [http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm Nubia Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm |date=June 15, 2009 }}:Aswan</ref> The Meroe site has the most pyramids and is considered the largest archaeological site in the world. Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and the Napatan kingdom collapsed.<ref>Prof. James Giblin, Department of History, The University of Iowa. [http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html Issues in African History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415144652/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html |date=April 15, 2008 }}</ref>
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0 => 'Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.Shake that booty'
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0 => 'Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated [[Nubia]], which brought about the [[Napata]]n phase of Nubian history: the birth of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. [[Gebel Barkal]], in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.'
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/250px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/375px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/500px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Great Pyramids of Giza</a> are regarded as one of the greatest architectural feats of all time and are one of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Like other aspects of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">culture of Africa</a>, the <b>architecture of Africa</b> is exceptionally diverse. Throughout the <a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">history of Africa</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=African_people" class="mw-redirect" title="African people">Africans</a> have developed their own local <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture" title="Architecture">architectural</a> traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian architecture</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of <a href="/info/en/?search=Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a> scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.
</p><p>African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, <a href="/info/en/?search=Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a>, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Prehistoric_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Prehistoric architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#North_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">North Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Nile_Valley"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nile Valley</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Central_Sahara"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Central Sahara</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-5"><a href="#Kel_Essuf_Period"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kel Essuf Period</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-6"><a href="#Round_Head_Period"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Round Head Period</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-7"><a href="#Pastoral_Period"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Pastoral Period</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Early_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Early architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#North_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">North Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Algeria"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Algeria</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-11"><a href="#Garamantes"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Garamantes</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-13"><a href="#Ancient_Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Egypt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-14"><a href="#Nabta_Playa"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nabta Playa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Sudan"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Sudan</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-16"><a href="#Nubia"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nubia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Tunisia"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Tunisia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-18"><a href="#Carthage"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Carthage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-19"><a href="#Numidia"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Numidia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#West_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">West Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Burkina_Faso"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Burkina Faso</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-22"><a href="#Mouhoun_Bend"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mouhoun Bend</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Mauritania"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mauritania</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-24"><a href="#Tichitt_Culture"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Tichitt Culture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-5 tocsection-25"><a href="#Dhar_Tichitt"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dhar Tichitt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-5 tocsection-26"><a href="#Dhar_Walata/Oualata"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Dhar Walata/Oualata</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-5 tocsection-27"><a href="#Dhar_Néma"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Dhar Néma</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-5 tocsection-28"><a href="#Dhar_Tagant"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Dhar Tagant</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Niger"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Niger</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Nigeria"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Nigeria</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-31"><a href="#Nok_Culture"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nok Culture</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Senegambia"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Senegambia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Eastern_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Ethiopia"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ethiopia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-35"><a href="#Aksumite"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Aksumite</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Kenya"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Kenya</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Central_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Central Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#Chad"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Chad</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-39"><a href="#Sao_Civilization"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sao Civilization</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-40"><a href="#Southern_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Southern Africa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#limpompo_drystonewalling_culture"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">limpompo drystonewalling culture</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Medieval_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#North_Africa_3"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">North Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><a href="#Tunisia_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Tunisia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><a href="#Algeria_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Algeria</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-46"><a href="#Morocco"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Morocco</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-47"><a href="#Egypt_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-48"><a href="#Sudan_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Sudan</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-49"><a href="#Nubia_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nubia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#West_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">West Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><a href="#Ghana"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ghana</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-52"><a href="#Ashanti"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ashanti</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-53"><a href="#Mali"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mali</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-54"><a href="#Nigeria_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Nigeria</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-55"><a href="#Benin"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Benin</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-56"><a href="#Hausa_Kingdoms"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hausa Kingdoms</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-5 tocsection-57"><a href="#Gobarau_Mosque"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gobarau Mosque</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-58"><a href="#Yoruba"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Yoruba</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-59"><a href="#Eastern_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-60"><a href="#Burundi"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Burundi</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-61"><a href="#Ethiopia_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ethiopia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-62"><a href="#Kenya_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Kenya</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-63"><a href="#Rwanda"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Rwanda</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-64"><a href="#Somalia"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Somalia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-65"><a href="#Dhulbahante_garesa"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dhulbahante garesa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-66"><a href="#Tanzania"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Tanzania</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-67"><a href="#Swahili_States"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Swahili States</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-68"><a href="#Uganda"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Uganda</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-69"><a href="#Buganda"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Buganda</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-70"><a href="#Kitara_and_Bunyoro"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Kitara and Bunyoro</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-71"><a href="#Central_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Central Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-72"><a href="#Chad_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Chad</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-73"><a href="#Kanem-Bornu"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kanem-Bornu</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-74"><a href="#Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Democratic Republic of the Congo</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-75"><a href="#Kongo"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kongo</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-76"><a href="#Kuba"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Kuba</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-77"><a href="#Luba"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Luba</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-78"><a href="#Lunda"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Lunda</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-79"><a href="#Mozambique"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mozambique</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-80"><a href="#Maravi"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Maravi</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-81"><a href="#Zambia"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Zambia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-82"><a href="#Eastern_Lunda"><span class="tocnumber">3.4.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern Lunda</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-83"><a href="#Southern_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Southern Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-84"><a href="#Madagascar"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Madagascar</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-85"><a href="#Namibia"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Namibia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-86"><a href="#South_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">South Africa</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-87"><a href="#Sotho-Tswana"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sotho-Tswana</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-88"><a href="#Zulu_and_Nguni"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Zulu and Nguni</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-89"><a href="#Zimbabwe"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Zimbabwe</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-90"><a href="#Mapungubwe"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mapungubwe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-91"><a href="#Great_Zimbabwe"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Great Zimbabwe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-92"><a href="#Torwa_State"><span class="tocnumber">3.5.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Torwa State</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-93"><a href="#Modern_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Modern architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-94"><a href="#African_rural_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">African rural architecture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-95"><a href="#Sub-Saharan_African_rural_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sub-Saharan African rural architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-96"><a href="#Coastal_rainforest"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Coastal rainforest</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-97"><a href="#Inland_savannah"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Inland savannah</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-98"><a href="#Modern_African_Rural_Architecture_[Ethiopia,_Ghana,_Nigeria,_and_South_Africa]"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Modern African Rural Architecture [Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa]</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-99"><a href="#Ethiopia_3"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ethiopia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-100"><a href="#Ghana_2"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ghana</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-101"><a href="#Nigeria_3"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Nigeria</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-102"><a href="#South_Africa_2"><span class="tocnumber">4.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">South Africa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-103"><a href="#Modern_Islamic_African_Architecture"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Modern Islamic African Architecture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-104"><a href="#Grand_Mosque_of_Bobo-Dioulasso"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-105"><a href="#Mosquée_de_Kong_[Mosque_of_Kong]"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong]</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-106"><a href="#Kawara_Mosque"><span class="tocnumber">4.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Kawara Mosque</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-107"><a href="#Ethiopia_4"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ethiopia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-108"><a href="#External_influences"><span class="tocnumber">4.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">External influences</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-109"><a href="#Europeans_and_European_influences"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Europeans and European influences</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-110"><a href="#Afrikaner"><span class="tocnumber">4.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Afrikaner</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-111"><a href="#Colonial_fortifications_in_West_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">4.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial fortifications in West Africa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-112"><a href="#Eclecticism"><span class="tocnumber">4.6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Eclecticism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-113"><a href="#Modernism"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Modernism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-114"><a href="#Eritrea"><span class="tocnumber">4.7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Eritrea</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-115"><a href="#Morocco_2"><span class="tocnumber">4.7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Morocco</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-116"><a href="#1953_CIAM"><span class="tocnumber">4.7.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">1953 CIAM</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-117"><a href="#Post-independence"><span class="tocnumber">4.7.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Post-independence</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-118"><a href="#Post-colonial_architecture"><span class="tocnumber">4.8</span> <span class="toctext">Post-colonial architecture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-119"><a href="#Traditional_revival"><span class="tocnumber">4.9</span> <span class="toctext">Traditional revival</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-120"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-121"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-122"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-123"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistoric_architecture">Prehistoric architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistoric architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="North_Africa">North Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nile_Valley">Nile Valley</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nile Valley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Affad_23" class="mw-redirect" title="Affad 23">Affad 23</a> is an <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a> located in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Affad_Basin" title="Affad Basin">Affad</a> region of southern Dongola Reach in northern <a href="/info/en/?search=Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Osypiński_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osypiński-2">[2]</a></sup> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest <a href="/info/en/?search=Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">open-air</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Hut" title="Hut">hut</a> in the world) and diverse <a href="/info/en/?search=Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">gathering</a> loci some 50,000 years old".<sup id="cite_ref-Osypiński_II_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osypiński_II-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Osypińska_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osypińska-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Osypińska_II_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osypińska_II-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Sahara">Central Sahara</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Central Sahara"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Kel_Essuf_Period">Kel Essuf Period</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kel Essuf Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>Concealed remnants of dismantled <a href="/info/en/?search=Furnishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnishing">furnished</a> flooring are found in 75% of the Central Saharan rockshelters where Kel Essuf rock artforms are found.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferhat_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferhat-6">[6]</a></sup> The furnished flooring in these rockshelters were likely created for the purpose of <a href="/info/en/?search=Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">collecting water</a> and were subsequently dismantled after the earliest <a href="/info/en/?search=Round_Head_rock_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Round Head rock art">Round Head rock art</a> began to be created.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferhat_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferhat-6">[6]</a></sup> Based on these furnished floors purposed for the collection of spring water, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kel_Essuf_rock_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Kel Essuf rock art">Kel Essuf rock art</a>, which are cultural <a href="/info/en/?search=Facies" title="Facies">facies</a>, may date at least as early as 12,000 <a href="/info/en/?search=Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a> amid the <a href="/info/en/?search=Late_Pleistocene" title="Late Pleistocene">late period of the Pleistocene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aïn-Séba_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aïn-Séba-7">[7]</a></sup> Given the occurrences of furnished flooring for collecting water and production of engraved Kel Essuf rock art, these <a href="/info/en/?search=Rockshelters" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockshelters">rockshelters</a> may have been inhabited during periods of decreased availability of local water sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferhat_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferhat-6">[6]</a></sup> Consequently, there may have been increasing regional isolation due to adverse <a href="/info/en/?search=Climate_of_Africa" title="Climate of Africa">climate</a> within the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Aïn-Séba_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aïn-Séba-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Round_Head_Period">Round Head Period</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Round Head Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>At the start of the 10th millennium BP, amid the <a href="/info/en/?search=Epipaleolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipaleolithic">Epipaleolithic</a>, the walls of rock shelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a <a href="/info/en/?search=Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">foundation</a> for proto-village <a href="/info/en/?search=Huts" class="mw-redirect" title="Huts">huts</a> that families resided in, as well as <a href="/info/en/?search=Hearths" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearths">hearths</a>, which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers.<sup id="cite_ref-Soukopova_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soukopova-8">[8]</a></sup> Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Round_Head_Period" title="Round Head Period">Round Head Period</a> built a simple <a href="/info/en/?search=Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">stone wall</a>, dated to 10,508±429 cal BP/9260±290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a <a href="/info/en/?search=Windbreak" title="Windbreak">windbreak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soukopova_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soukopova-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Pastoral_Period">Pastoral Period</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pastoral Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>In the collective memory of <a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoral_period#Early_Pastoral_Period_2" title="Pastoral period">Early Pastoral peoples</a>, rockshelters (e.g., Fozzigiaren, Imenennaden, <a href="/info/en/?search=Takarkori" title="Takarkori">Takarkori</a>) in the Tadrart Acacus region may have served as monumental areas for women and children, as these were where their burial sites were primarily found.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia-9">[9]</a></sup> Engraved rock art has been found on various kinds of stone structures (e.g., stone arrangements, standing stones, corbeilles – ceremonial monuments) in the Messak Plateau.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia-9">[9]</a></sup> Stone monuments are also often found in proximity to these engraved Pastoral rock art.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> A complete cattle pastoral economy (e.g., dairying) developed in the Acacus and Messak regions of southwestern Libya.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> Semi-sedentary settlements were used seasonally by <a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoral_period#Middle_Pastoral_Period_2" title="Pastoral period">Middle Pastoral peoples</a> depending on the weather patterns (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=West_African_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Monsoon">monsoon</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Wadi" title="Wadi">Wadi</a> Bedis <a href="/info/en/?search=Meander" title="Meander">meander</a> had 42 stone monuments (e.g., mostly corbeilles, stone structures and platforms, tumuli). Ceramics (e.g., potsherds) and stone implements were found along with 9 monuments bearing engraved rock art.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> From 5200 BCE to 3800 BCE, burial of animals occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> Nine decorated ceramics (e.g., mostly rocker stamp/plain edge design, sometimes alternately pivoting stamp design) and sixteen stone maces were found.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> Some stone maces, used literally or symbolically to <a href="/info/en/?search=Ritual_slaughter" title="Ritual slaughter">slaughter</a> the cattle (e.g., Bos taurus), were ceremonially set near the head of sacrificed cattle or stone monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10">[10]</a></sup> In 5000 BP, the development of <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">megalithic</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Monuments" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments">monuments</a> (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>) increased in the Central Sahara.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia-9">[9]</a></sup> In the Central Sahara, the tumuli tradition originated in the Middle Pastoral Period and transformed amid the Late Pastoral Period (4500 BP – 2500 BP).<sup id="cite_ref-Muscat_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muscat-11">[11]</a></sup> At Takarkori rockshelter, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, <a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoral_period#Late_Pastoral_Period_2" title="Pastoral period">Late Pastoral peoples</a> herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were buried in stone-covered <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumuli">tumuli</a> that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_III_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_III-12">[12]</a></sup> At Takarkori rockshelter, <a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoral_period#Final_Pastoral_Period_2" title="Pastoral period">Final Pastoral peoples</a> created burial sites for several hundred individuals that contained non-local, luxury goods and drum-type architecture in 3000 BP, which made way for the development of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Garamantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Garamantian">Garamantian</a> civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Lernia_III_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Lernia_III-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralism</a>, possibly along with social stratification, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Pastoral_rock_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral rock art">Pastoral rock art</a>, emerged in the Central Sahara between 5200 BCE and 4800 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> Funerary monuments and sites, within possible territories that had chiefdoms, developed in the Saharan region of Niger between 4700 BCE and 4200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> Cattle funerary sites developed in <a href="/info/en/?search=Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a> (6450 BP/5400 cal BCE), <a href="/info/en/?search=Adrar_Bous" title="Adrar Bous">Adrar Bous</a> (6350 BP), in Chin Tafidet, and in Tuduf (2400 cal BCE – 2000 cal BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> Thus, by this time, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cattle_in_religion_and_mythology" title="Cattle in religion and mythology">cattle religion</a> (e.g., myths, rituals) and cultural distinctions between genders (e.g., men associated with bulls, violence, hunting, and dogs as well as burials at monumental funerary sites; women associated with cows, birth, nursing, and possibly the afterlife) had developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of <a href="/info/en/?search=Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> These megalithic monuments in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a> region of <a href="/info/en/?search=Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mastabas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastabas">mastabas</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> During <a href="/info/en/?search=Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Egypt</a>, tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Helwan" title="Helwan">Helwan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-13">[13]</a></sup> Between 7500 BP and 7400 BP, amid the Late Pastoral Neolithic, religious ceremony and ceremonial burials, with megaliths, may have served as a cultural precedent for the latter religious reverence of the goddess <a href="/info/en/?search=Hathor" title="Hathor">Hathor</a> during the dynastic period of ancient Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_V_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_V-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_architecture">Early architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Probably the most famous class of structure in all Africa, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramids</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> remain one of the world's greatest early architectural achievements, regardless of practicality and origins in a funerary context. Egyptian architectural traditions also favored the building of vast temple complexes.
</p><p>Little is known of ancient architecture south and west of the Sahara. Harder to date than the pyramids are the monoliths around the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cross_River_(Nigeria)" title="Cross River (Nigeria)">Cross River</a>, which have geometric or human designs. The vast number of <a href="/info/en/?search=Senegambian_stone_circles" title="Senegambian stone circles">Senegambian stone circles</a> is also evidence of an emerging architecture.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="North_Africa_2">North Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Likely part of <a href="/info/en/?search=Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Traditional_Berber_religion#Megalithic_culture" title="Traditional Berber religion">cultural traditions of megalith-building</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalith" title="Megalith">megaliths</a> (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Dolmens" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolmens">dolmens</a>) were constructed in <a href="/info/en/?search=Mediterranean_Basin" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a> North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Algeria">Algeria</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Algeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Garamantes">Garamantes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Garamantes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>Some of the earliest evidence of original <a href="/info/en/?search=Berbers" title="Berbers">Amazigh</a> (Berber) culture in North Africa has been found in the highlands of the Sahara and dates from the second millennium BC, when the region was much less arid than it is today and when the Amazigh population was most likely in the process of spreading across North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 15–22">: 15–22 </span></sup> One of the earliest groups for which there are historical records are the <a href="/info/en/?search=Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a>, who were later mentioned by <a href="/info/en/?search=Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>. Numerous archaeological sites associated with them have been found in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Fezzan" title="Fezzan">Fezzan</a> (in present-day <a href="/info/en/?search=Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>), attesting to the existence of small villages, towns, and tombs. At least one settlement dates from as early as 1000 BC. The structures were initially built in <a href="/info/en/?search=Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">dry stone</a>, but around the middle of the millennium (c. 500 BC) they began to be built with <a href="/info/en/?search=Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 23">: 23 </span></sup> By the second century AD there is evidence of large <a href="/info/en/?search=Villa" title="Villa">villas</a> and more sophisticated tombs associated with the aristocracy of this society, in particular at <a href="/info/en/?search=Germa" title="Germa">Germa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt">Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian architecture</a></div>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>'s achievements in architecture included <a href="/info/en/?search=Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Egyptian_temple" title="Egyptian temple">temples</a>, enclosed cities, canals, and dams. The architecture of this age was not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. The most famous examples of ancient Egyptian architecture include the <a href="/info/en/?search=Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Great Pyramids</a> and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Sphinx</a> at Giza, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Karnak" title="Karnak">Temple of Karnak</a>, and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Temple of Abu Simbel</a>. Most buildings were built of locally available <a href="/info/en/?search=Mud_brick" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud brick">mud brick</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> by <a href="/info/en/?search=Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">levied workers</a>. Columns were typically adorned with <a href="/info/en/?search=Capital_(architecture)#Pre-classical_capitals" title="Capital (architecture)">capitals</a> decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">papyrus plant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Nabta_Playa">Nabta Playa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nabta Playa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a>, located in <a href="/info/en/?search=Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and broader region of the Eastern <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, there is a <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">megalithic</a> cultural complex (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrificed cow</a> burial site, <a href="/info/en/?search=Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">solar calendar</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Altar" title="Altar">altar</a>) that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Sudan">Sudan</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sudan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Nubia">Nubia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nubia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Kerma_city.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Kerma_city.JPG/220px-Kerma_city.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Kerma_city.JPG/330px-Kerma_city.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Kerma_city.JPG/440px-Kerma_city.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>The city of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a></figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a> is one of the most ancient in the world. The earliest style of Nubian architecture includes the <a href="/info/en/?search=Speos" class="mw-redirect" title="Speos">speos</a>, structures carved out of solid rock under the <a href="/info/en/?search=A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a> (3700-3250 BCE). Egyptians borrowed and made extensive use of the process at <a href="/info/en/?search=Speos_Artemidos" title="Speos Artemidos">Speos Artemidos</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Abu Simbel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> A-Group culture led eventually to the <a href="/info/en/?search=C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group culture</a>, which began building using light, supple materials—animal skins and <a href="/info/en/?search=Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">wattle and daub</a>—with larger structures of <a href="/info/en/?search=Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a> later becoming the norm.
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Nubia_pyramids1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Nubia_pyramids1.JPG/220px-Nubia_pyramids1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Nubia_pyramids1.JPG/330px-Nubia_pyramids1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Nubia_pyramids1.JPG/440px-Nubia_pyramids1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Nubian pyramids at Meroe</figcaption></figure>
<p>The C-Group culture was related to that of the city of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> which was settled around 2400 BC. It was a walled city containing religious buildings, large circular dwellings, a palace, and well-laid-out roads. On the east side of the city, a funerary temple and chapel were laid out. It supported a population of 2,000. One of its most enduring structures was the Deffufa, a mudbrick temple, on top of which ceremonies were performed.
</p><p>Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated <a href="/info/en/?search=Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, which brought about the <a href="/info/en/?search=Napata" title="Napata">Napatan</a> phase of Nubian history: the birth of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt. During this phase, we see the building of numerous pyramids and temples. <a href="/info/en/?search=Gebel_Barkal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gebel Barkal">Gebel Barkal</a>, in the town of Napata, was a significant site, where Kushite pharaohs received legitimacy.Shake that booty
</p><p>Thirteen temples and two palaces have been excavated in Napata, which has yet to be fully excavated. <a href="/info/en/?search=Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> contains 223 <a href="/info/en/?search=Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a>, more numerous but smaller than the <a href="/info/en/?search=Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, at three major sites: <a href="/info/en/?search=El_Kurru" class="mw-redirect" title="El Kurru">El Kurru</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Nuri" title="Nuri">Nuri</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Meroe" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroe">Meroe</a>. The elements of Nubian pyramids, built for kings and queens, included steep walls, a chapel facing east, a stairway facing east, and a chamber accessed via the stairway.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> The Meroe site has the most pyramids and is considered the largest archaeological site in the world. Around AD 350, the area was invaded by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> and the Napatan kingdom collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tunisia">Tunisia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tunisia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Carthage">Carthage</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Carthage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a></div>
<p>Large regions of North Africa, particularly near the coasts, came under the control of Carthage at the height of its power in the third century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> The remains of Carthage are found near Tunis today and contain the remains of multiple periods ranging from the Punic period (Phoenician Carthage) to the later Arab occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23">[23]</a></sup> Vestiges of the Carthaginian Empire include the "Punic Ports" (the city's harbors) and a sanctuary and necropolis dedicated to <a href="/info/en/?search=Baal_Hammon" title="Baal Hammon">Baal Hammon</a>, known today as the Sanctuary of Tophet.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>After defeating Carthage, Rome progressively took over the entire coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic coast of modern-day Morocco. Major Roman sites in present-day <a href="/info/en/?search=Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (the former Roman province known as <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a></i>) include <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Amphitheatre_of_El_Jem" title="Amphitheatre of El Jem">amphitheater of El Jem</a>, and the sites of Dougga (Thugga) and <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeological_site_of_Sbeitla" title="Archaeological site of Sbeitla">Sbeitla (Sufetula)</a>. Well-preserved sites in Libya include <a href="/info/en/?search=Sabratha" title="Sabratha">Sabratha</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a>. In Algeria, major sites include <a href="/info/en/?search=Timgad" title="Timgad">Timgad</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Dj%C3%A9mila" title="Djémila">Djémila</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Tipasa" title="Tipasa">Tipasa</a>. In Morocco, cities such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Septa (Ceuta)</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Chellah" title="Chellah">Sala Colonia (Chellah)</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a> were founded or developed by Romans and retain remnants of their architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Numidia">Numidia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Numidia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg/220px-TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg/330px-TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg/440px-TUNISIA_DOUGGA_MAUSOLEE_LIBYCO_PUNIQUE_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Libyco-Punic_Mausoleum_of_Dougga" title="Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga">Numidian mausoleum of Dougga</a> (2nd century BC, present-day Tunisia)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Further west, the kingdom of <a href="/info/en/?search=Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a> was contemporary with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> civilization of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a> and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Among other things, the Numidians have left thousands of pre-Christian tombs. The oldest of these is <a href="/info/en/?search=Madghacen" title="Madghacen">Medracen</a> in present-day <a href="/info/en/?search=Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, believed to date from the time of <a href="/info/en/?search=Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a> (202–148 BC). Possibly influenced by Greek architecture further east, or built with the help of Greek craftsmen, the tomb consists of a large <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumulus</a> constructed in well-cut <a href="/info/en/?search=Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a> masonry and featuring sixty <a href="/info/en/?search=Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a> columns and an Egyptian-style <a href="/info/en/?search=Cornice" title="Cornice">cornice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 27–29">: 27–29 </span></sup> Another famous example is the <a href="/info/en/?search=Royal_Mausoleum_of_Mauretania" title="Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania">Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania</a> in western <a href="/info/en/?search=Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>. This structure consists of columns, a dome, and spiral pathways that lead to a single chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> A number of "tower tombs" from the Numidian period can also be found in sites from Algeria to Libya. Despite their wide geographic range, they often share a similar style: a three-story structure topped by a convex pyramid. They may have initially been inspired by Greek monuments but they constitute an original type of structure associated with Numidian culture. Examples of these are found at <a href="/info/en/?search=Siga" title="Siga">Siga</a>, Soumaa d'el Khroub, <a href="/info/en/?search=Dougga" title="Dougga">Dougga</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Sabratha" title="Sabratha">Sabratha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 29–31">: 29–31 </span></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="West_Africa">West Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: West Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Burkina_Faso">Burkina Faso</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Burkina Faso"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Mouhoun_Bend">Mouhoun Bend</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mouhoun Bend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Kirikongo#Archaeology_of_the_Mouhoun_Bend" title="Kirikongo">Mouhoun Bend</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>, people dwelled in a community of residences that housed multiple families in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BCE, which may have also been part of a pre-existing marketplace system of <a href="/info/en/?search=Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>) and <a href="/info/en/?search=Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">technology transfer</a> between agricultural communities (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Jenne-Jeno" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenne-Jeno">Jenne-Jeno</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Kintampo_Complex" title="Kintampo Complex">Kintampo</a>, Rim) throughout <a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> that persisted from the 2nd millennium BCE to the early 1st millennium CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Dueppen_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dueppen-30">[30]</a></sup> In addition to <a href="/info/en/?search=Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> undomesticated crops and maintaining domesticated animals, the people of Mouhoun Bend engaged in <a href="/info/en/?search=Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a> as well as <a href="/info/en/?search=Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">iron</a>, salt, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Pottery#Africa" title="Pottery">pottery</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-Dueppen_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dueppen-30">[30]</a></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary_cult" title="Funerary cult">funerary culture</a> of the Mouhoun Bend people included ceremonial placement of food and material goods in pits and concave surfaces as well as the development of <a href="/info/en/?search=Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">earth structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dueppen_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dueppen-30">[30]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mauritania">Mauritania</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mauritania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Tichitt_Culture">Tichitt Culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tichitt Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>Tichitt Walata is the oldest surviving collection of settlements in <a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> and the oldest of all stone-base settlement south of the Sahara. It was built by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Soninke_people" title="Soninke people">Soninke people</a> and is thought to be the precursor of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Ghana_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghana empire">Ghana empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> It was settled by agropastoral people around 2000–300 BCE, which makes it almost 1000 years older than previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> One finds well-laid-out streets and fortified compounds, all made out of skilled stone masonry. In all, there were 500 settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-McDougall_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDougall-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holl_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl-36">[36]</a></sup> to 200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kay_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay-38">[38]</a></sup> By 2000 BCE, as aridification followed the <a href="/info/en/?search=Holocene_Climate_Optimum" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene Climate Optimum">Holocene Climate Optimum</a>, the pastoralists had become agropastoralists and had established the Tichitt tradition in the Mauritanian settlement areas of Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, and Dhar Néma, based on a hierarchical economy composed of pastoralism, agriculture (e.g., millet), and <a href="/info/en/?search=Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">stonemasonry</a> (e.g., architecture).<sup id="cite_ref-Monroe_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monroe-39">[39]</a></sup> In the Sahelian region of West Africa, the corded roulette ceramics of the Tichitt Tradition developed and persisted among<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-40">[40]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">dry</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">stonewalled</a> architecture<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Linares-Matás_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linares-Matás-41">[41]</a></sup> in Mauritania (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Walata, Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant) between 1900 BCE and 400 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-40">[40]</a></sup> Within these settled areas (e.g., Dhar Tichitt, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Walata) with stone walls, which vary in scale from (e.g., 2 <a href="/info/en/?search=Hectares" class="mw-redirect" title="Hectares">hectares</a>, 80 hectares), there were walled agricultural land utilized for livestock or gardening as well as land with <a href="/info/en/?search=Granaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Granaries">granaries</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumuli">tumuli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kay_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_II_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-42">[42]</a></sup> The eastern and central areas of Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, which were primarily peopled between 2200/2000 BCE and 1200/1000 BCE and contained some areas (e.g., Akreijit, Chebka, Khimiya) with boundary walls, served as the primary areas of settlement (e.g., small <a href="/info/en/?search=Villages" class="mw-redirect" title="Villages">villages</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Hamlets" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamlets">hamlets</a>, seasonal <a href="/info/en/?search=Camping" title="Camping">camps</a>) for the Dhars of Mauritania.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl-36">[36]</a></sup> The fundamental unit of the Mauritanian Dhars (e.g., Dhar Néma, Dhar Walata, Dhar Tichitt) was the <a href="/info/en/?search=Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a><sup id="cite_ref-Holl_III_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_III-43">[43]</a></sup> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Polygamous_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygamous family">polygamous family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Monroe_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monroe-39">[39]</a></sup> Based on the presence of an abundant amount of enclosed areas that may have been used to pen cattle and hundreds of tumuli, intergenerational ownership of <a href="/info/en/?search=Property" title="Property">property</a>, via cattle wealth, may have been part of the Tichitt culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Monroe_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monroe-39">[39]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Town_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Town planning">Planned</a>, level <a href="/info/en/?search=Street" title="Street">streets</a> spanned several hundred kilometers among the 400 <a href="/info/en/?search=Drystone" class="mw-redirect" title="Drystone">drystone</a>-constructed villages, hamlets, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Towns">towns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kea_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kea-44">[44]</a></sup> Primary entry points of residences with access ramps (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Compound_(fortification)" title="Compound (fortification)">fortified</a>, non-fortified) and <a href="/info/en/?search=Watchtowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Watchtowers">watchtowers</a> were also present.<sup id="cite_ref-Kea_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kea-44">[44]</a></sup> Households used various tools (e.g., arrowheads, axes, borers, grindstones, grooved stones, needles, pendants).<sup id="cite_ref-Kea_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kea-44">[44]</a></sup> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, stone pillars, stone slabs, and stone blocks, which approximate to several hundred in total, are frequently arranged and aligned in three rows of three; these erected stones may have served as stilts for granaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupuy_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupuy-45">[45]</a></sup> There were also gardens and fields located within a walled enclosure ranging between nine and fourteen hectares.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupuy_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupuy-45">[45]</a></sup> At Dhar Nema, there are also stilted granaries, <a href="/info/en/?search=Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, and tools used for <a href="/info/en/?search=Milling_(grinding)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling (grinding)">milling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupuy_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupuy-45">[45]</a></sup> At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, <a href="/info/en/?search=Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> was also utilized.<sup id="cite_ref-Kea_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kea-44">[44]</a></sup>
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<h6><span class="mw-headline" id="Dhar_Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dhar Tichitt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h6>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a>, Dakhlet el Atrouss I, which is the largest <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a> of the Tichitt Tradition and is 80 hectares in scale, serves as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of Tichitt culture; it features nearly 600 settlement compounds, agropastoralism, a large enclosure for cattle, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary_monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Funerary monument">monumental</a> architecture as an aspect of its <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary_cult" title="Funerary cult">funerary culture</a>, such as hundreds of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumulus#West_Africa" title="Tumulus">tumuli</a> nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-Linares-Matás_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linares-Matás-41">[41]</a></sup> Along with Akrejit, it also features foundations for granaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Linares-Matás_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linares-Matás-41">[41]</a></sup>
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<h6><span id="Dhar_Walata.2FOualata"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Dhar_Walata/Oualata">Dhar Walata/Oualata</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Dhar Walata/Oualata"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h6>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Dhar_Walata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhar Walata">Dhar Walata</a>, in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyard</a> of nearby houses, enclosed, erected turriform <a href="/info/en/?search=Gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Gardens">gardens</a> have been found, the earliest of which dates between 1894 cal BCE and 1435 cal BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46">[46]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">Hoes</a> and fish hooks made of bone were also found.<sup id="cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46">[46]</a></sup> Stone slabs may have been used as a <a href="/info/en/?search=Ballast" title="Ballast">ballast</a> in order to avert the entry of animals into the village.<sup id="cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46">[46]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">Reservoirs</a> and dams may have been used to <a href="/info/en/?search=Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">manage water</a> from nearby rivers (<a href="/info/en/?search=Wadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadis">wadis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46">[46]</a></sup> Millet, flour, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Semolina" title="Semolina">semolina</a> may have been prepared to cook <a href="/info/en/?search=Porridge" title="Porridge">porridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46">[46]</a></sup>
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<h6><span id="Dhar_N.C3.A9ma"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Dhar_Néma">Dhar Néma</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Dhar Néma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h6>
<p>In the late period of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Tichitt_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Tichitt Tradition">Tichitt Tradition</a> at <a href="/info/en/?search=Dhar_N%C3%A9ma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhar Néma">Dhar Néma</a>, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of a oval-shaped low shaft furnace; this furnace was one out of 16 iron furnaces located on elevated ground.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-37">[37]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Iron metallurgy</a> may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-37">[37]</a></sup>
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<h6><span class="mw-headline" id="Dhar_Tagant">Dhar Tagant</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Dhar Tagant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h6>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Dhar_Tagant" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhar Tagant">Dhar Tagant</a>, there are approximately 276 tumuli that have been surveyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lim_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lim-47">[47]</a></sup> At Dhar Tagant, there are also various geometric (e.g., rectilinear, circular) constructions, and a possible late period, involving a funerary tomb with a chapel at Foum el Hadjar from 1st millennium CE and wadis with evidence of <a href="/info/en/?search=Crocodiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodiles">crocodiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sterry_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sterry-48">[48]</a></sup> As part of a broader trend of iron metallurgy developed in the West African Sahel amid 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and the iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_II_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald_II-42">[42]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Niger">Niger</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Niger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In <a href="/info/en/?search=Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, there are two <a href="/info/en/?search=Monument" title="Monument">monumental</a> tumuli – a <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairn" title="Cairn">cairn</a> burial (5695 BP – 5101 BP) at <a href="/info/en/?search=Adrar_Bous" title="Adrar Bous">Adrar Bous</a>, and a tumulus covered with gravel (6229 BP – 4933 BP) at Iwelen, in the <a href="/info/en/?search=A%C3%AFr_Mountains" title="Aïr Mountains">Aïr Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcea_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcea-49">[49]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Tenerian_culture" title="Tenerian culture">Tenerians</a> did not construct the two monumental tumuli at Adrar Bous and Iwelen.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcea_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcea-49">[49]</a></sup> Rather, Tenerians constructed cattle tumuli at a time before the two monumental tumuli were constructed.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcea_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcea-49">[49]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nigeria">Nigeria</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Nigeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Nok_Culture">Nok Culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Nok Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a> artifacts—located on the <a href="/info/en/?search=Jos_Plateau" title="Jos Plateau">Jos Plateau</a> in Nigeria, between the <a href="/info/en/?search=Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Benue_River" title="Benue River">Benue River</a>—have been dated as far back as 790 BCE. The excavation of the Nok settlement in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Samun_Dikiya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samun Dikiya (page does not exist)">Samun Dikiya</a> shows a tendency to build on hill tops and mountain peaks. However, Nok settlements have not been extensively excavated.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the central region of <a href="/info/en/?search=Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, Nok <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeological_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological sites">archaeological sites</a> are determined to be settlement sites, on the basis of archaeological evidence discovered at the surface level of the sites, and determined to be of the Nok culture, on the basis of the type of archaeological evidence discovered, specifically, Nok terracotta remnants and Nok pottery.<sup id="cite_ref-Rupp_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rupp-51">[51]</a></sup> Mountaintops are where the majority of Nok settlement sites are found.<sup id="cite_ref-Rupp_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rupp-51">[51]</a></sup> At the settlement site of Kochio, the edge of a cellar of a settlement wall was chiseled from a granite foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-Rupp_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rupp-51">[51]</a></sup> Additionally, a <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">megalithic</a> stone <a href="/info/en/?search=Fence" title="Fence">fence</a> was constructed around the <a href="/info/en/?search=Compound_(enclosure)" title="Compound (enclosure)">enclosed settlement</a> site of Kochio.<sup id="cite_ref-Rupp_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rupp-51">[51]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Senegambia">Senegambia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Senegambia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, <a href="/info/en/?search=Senegambian_stone_circles" title="Senegambian stone circles">Senegambian megaliths</a> (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumuli">tumuli</a>) were constructed for the purpose of <a href="/info/en/?search=Veneration_of_the_dead#Serer_of_Senegal_and_Gambia" title="Veneration of the dead">ancestral reverence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Senegambian_stone_circles#Wanar" title="Senegambian stone circles">Wanar</a>, Senegal, <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">megalithic</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Monolith" title="Monolith">monolith</a>-circles and tumuli (1300/1100 BCE – 1400/1500 CE) were constructed by West Africans who had a complex hierarchical society.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_IV_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_IV-52">[52]</a></sup> In the mid-region of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal River</a> Valley, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Serer_people" title="Serer people">Serer people</a> may have created tumuli (before 13th century CE), <a href="/info/en/?search=Shell_middens" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell middens">shell middens</a> (7th century CE – 13th century CE) in the central-west region, and shell middens (200 BCE – Present) in the southern region.<sup id="cite_ref-Sall_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sall-53">[53]</a></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary" class="mw-redirect" title="Funerary">funerary</a> tumuli-building tradition of <a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> was widespread and a regular practice amid 1st millennium CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Coutros_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coutros-54">[54]</a></sup> More than ten thousand large funerary tumuli exist in Senegal.<sup id="cite_ref-Coutros_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coutros-54">[54]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern_Africa">Eastern Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Eastern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a>, the earliest construction of <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalith" title="Megalith">megaliths</a> occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup> From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, <a href="/info/en/?search=Tumuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumuli">tumuli</a> with burial chambers organized in cemeteries), the subsequent traditions in other areas of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> likely developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup> In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of <a href="/info/en/?search=Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a> developed a megalithic <a href="/info/en/?search=Stele#Horn_of_Africa" title="Stele">stelae</a>-building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the <a href="/info/en/?search=Christianity_in_Africa#Early_Church" title="Christianity in Africa">Christian</a> period of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Aksum#Axumite_Empire" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Axum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup> In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup> Sidamo Province has the most megaliths in Ethiopia.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Aksumite">Aksumite</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Aksumite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Ethiopia" title="Architecture of Ethiopia">Architecture of Ethiopia</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg/220px-Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg/330px-Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg/440px-Yeha_Tigray_Ethiopia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>The ruin of the temple at <a href="/info/en/?search=Yeha" title="Yeha">Yeha</a>, Ethiopia</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksumite</a> architecture flourished in the Ethiopian region, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of <a href="/info/en/?search=Lalibela,_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lalibela, Ethiopia">Lalibela</a>, where stelae (<i>hawilt</i>s) and, later, entire <a href="/info/en/?search=Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a> were carved out of single blocks of rock. Other monumental structures include massive underground tombs often located beneath stelae. Other well-known structures employing monolithic construction include the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Tomb_of_the_False_Door&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomb of the False Door (page does not exist)">Tomb of the False Door</a>, and the tombs of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kaleb_of_Axum" title="Kaleb of Axum">Kaleb</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Gebre_Mesqel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gebre Mesqel (page does not exist)">Gebre Mesqel</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a>.
</p><p>Most structures, however—such as palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and monasteries—were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. Some examples of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th-century monastery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Yemrehanna_Krestos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yemrehanna Krestos (page does not exist)">Yemrehanna Krestos</a>, which was built in Aksumite style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures, two-storey square houses, or <a href="/info/en/?search=Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">roundhouses</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> with <a href="/info/en/?search=Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Foundation_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation (architecture)">foundations</a>. Villas were generally two-to-four storeys tall and had sprawling rectangular plans (cf. <a href="/info/en/?search=Dungur" title="Dungur">Dungur</a> ruins). A good example of still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of <a href="/info/en/?search=Debre_Damo" class="mw-redirect" title="Debre Damo">Debre Damo</a> from the 6th century.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kenya">Kenya</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Kenya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In 2nd millennium BCE, <a href="/info/en/?search=Namoratunga" class="mw-redirect" title="Namoratunga">Namoratunga</a> (Monolith Circles) <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalith" title="Megalith">megaliths</a> were constructed as burials the eastern <a href="/info/en/?search=Lake_Turkana" title="Lake Turkana">Turkana</a> region of northwestern <a href="/info/en/?search=Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Africa">Central Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Central Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid-2nd millennium CE, <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalith" title="Megalith">megaliths</a> (e.g., monuments, cairn burials) were constructed in the regions (e.g., Eastern <a href="/info/en/?search=Adamawa_Region" title="Adamawa Region">Adamawa</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Oubanguian" class="mw-redirect" title="Oubanguian">Oubanguian</a> Ridge, <a href="/info/en/?search=Chad_Basin#Drainage_basin_extent" title="Chad Basin">Chad/Congo watershed</a>) in <a href="/info/en/?search=Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, throughout various periods (e.g., Balimbé: 2000 BCE – 1000 BCE; Early Gbabiri: 950 BCE – 200 BCE; Late Gbabiri: 200 BCE – 500 CE; Bouboun: 500 CE – 1600 CE), for various purposes (e.g., ritual practices, territorial marking).<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Chad">Chad</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Chad"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Sao_Civilization">Sao Civilization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sao Civilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Sao_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sao civilization">Sao civilization</a> sites of walled-cities are in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a> region, along the <a href="/info/en/?search=Chari_River" title="Chari River">Chari River</a>; the oldest site—at <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeology_of_Zilum" title="Archaeology of Zilum">Zilum</a>, Chad—dates to at least the first millennium.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Southern_Africa">Southern Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Southern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="limpompo_drystonewalling_culture">limpompo drystonewalling culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: limpompo drystonewalling culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Limpompo_drystonewalling_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpompo drystonewalling culture (page does not exist)">Limpompo drystonewalling culture</a> drystonewalling in the region of the limpompo existed from 200BC when the ancestors of what is the venda language speaking peoples started constructing drystonewalling to show the power of the king .
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_architecture">Medieval architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Medieval architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="North_Africa_3">North Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan,_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/220px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/330px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg/440px-Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan%2C_vue_d%27ensemble.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4620" data-file-height="3551" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Mosque_of_Uqba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Uqba">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, Tunisia (7th to 9th centuries)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Islamic conquest of North Africa saw the development of <a href="/info/en/?search=Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a> in the region. Some of the early major monuments include the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mosque_of_Uqba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Uqba">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a>, founded in 670 and mostly rebuilt in its current form during the 9th century,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mosque_of_Ibn_Tulun" title="Mosque of Ibn Tulun">Ibn Tulun Mosque</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, built in the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> In the western part of North Africa, known as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">"Moorish" style</a> of architecture developed over time, with strong cultural connections to <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the Islamic society of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup> Around 1000 AD, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cob_(material)" title="Cob (material)">cob</a> (<i>tabya</i>) first appears in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and al-Andalus.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> To the east, Egypt continued to be more closely connected with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the rest of the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-60">[60]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tunisia_2">Tunisia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Tunisia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Tunisia" title="Architecture of Tunisia">Architecture of Tunisia</a></div>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (roughly present-day Tunisia) was an important province of Islamic North Africa, with Kairouan serving as a major cultural and political center for much of its history. Under the <a href="/info/en/?search=Aghlabids" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a> (9th century), the Great Mosque of Kairouan was rebuilt and <a href="/info/en/?search=Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid architectural</a> innovations, such as the minaret, were introduced for the first time in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:04_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-61">[61]</a></sup> Under the <a href="/info/en/?search=Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> (10th century), Ifriqiya was temporarily the center of a new caliphate in rivalry with the Abbasid Caliphate to the east. The Fatimids initially eschewed some of the trends of Abbasid architecture (e.g. minarets), while following some of the established forms (e.g. the hypostyle format of mosques) and introducing new elements (e.g. monumental entrance portals for mosques).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:04_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-61">[61]</a></sup> They also founded new capital cities including <a href="/info/en/?search=Mahdia" title="Mahdia">Mahdia</a> on the coast and <a href="/info/en/?search=Mansouria,_Tunisia" title="Mansouria, Tunisia">al-Mansuriya</a> near Kairouan. After the Fatimids departed to Cairo, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Zirid_dynasty" title="Zirid dynasty">Zirids</a> were left in charge in the late 10th century until they were succeeded by the Almohads in the 12th century. The latter introduced some of their own architectural trends, as seen in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kasbah_Mosque_(Tunis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)">Kasbah Mosque</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> which bears strong resemblance to Almohad mosque architecture in Marrakesh.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup> The Almohads in Ifriqiya were soon succeeded by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsids</a>, under whose long dominion the center of power and patronage shifted to Tunis and the region's architecture increasingly deviated from that of the western Maghreb and al-Andalus. Madrasas were first built during the Hafsid period and quickly proliferated. After the advent of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Ottoman rule</a> in the 16th century some elements and traditions of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman architecture</a>, such as the use of pointed minarets and the creation of multi-functional religious complexes, began to penetrate local architecture, especially among the monuments built by or associated with the new Ottoman elites.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup>
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<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Mosque of Sousse (9th century)"><img alt="Great Mosque of Sousse (9th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg/120px-Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg/180px-Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg/240px-Great_Mosque_of_Sousse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1558" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Sousse" title="Great Mosque of Sousse">Great Mosque of Sousse</a> (9th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Entrance of the Fatimid Great Mosque of Mahdia (10th century)"><img alt="Entrance of the Fatimid Great Mosque of Mahdia (10th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG/95px-Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG/142px-Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG/189px-Porte_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_El_Mehdi_Mahdia.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2194" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Entrance of the Fatimid <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Mahdiya" title="Great Mosque of Mahdiya">Great Mosque of Mahdia</a> (10th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kasbah Mosque of Tunis (13th century)"><img alt="Kasbah Mosque of Tunis (13th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg/95px-Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg/142px-Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg/189px-Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_la_Kasba_1_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4382" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Kasbah_Mosque_(Tunis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasbah Mosque (Tunis)">Kasbah Mosque</a> of Tunis (13th century)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosque and mausoleum of Youssef Dey in Tunis (17th century)"><img alt="Mosque and mausoleum of Youssef Dey in Tunis (17th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg/120px-Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg/180px-Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg/240px-Minaret_et_mausol%C3%A9e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2322" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Youssef_Dey_Mosque" title="Youssef Dey Mosque">Mosque and mausoleum of Youssef Dey</a> in Tunis (17th century)</div>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Algeria_2">Algeria</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Algeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Algeria" title="Architecture of Algeria">Architecture of Algeria</a></div>
<p>The territory of present-day Algeria was ruled by various dynasties in the early Islamic period, including the <a href="/info/en/?search=Rustamid_dynasty" title="Rustamid dynasty">Rustamids</a>, the Idrisids (and their <a href="/info/en/?search=Sulaymanid_dynasty" title="Sulaymanid dynasty">Sulaymanid</a> branch), and the Zirids. In the 10th century the Zirids built a palace at <a href="/info/en/?search=Achir" title="Achir">'Ashir</a> (near the present town of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kef_Lakhdar" title="Kef Lakhdar">Kef Lakhdar</a>) that is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated by archeologists.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-62">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 53">: 53 </span></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Hammadid_dynasty" title="Hammadid dynasty">Hammadids</a>, an offshoot of the Zirids, based themselves in Algeria and in 1007 they founded an entirely new fortified capital known as <a href="/info/en/?search=Beni_Hammad_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Beni Hammad Fort">Qala'at Bani Hammad</a>, northeast of present-day <a href="/info/en/?search=M%27Sila,_Algeria" title="M'Sila, Algeria">M'Sila</a>. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved sites of a medieval capital city in the Islamic world, with remains of multiple palaces and of a monumental mosque.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-62">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 125">: 125 </span></sup> From the late 11th to early 13th centuries varying extents of Algerian territory were controlled by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a>. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Tlemcen" title="Great Mosque of Tlemcen">Great Mosque of Tlemcen</a> (1082), the <a href="/info/en/?search=Djamaa_el_Kebir" title="Djamaa el Kebir">Great Mosque of Algiers</a> (1096–1097), and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Nedroma" title="Great Mosque of Nedroma">Great Mosque of Nedroma</a> (1145) are all important foundations from the Almoravid period.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup> After the Almohads, the region was mostly controlled by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Tlemcen" title="Kingdom of Tlemcen">Zayyanids</a> (13th to early 16th centuries), based in <a href="/info/en/?search=Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a>, with occasional incursions by the Marinids. Both the Zayyanids and the Marinids left a significant architectural legacy in Tlemcen, which became a cultural center of the region. Various mosques and monuments in the western Maghrebi-Andalusi style are still preserved in the city today.<sup id="cite_ref-:242_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:242-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup> After the Ottomans brought the region under their control in the 16th century, Algiers became the new center of power. Many mosques, palaces, and tombs were built in the city with a blend of Ottoman and indigenous Maghrebi architectural influences. An important example is the 17th-century <a href="/info/en/?search=Djamaa_el_Djedid" title="Djamaa el Djedid">New Mosque</a>, which has an Ottoman-influenced layout with dome and vaulted ceilings alongside a Maghrebi-style minaret.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_(4)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Remains of the mosque of Qal'at Bani Hammad (11th century)"><img alt="Remains of the mosque of Qal'at Bani Hammad (11th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-28-2_Kal%C3%A2a_de_Beni_Hammad_%284%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4605" data-file-height="3930" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Remains of the mosque of <a href="/info/en/?search=Qal%27at_Bani_Hammad" title="Qal'at Bani Hammad">Qal'at Bani Hammad</a> (11th century)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Mosque of Tlemcen (11th-12th centuries, with later additions)"><img alt="Great Mosque of Tlemcen (11th-12th centuries, with later additions)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg/79px-Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg/119px-Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg/159px-Grande_mosqu%C3%A9e_et_d%C3%A9pendance_Minaret_de_la_Mosqu%C3%A9e_021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Tlemcen" title="Great Mosque of Tlemcen">Great Mosque of Tlemcen</a> (11th-12th centuries, with later additions)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Zellij and muqarnas decoration at the entrance of the Sidi Bu Madyan Mosque in Tlemcen (14th century)"><img alt="Zellij and muqarnas decoration at the entrance of the Sidi Bu Madyan Mosque in Tlemcen (14th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG/90px-Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG/135px-Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG/180px-Entr%C3%A9e_de_SBM.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2732" data-file-height="3646" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Zellij and muqarnas decoration at the entrance of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sidi_Boumediene_Mosque" title="Sidi Boumediene Mosque">Sidi Bu Madyan Mosque</a> in Tlemcen (14th century)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="New Mosque in Algiers (17th century)"><img alt="New Mosque in Algiers (17th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg/120px-Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg/180px-Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg/240px-Alger-Place-des-Martyrs-Casbah_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1766" data-file-height="1312" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Djamaa_el_Djedid" title="Djamaa el Djedid">New Mosque</a> in Algiers (17th century)</div>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Morocco">Morocco</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Moroccan_architecture" title="Moroccan architecture">Moroccan architecture</a></div>
<p>Islamic architecture began in Morocco under the <a href="/info/en/?search=Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid dynasty</a>, with structures such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a>, founded in the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> The Almoravid dynasty united northwest Africa and Iberia under one empire, and brought Andalusi architects to North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-62">[62]</a></sup> A similar situation persisted under the Almohads, whose buildings (e.g. the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kutubiyya_Mosque" title="Kutubiyya Mosque">Kutubiyya Mosque</a>) further cemented many stylistic trends that would characterize the architecture of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-66">[66]</a></sup> After them, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Marinid_Sultanate" title="Marinid Sultanate">Marinid dynasty</a> used similar architectural forms with increased surface decoration, which shared many similarities with contemporary <a href="/info/en/?search=Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid</a> architecture in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-67">[67]</a></sup> Some features of Moroccan Islamic architecture that emerged from these periods are the <a href="/info/en/?search=Moroccan_riad" class="mw-redirect" title="Moroccan riad"><i>riad</i></a>, square-based <a href="/info/en/?search=Minaret" title="Minaret">minarets</a>, <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tadelakt" title="Tadelakt">tadelakt</a></i> plaster, and decorative features such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Arabesque" title="Arabesque">arabesque</a> and <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Zellij" title="Zellij">zellij</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Under the <a href="/info/en/?search=Saadi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi dynasty">Saadi dynasty</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Carrara_marble" title="Carrara marble">marble</a> from <a href="/info/en/?search=Carrara" title="Carrara">Carrara</a>, bought with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Sugar_industry_of_Morocco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sugar industry of Morocco (page does not exist)">Moroccan sugar</a>, was used in the furnishing of palaces and mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> The traditional Moorish style of architecture continued to be followed under the <a href="/info/en/?search=%27Alawi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="'Alawi dynasty">'Alawi dynasty</a>, which ruled Morocco from the 17th century onward.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a></sup> Between 1672 and 1727, The 'Alawi sultan <a href="/info/en/?search=Ismail_Ibn_Sharif" title="Ismail Ibn Sharif">Moulay Isma'il</a> built a new capital at Meknes, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kasbah_of_Moulay_Ismail" title="Kasbah of Moulay Ismail">Kasbah of Moulay Ismail</a>, which covered a vast area and featured monuments and infrastructure on a vast scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-62">[62]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 309–312">: 309–312 </span></sup> The 'Alawi sultans continued to build or renovate other palaces and mosques. Some of the palaces preserved today were built by other high-ranking officials, such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Bahia_Palace" title="Bahia Palace">Bahia Palace</a> in Marrakesh, which was built in the late 19th century by a family of <a href="/info/en/?search=Vizier" title="Vizier">viziers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:243_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:243-70">[70]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Remains of an Idrisid mosque at Lixus"><img alt="Remains of an Idrisid mosque at Lixus" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/90px-%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/135px-%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/180px-%D8%A3%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Remains of an Idrisid mosque at <a href="/info/en/?search=Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Lixus</a></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fes (founded in 9th century)"><img alt="University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fes (founded in 9th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg/120px-Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg/180px-Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg/240px-Al_Quaraouiyine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fes</a> (founded in 9th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_(Marrakech).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Almoravid Qubba in Marrakesh (early 12th century)"><img alt="Almoravid Qubba in Marrakesh (early 12th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg/120px-C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg/180px-C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg/240px-C%C3%BApula_almor%C3%A1vide_%28Marrakech%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Almoravid_Qubba" title="Almoravid Qubba">Almoravid Qubba</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a> (early 12th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mihrab of the Almohad Mosque of Tinmel (12th century)"><img alt="Mihrab of the Almohad Mosque of Tinmel (12th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg/90px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg/135px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg/180px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%84_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Mosque_of_Tinmel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque of Tinmel">Mosque of Tinmel</a> (12th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arabesque, Maghrebi script, and zillīj at Al-Attarine Madrasa in Fes (14th century)"><img alt="Arabesque, Maghrebi script, and zillīj at Al-Attarine Madrasa in Fes (14th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/120px-%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/180px-%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/240px-%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3927" data-file-height="2945" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi script</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Zellige" class="mw-redirect" title="Zellige"><i>zillīj</i></a> at <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Attarine_Madrasa" title="Al-Attarine Madrasa">Al-Attarine Madrasa</a> in Fes (14th century)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="El Badi Palace in Marrakesh (late 16th century)"><img alt="El Badi Palace in Marrakesh (late 16th century)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg/120px-Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg/180px-Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg/240px-Palais_El_Badii_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4684" data-file-height="3135" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=El_Badi_Palace" title="El Badi Palace">El Badi Palace</a> in Marrakesh (late 16th century)</div>
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</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt_2">Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4><p>
After initially being a province of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> Caliphates, with its administrative capital at <a href="/info/en/?search=Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a>, Egypt became more politically independent in the 9th century under the <a href="/info/en/?search=Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-60">[60]</a></sup> In the 10th century, the Fatimid Caliphate moved its base of power to Egypt and founded the city of Cairo, near Fustat. <a href="/info/en/?search=Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid architecture</a> in Egypt can be witnessed in religious monuments in Cairo such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a> (significantly modified in later centuries), the <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Hakim_Mosque" title="Al-Hakim Mosque">Al-Hakim Mosque</a>, and in the small but artistically significant <a href="/info/en/?search=Aqmar_Mosque" title="Aqmar Mosque">Aqmar Mosque</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-60">[60]</a></sup> Other remains from this period include the monumental stone gates of Cairo – <a href="/info/en/?search=Bab_al-Futuh" title="Bab al-Futuh">Bab al-Futuh</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Bab_al-Nasr_(Cairo)" title="Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)">Bab al-Nasr</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Bab_Zuweila" title="Bab Zuweila">Bab Zuweila</a> – which were built by a Fatimid <a href="/info/en/?search=Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> in the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-60">[60]</a></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Fatimid_Great_Palaces" title="Fatimid Great Palaces">Great Fatimid Palaces</a>, where the caliphs lived, have not been preserved. After the Fatimids, Egypt became the capital of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a> founded by <a href="/info/en/?search=Saladin" title="Saladin">Salah ad-Din</a> (Saladin). The most significant monument of this era was the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairo_Citadel" title="Cairo Citadel">Citadel of Cairo</a>, which became Egypt's center of government up until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:032_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:032-71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raymond1993_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymond1993-72">[72]</a></sup> In the mid-13th century the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluks</a> took control and ruled an empire from Cairo that lasted until the <a href="/info/en/?search=Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">Ottoman conquest of 1517</a>. The Mamluks were major patrons of architecture and a large part of the historic heritage of <a href="/info/en/?search=Islamic_Cairo" title="Islamic Cairo">Islamic Cairo</a> dates from their time. The major monuments of <a href="/info/en/?search=Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk architecture</a> were multi-functional religious and funerary complexes whose layouts were adapted to fit into the dense urban environment. Some of the most significant examples of this period include the <a href="/info/en/?search=Qalawun_complex" title="Qalawun complex">Complex of Sultan Qalawun</a>, the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary_complex_of_Sultan_Qaytbay" title="Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay">Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_60-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-60">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:032_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:032-71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup></p><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_(6).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Courtyard of the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, founded in 972"><img alt="Courtyard of the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, founded in 972" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg/120px-Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg/180px-Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg/240px-Courtyard_of_Al-Azhar_Mosque_Cairo_Egypt_2019_%286%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Courtyard of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, founded in 972</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Cairo,_porte_settentrionali,_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Bab al-Futuh, a Fatimid gate in Cairo (1087–92)"><img alt="Bab al-Futuh, a Fatimid gate in Cairo (1087–92)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG/120px-Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG/180px-Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG/240px-Cairo%2C_porte_settentrionali%2C_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2392" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Bab_al-Futuh" title="Bab al-Futuh">Bab al-Futuh</a>, a Fatimid gate in Cairo (1087–92)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Cairo,_moschea_di_al-aqmar,_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Street façade of the Aqmar Mosque (1126)"><img alt="Street façade of the Aqmar Mosque (1126)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG/120px-Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG/180px-Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG/240px-Cairo%2C_moschea_di_al-aqmar%2C_04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2968" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Street façade of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Aqmar_Mosque" title="Aqmar Mosque">Aqmar Mosque</a> (1126)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Flickr_-_HuTect_ShOts_-_Citadel_of_Salah_El.Din_and_Masjid_Muhammad_Ali_%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_-_Cairo_-_Egypt_-_17_04_2010_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Citadel of Cairo, founded in 1176"><img alt="The Citadel of Cairo, founded in 1176" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flickr_-_HuTect_ShOts_-_Citadel_of_Salah_El.Din_and_Masjid_Muhammad_Ali_%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_-_Cairo_-_Egypt_-_17_04_2010_%284%29.jpg/120px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flickr_-_HuTect_ShOts_-_Citadel_of_Salah_El.Din_and_Masjid_Muhammad_Ali_%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_-_Cairo_-_Egypt_-_17_04_2010_%284%29.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flickr_-_HuTect_ShOts_-_Citadel_of_Salah_El.Din_and_Masjid_Muhammad_Ali_%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_-_Cairo_-_Egypt_-_17_04_2010_%284%29.jpg/240px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3896" data-file-height="2380" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairo_Citadel" title="Cairo Citadel">Citadel of Cairo</a>, founded in 1176</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Exterior of the Funerary complex of Sultan Qalawun (1285), which included a mausoleum, a madrasa, and a maristan"><img alt="Exterior of the Funerary complex of Sultan Qalawun (1285), which included a mausoleum, a madrasa, and a maristan" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg/120px-Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg/180px-Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg/240px-Minaret_of_the_Qalawun_complex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Exterior of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Qalawun_complex" title="Qalawun complex">Funerary complex of Sultan Qalawun</a> (1285), which included a mausoleum, a <a href="/info/en/?search=Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a>, and a <a href="/info/en/?search=Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">maristan</a></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Qaitbey4_(2133768658).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dome of the Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay (1474)"><img alt="Dome of the Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay (1474)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg/96px-Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg/144px-Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg/192px-Qaitbey4_%282133768658%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Dome of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Funerary_complex_of_Sultan_Qaytbay" title="Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay">Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay</a> (1474)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan (1356–1361)"><img alt="Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan (1356–1361)" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg/120px-Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg/180px-Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg/240px-Sultan-Hassan-Moschee_2015-11-14zc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4476" data-file-height="3297" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/info/en/?search=Mosque-Madrasa_of_Sultan_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan">Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan</a> (1356–1361)</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Sudan_2">Sudan</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Sudan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Nubia_2">Nubia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Nubia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a></div>
<p>The Christianization of <a href="/info/en/?search=Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> began in the 6th century. Its most representative architecture consists of churches, whose design is based on <a href="/info/en/?search=Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a>, but which are relatively small and made of mud bricks. <a href="/info/en/?search=Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">Vernacular architecture</a> of the Christian period is scarce. <a href="/info/en/?search=Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba</a> is the only city that has been excavated. Its structures are made of sun-dried bricks, the same as today, except for an arch. During the <a href="/info/en/?search=Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> phase of Islam, Nubia became <a href="/info/en/?search=Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabized</a>. Its most import mosque was the Mosque of Derr.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="West_Africa_2">West Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: West Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Sudano-Sahelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudano-Sahelian">Sudano-Sahelian</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg/330px-Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg/440px-Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9" title="Great Mosque of Djenné">Great Mosque of Djenné</a> in Mali, first built in the 13th century and reconstructed in 1906–1909, is the largest clay building in the world</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Askia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Askia.jpg/220px-Askia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Askia.jpg/330px-Askia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Askia.jpg/440px-Askia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Tomb_of_Askia" title="Tomb of Askia">Tomb of Askia</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Gao,_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Gao, Mali">Gao, Mali</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Kumbi_Saleh" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumbi Saleh">Kumbi Saleh</a>, locals lived in dome-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by <a href="/info/en/?search=Abu_Abdullah_al-Bakri" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Abdullah al-Bakri">al-Bakri</a>), one of which was for <a href="/info/en/?search=Friday_prayer" title="Friday prayer">Friday prayer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long and forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase, with paintings on the walls and chambers filled with sculpture.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/info/en/?search=Sudano-Sahelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudano-Sahelian">Sahelian architecture</a> initially grew from the two cities of <a href="/info/en/?search=Djenn%C3%A9" title="Djenné">Djenné</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Sankore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankore">Sankore</a> Mosque, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9" title="Great Mosque of Djenné">Great Mosque of Djenné</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ghana">Ghana</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Ghana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Ashanti">Ashanti</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Ashanti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Kumasi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Kumasi.png/220px-Kumasi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Kumasi.png/330px-Kumasi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Kumasi.png/440px-Kumasi.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="314" /></a><figcaption>Palace of, <a href="/info/en/?search=Asante_people" title="Asante people">Ashanti</a>, King Kwaku Dua of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kumasi" title="Kumasi">Kumasi</a>, 1887</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Ashanti_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti people">Ashanti</a> architecture from <a href="/info/en/?search=Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> is perhaps best known from the reconstruction at <a href="/info/en/?search=Kumasi" title="Kumasi">Kumasi</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>. Its key features are courtyard-based buildings, and walls with striking reliefs in brightly painted mud plaster. An example is the Besease <a href="/info/en/?search=Shrine" title="Shrine">shrine</a>, which can be seen at <a href="/info/en/?search=Kumasi" title="Kumasi">Kumasi</a>. Four rectangular rooms, constructed from <a href="/info/en/?search=Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">wattle and daub</a>, lie around a <a href="/info/en/?search=Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyard</a>. Animal designs mark the walls, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a> leaves cut to a tiered shape provide the roof.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mali">Mali</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Mali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>At <a href="/info/en/?search=Tondidarou" title="Tondidarou">Tondidarou</a>, in the Malian Lakes Region, there are <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalith" title="Megalith">megaliths</a> of an anthropomorphic nature (e.g., face, navel, <a href="/info/en/?search=Scarifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarifications">scarifications</a>) that date between 600 CE and 700 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the <a href="/info/en/?search=Inner_Niger_Delta" title="Inner Niger Delta">Inner Niger Delta</a>, in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> Lakes Region, there are two monumental tumuli constructed in the time period of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan trade</a> for the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahelian_kingdoms" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian kingdoms</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garenne-Marot_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garenne-Marot-79">[79]</a></sup> The El Oualadji monumental tumulus, which dates between 1030 CE and 1220 CE and has two human remains buried with <a href="/info/en/?search=Horse" title="Horse">horse</a> remains and various items (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=Horse_harness" title="Horse harness">horse harnesses</a>, horse <a href="/info/en/?search=Trapping" title="Trapping">trappings</a> with plaques and bells, bracelets, rings, beads, iron items), may have been, as highlighted by <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">al-Bakri</a>, the royal burial site of a king from the <a href="/info/en/?search=Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garenne-Marot_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garenne-Marot-79">[79]</a></sup> The Koï Gourrey monumental tumulus, which may date prior to 1326 CE and has over twenty human remains that were buried with various items (e.g., iron accessories, an abundant amount of copper bracelets, anklets and beads, an abundant amount of broken, but whole pottery, another set of distinct, intact, glazed pottery, a wooden-beaded bone necklace, a bird figurine, a lizard figurine, a crocodile figurine), and is situated within the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garenne-Marot_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garenne-Marot-79">[79]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nigeria_2">Nigeria</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Nigeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Several societies in pre-colonial <a href="/info/en/?search=Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> built structures from earth and stone. In general, these structures were primarily defensive, repelling invaders from other tribes, but many settlements put spiritual elements into their construction. These defensive structures were primarily constructed from earth, occasionally plastered.
</p><p>Dump ramparts consist of an outer ditch and inner bank and can span from 1/2 meter to 20 meters across in the largest settlements such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Sungbo%27s_Eredo" title="Sungbo's Eredo">Sungbo's Eredo</a>. Coursed mud walls in the Guinea and Sudan savannas were laid in layers of mud. Each layer of mud would be held in place by wooden framing, allowed to dry, and built on top of. At the most significant settlement in Koso, these walls averaged 6 meters in height, tapering from 2 meters thick at the base to 1/2 meter thick at the top. Tubali walls in northern Nigeria have two components: sun-dried mud bricks held together with mud mortar. Walls in this style have a tendency to deteriorate in wetter climates.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>These mud constructions were usually plastered with mud mixed with other materials. The defensive purpose of this was to create a smoother, unscalable surface to help repel attackers. However, some plaster has been found with blood, bone remains, gold dust, oil, and straw mixed in. Some of these materials were functional, adding strength, while others had spiritual meanings, possibly to defend against evil spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>Benin City in particular had sophisticated house and urban planning. Houses had several rooms and were usually roofed, enclosing private quarters, sacred spaces, and rooms for receiving guests. Usually, multiple houses would enclose a shared courtyard. When it rained, the house roofs would collect water into a space in the courtyard for later use. Houses would have public frontage along long, straight roads. The city had markets and the chief's palace in the center of the city, with dominant and subordinate roads leading outwards. HM Stanely, quoted in Asomani-Boateng, Raymond (2011-11), described the roads as "...fenced with tall [water cane] neatly set very close together in uniform rows..." possibly for privacy.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Sukur-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dry-laid stone structure in Sukur, in the Adamawa State. Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sukur-8.jpg/220px-Sukur-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sukur-8.jpg/330px-Sukur-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sukur-8.jpg/440px-Sukur-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>Dry-laid stone structure in <a href="/info/en/?search=Sukur" title="Sukur">Sukur</a>, in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Adamawa_State" title="Adamawa State">Adamawa State</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>More sophisticated construction methods include stone and brick constructions, with and without mortar, plaster, and accompanying defensive structures. Fired brick constructions were observed in settlements in northeast Nigeria, such as historic <a href="/info/en/?search=Kanuri_people" title="Kanuri people">Kanuri</a> buildings. Many of the bricks have since been removed for new constructions. Laterite block walls with clay mortar were found in northwest Nigeria, possibly inspired by <a href="/info/en/?search=Songhai_people" title="Songhai people">Songhai</a> constructions. Walls built from stone without mortar have been found where societies could obtain sufficient stone, most notably in <a href="/info/en/?search=Sukur" title="Sukur">Sukur</a>. None of these constructions have been observed with additional plastering.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-80">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Sukur World Heritage Site is especially significant, with extensive terraces, walls, and infrastructure. Walls separate homes, animal pens, and granaries, while terraces often include spiritual items such as sacred trees or ceramic shrines. Early iron foundries were also present, usually placed close to the homes of their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p>Broadly, three styles of residential architecture can be identified in indigenous Nigerian architecture, relating to the people groups which developed them.
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hausa_architecture" title="Hausa architecture">Hausa architecture</a> uses plastered adobe to create monolithic walls. Roofing is provided by shallow domes and vaults made from structural timber beams covered by laterite and earth. Homesteads are bounded by perimeter walls with both circular and linear interior divisions with one clearly defined entrance.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Yoruba_architecture" title="Yoruba architecture">Yoruba architecture</a> uses cured earth walls to support roof timbers, over which leaf or woven grass roofing is applied. These walls are usually homogeneous mud structures, though wattle-and-daub techniques can be found in certain locations. Space is divided into individual units which are then connected by proximity and walls into a compound with courtyards and private spaces. Multiple entrances and exits allow access to accessory facilities such as kitchens.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Igbo_architecture" title="Igbo architecture">Igbo architecture</a> uses similar construction techniques and materials as Yoruba architecture, but varies significantly in spatial arrangement. No unified compound walls exist in these constructions. Instead, individual units are related to a central leader's hut, with significance attached to relative position and size.</li></ul>
<p>These elements are believed to affect present-day residential house design, especially when designating spaces as public, semi-public, semi-private, or private.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Benin">Benin</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Benin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Walls_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Benin">Walls of Benin</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/220px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/330px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/440px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of <a href="/info/en/?search=Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a> made by an English officer in 1897</figcaption></figure>
<p>The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood. <a href="/info/en/?search=Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a>, destroyed during the <a href="/info/en/?search=Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">Benin Expedition of 1897</a>, was a large complex of homes in coursed mud, with hipped roofs of <a href="/info/en/?search=Shake_(roof)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shake (roof)">shingles</a> or palm leaves. The palace contained a sequence of ceremonial rooms and was decorated with <a href="/info/en/?search=Benin_Bronzes" title="Benin Bronzes">brass plaques</a>. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Walls_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Benin">Walls of Benin</a> City were the world's largest man-made structure.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They extend for some 16,000 kilometres in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 6500 square kilometres and were all dug by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo people</a>. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops. They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In 1691, the Portuguese Lourenco Pinto observed: "Great Benin, where the king resides, is larger than Lisbon; all the streets run straight and as far as the eye can see. The houses are large, especially that of the king, which is richly decorated and has fine columns. The city is wealthy and industrious. It is so well governed that theft is unknown and the people live in such security that they have no doors to their houses."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Benin City's planning and design was done according to careful rules of symmetry, proportionality and repetition now known as fractal design.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> The main streets had underground drainage made of a sunken impluvium with an outlet to carry away storm water. Many narrower side and intersecting streets extended off them.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Hausa_Kingdoms">Hausa Kingdoms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Hausa Kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Hausa_architecture" title="Hausa architecture">Hausa architecture</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Kano-engraving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kano-engraving.jpg/220px-Kano-engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kano-engraving.jpg/330px-Kano-engraving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kano-engraving.jpg/440px-Kano-engraving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>The city of Kano</figcaption></figure>
<p>The important <a href="/info/en/?search=Hausa_Kingdoms" title="Hausa Kingdoms">Hausa Kingdoms</a> city state of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kano_(city)" title="Kano (city)">Kano</a> was surrounded by a wall of reinforced ramparts of stone and bricks. Kano contained a citadel near which the royal court resided. Individual residences were separated by earthen walls. The higher the status of the resident the more elaborate the wall. The entrance-way was maze-like to keep women secluded. Inside, near the entrance, were the abodes of unmarried women. Further on were slave quarters.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<h6><span class="mw-headline" id="Gobarau_Mosque">Gobarau Mosque</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Gobarau Mosque"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h6>
<p>Gobarau Mosque is believed to have been completed during the reign of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Muhammadu_Korau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammadu Korau (page does not exist)">Muhammadu Korau</a> (1398–1408), the first Muslim king of Katsina. Originally built as the central mosque of <a href="/info/en/?search=Katsina" title="Katsina">Katsina</a> town, it was later also used as a school.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> By the beginning of the 16th century, Katsina had become a very important commercial and academic center in <a href="/info/en/?search=Hausaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausaland">Hausaland</a>, and Gobarau Mosque had grown into a famed Islamic institution of higher learning. Gobarau continued to be Katsina's central mosque until the beginning of the 19th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Yoruba">Yoruba</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Yoruba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Yoruba_architecture" title="Yoruba architecture">Yoruba architecture</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> surrounded their settlements with massive mud walls. Their buildings had a similar plan to the Ashanti shrines, but with <a href="/info/en/?search=Verandah" class="mw-redirect" title="Verandah">verandahs</a> around the court.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The walls were of puddled mud and <a href="/info/en/?search=Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>. The most famous of the Yoruba fortifications, and the second largest wall edifice in Africa, is <a href="/info/en/?search=Sungbo%27s_Eredo" title="Sungbo's Eredo">Sungbo's Eredo</a>, a structure that was built in honour of a traditional <a href="/info/en/?search=Oba_(ruler)#Aristocratic_titles_among_the_Yoruba" title="Oba (ruler)">oloye</a> by the name of <a href="/info/en/?search=Bilikisu_Sungbo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilikisu Sungbo">Bilikisu Sungbo</a>, in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The structure is made up of sprawling mud walls among the valleys that surrounded the town of <a href="/info/en/?search=Ijebu-Ode" class="mw-redirect" title="Ijebu-Ode">Ijebu-Ode</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Ogun_State" title="Ogun State">Ogun State</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Sungbo%27s_Eredo" title="Sungbo's Eredo">Sungbo's Eredo</a> is the largest pre-colonial monument in <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, larger than the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Pyramids">Great Pyramids</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern_Africa_2">Eastern Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Eastern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Burundi">Burundi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Burundi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> never had a fixed capital. The closest thing to it was a royal hill. When the king moved, his new location became the <i>insago</i>. The compound itself was enclosed inside a high fence and had two entrances. One was for herders and herds. The other was to the royal palace, which was itself surrounded by a fence. The royal palace had three royal courtyards, each serving a particular function: one for herders, one as a sanctuary, and one encompassed by kitchen and granary.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethiopia_2">Ethiopia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg/150px-Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg/225px-Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg/300px-Bet_Medhane_Alem_church_Lalibela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Bete Medhane Alem, <a href="/info/en/?search=Lalibela,_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lalibela, Ethiopia">Lalibela</a>, the largest monolithic church in the world</figcaption></figure>
<p>Throughout the medieval period, the monolithic influences of Aksumite architecture persisted, with its influence felt strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially during the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, especially in the northernmost region of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tigray_Province" title="Tigray Province">Tigray</a>, which was the heart of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Aksumite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksumite Empire">Aksumite Empire</a>. However, rock-hewn churches have been found as far south as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Adadi_Maryam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adadi Maryam (page does not exist)">Adadi Maryam</a> (15th century), about 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of <a href="/info/en/?search=Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>.
</p><p>The most famous examples of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the 11 monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. Although later medieval hagiographies attribute all 11 structures to the eponymous king <a href="/info/en/?search=Gebre_Mesqel_Lalibela" class="mw-redirect" title="Gebre Mesqel Lalibela">Lalibela</a> (the town was called Roha and Adefa before his reign), new evidence indicates that they may have been built separately over a period of a few centuries, with only a few of the more recent churches having been built under his reign. Archaeologist and <i>Ethiopisant</i> David Phillipson postulates that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Bete_Gebriel-Rufa%27el&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el (page does not exist)">Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el</a> was actually built in the very early medieval period, some time between 600 and 800 AD, originally as a fortress but later turned into a church.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kenya_2">Kenya</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Kenya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Thimlich_Ohinga" title="Thimlich Ohinga">Thimlich Ohinga</a> is a complex of dry-stone walled enclosures near <a href="/info/en/?search=Migori" title="Migori">Migori</a> town in Western Kenya. Thimlich Ohinga was built around the 16th century CE by sedentary, pastoralist <a href="/info/en/?search=Bantus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantus">Bantus</a> who later on abandoned the site, later on replaced by members of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Luo_people" title="Luo people">Luo people</a>. The site consists of four main "Ohingni" (i.e. settlements) surrounded by walls with low entrances, the walls were built by stacking irregularly-shaped stones without the use of any mortar, the result being an interlocked wall with immense stability similar to walls of <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> 3600 kilometers to the south of the settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> The walls of Thimlich Ohinga also included vents for water drainage, <a href="/info/en/?search=Buttresses" class="mw-redirect" title="Buttresses">buttresses</a> to reinforce the free-standing walls and a watchtower.Within the walls of the settlement were livestock enclosures, houses and <a href="/info/en/?search=Granaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Granaries">granaries</a>. The inhabitants of Thimlich Ohinga engaged in craft industries, most notably pottery and <a href="/info/en/?search=Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>. Imported glass beads at the site indicate that Thimlich Ohinga was part of a network of long-distance trade.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Rwanda">Rwanda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Rwanda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg/220px-King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg/330px-King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg/440px-King%27s_palace_in_Nyanza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption>King's palace in Nyanza, Rwanda</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Nyanza,_Rwanda" title="Nyanza, Rwanda">Nyanza</a> was the royal capital of <a href="/info/en/?search=Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>. The king's residence, the Ibwami, was built on a hill. Surrounding hills were occupied by permanent or temporary dwellings. These dwellings were round huts surrounded by big yards and tall hedges to separate the compounds. The <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Rugo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rugo (page does not exist)">Rugo</a></i>, the royal compound, was encircled by reed fences encompassing thatched houses. The houses for the king's entourage were carpeted with mats and had clay hearths in the center. For the king and his wife, the royal house was close to 200-100 yards in length and looked like a huge maze of connected huts and granaries. It had one entrance that lead to a large public square called the <i>karubanda</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Somalia">Somalia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Somalia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali architecture</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Zayla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Zayla.jpg/220px-Zayla.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Zayla.jpg/330px-Zayla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Zayla.jpg/440px-Zayla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the dry <a href="/info/en/?search=Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Sultanate of Adal</a> in Zeila, Somalia</figcaption></figure>
<p>Somali architecture has a rich and diverse tradition of designing and engineering different types of construction, such as masonry, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, temples, <a href="/info/en/?search=Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a>, lighthouses, towers and tombs, during the ancient, medieval, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> periods in <a href="/info/en/?search=Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>. It also encompasses the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with Western designs in modern times.
</p><p>In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in <a href="/info/en/?search=Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a> as <i>taalo</i> were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these <a href="/info/en/?search=Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">dry stone</a> monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of <a href="/info/en/?search=Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">dressed stone</a> similar to the ones in <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> and there are examples of courtyards, and large stone walls, such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wargaade_Wall" title="Wargaade Wall">Wargaade Wall</a>, enclosing settlements.
</p><p>The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from <a href="/info/en/?search=Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, which stimulated a shift in construction from dry stone, and other related materials, to <a href="/info/en/?search=Masonry" title="Masonry">coral stone</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Mud-brick" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud-brick">sun-dried bricks</a>, and the widespread use of <a href="/info/en/?search=Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Dhulbahante_garesa">Dhulbahante garesa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Dhulbahante garesa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Eyl_Castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Eyl_Castle.jpg/220px-Eyl_Castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Eyl_Castle.jpg/330px-Eyl_Castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Eyl_Castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Sideway view of a Dervish fort/Dhulbahante garesa in <a href="/info/en/?search=Eyl" title="Eyl">Eyl</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In the official Dervish-written letter's description of the 1920 air, sea and land campaign and the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent <i>Governatori della Somalia</i>, the British are described taking twenty-seven <i>garesas</i> or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan:<sup id="cite_ref-caroselli_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caroselli-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fn2_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn2-99">[a]</a></sup>
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<p> Ai primi di aprile giungeva, a mezzo di corrieri dervisc di Belet Uen, una lettera diretta dal Mulla "Agli Italiani" con la quale, in sostanza, giustificando la sua rapida sconfitta coll'attriburla a defezione dei suoi seguaci Dulbohanta, chiedeva la nostra mediazione presso gli Inglesi ... Gl'Inglesi che sapevano questo ci son piombati addosso con tutta la gente e con sei volatili (aeroplani) ... i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro.
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<p> In early April there came, by way of dervish couriers of Beledweyne, a letter sent by the Mullah "To The Italians" in which, in substance, he justified his rapid defeat by attributing it to the defection of his Dhulbahante followers and asked for our mediation with the English. The English, who knew this, descended on us with all their men and with six birds (airplanes)." ... the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven <i>garesas</i> (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tanzania">Tanzania</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Tanzania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Engaruka" title="Engaruka">Engaruka</a> is a ruined settlement on the slopes of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mount_Ngorongoro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mount Ngorongoro (page does not exist)">Mount Ngorongoro</a> in northern <a href="/info/en/?search=Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>. Seven stone-terraced villages comprised the settlement. A complex structure of stone channels along the mountain's base was used to dike, dam, and level surrounding river waters for <a href="/info/en/?search=Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> of individual plots of land. Some of these irrigation channels were several kilometers long. The channels irrigated a total area of 5,000 acres (20 km<sup>2</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Swahili_States">Swahili States</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Swahili States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili architecture</a></div>
<p>Farther south, increased trade with Arab merchants, and the development of ports, saw the birth of <a href="/info/en/?search=Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili architecture</a>. An outgrowth of indigenous Bantu settlements,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a></sup> one of the earliest examples is the <a href="/info/en/?search=Palace_of_Husuni_Kubwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Husuni Kubwa">Palace of Husuni Kubwa</a>, lying west of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kilwa_(district)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilwa (district)">Kilwa</a>, built about 1245. As with many other early Swahili buildings, <a href="/info/en/?search=Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">coral rag</a> was the main construction material, and even the roof was constructed by attaching coral to timbers. The palace at <a href="/info/en/?search=Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa Kisiwani</a> was a two-story tower, in a walled enclosure. Other notable structures from the period include the <a href="/info/en/?search=Pillar_tomb" title="Pillar tomb">pillar tombs</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Mnarani" title="Mnarani">Mnarani</a> in Kenya and elsewhere, originally made of coral rag, and later from stone. Later examples include <a href="/info/en/?search=Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>'s <a href="/info/en/?search=Stone_Town" title="Stone Town">Stone Town</a>, with its famous carved doors and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Kilwa" title="Great Mosque of Kilwa">Great Mosque of Kilwa</a>.
</p><p>A visitor in 1331 AD considered the Tanzanian city Kilwa to be of world class. He wrote that it was the "principal city on the coast the greater part of whose inhabitants are Zanj of very black complexion." Later on he says that: "Kilwa is one of the most beautiful and well-constructed cities in the world. The whole of it is elegantly built."
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Uganda">Uganda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Uganda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Buganda">Buganda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Buganda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>Initially, the hilltop capital, or <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Kibuga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kibuga (page does not exist)">kibuga</a></i>, of <a href="/info/en/?search=Buganda" title="Buganda">Buganda</a> would be moved to a new hill with each new ruler, or <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Kabaka_of_Buganda" title="Kabaka of Buganda">Kabaka</a></i>. In the late 19th century, a permanent kibuga of Buganda was established at <a href="/info/en/?search=Mengo,_Uganda" title="Mengo, Uganda">Mengo Hill</a>. The capital, 1.5 miles across, was divided into quarters corresponding to provinces, with each chief building dwellings for his wife, slaves, dependents and visitors. Large plots of land were available for planting bananas and fruits. Roads were wide and well maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Kitara_and_Bunyoro">Kitara and Bunyoro</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Kitara and Bunyoro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>In western Uganda, there are numerous earthworks near the <a href="/info/en/?search=Katonga_River" title="Katonga River">Katonga River</a>. These earthworks have been attributed to the Empire of Kitara. The most famous, <a href="/info/en/?search=Bigo_bya_Mugenyi" title="Bigo bya Mugenyi">Bigo bya Mugenyi</a>, is about 4 square miles (10 km<sup>2</sup>). The ditch was dug by cutting through 200,000 cubic metres (7,100,000 cu ft) of solid bedrock and earth. The earthwork rampart was about 12 feet (3.7 m) high. It is not certain whether its function was for defense or pastoral use. Little is known about the Ugandan earthworks.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Africa_2">Central Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Central Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Chad_2">Chad</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Chad"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Kanem-Bornu">Kanem-Bornu</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Kanem-Bornu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Kanem-Bornu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem-Bornu">Kanem-Bornu</a>'s capital city, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Birni_N%27Gazargamu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birni N'Gazargamu (page does not exist)">Birni N'Gazargamu</a>, may have had a population of 200,000. It had four mosques, which could hold up to 12,000 worshippers. It was surrounded by a 25-foot-high (7.6 m) wall more than 1-mile (1.6 km) in circumference. Many large streets extended from the esplanade and connected to 660 roads. The main buildings were built with red brick. Other buildings were built with straw and adobe.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Democratic Republic of the Congo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Kongo">Kongo</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Kongo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:The_Bansa,_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo,_called_St._Salvador_(M%27Banza_Kongo),_Astley_1745.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg/220px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg/330px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg/440px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1406" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption>The capital of the Kingdom of Kongo</figcaption></figure>
<p>With a population of more than 30,000, <a href="/info/en/?search=Mbanza_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbanza Congo">Mbanza Congo</a> was the capital of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a>. The city sat atop a cliff, with a river running below through a forested valley. The king's dwelling was described as an enclosure, a mile-and-a-half in extent, with walled pathways, courtyard, gardens, decorated huts, and palisades. An early explorer described it as looking like a <a href="/info/en/?search=Labyrinth#Cretan_labyrinth" title="Labyrinth">Cretan labyrinth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Kuba">Kuba</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Kuba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>The capital of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba Kingdom</a> was surrounded by a 40-inch-high (1.0 m) fence. Inside the fence were roads, a walled royal palace, and urban buildings. The palace was rectangular and in the center of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Luba">Luba</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Luba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Luba_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Luba Empire">Luba</a> tended to cluster in small villages, with rectangular houses facing a single street. <i>Kilolo</i>, patrilineal chieftains, headed the local village government, under the protection of the king. Cultural life centered around the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Kitenta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitenta (page does not exist)">kitenta</a></i>, the royal compound, which later came to be a permanent capital. The kitenta drew artists, poets, musicians and craftsmen, spurred by royal and court patronage.
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Lunda">Lunda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Lunda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lunda_houses-1854.jpg/220px-Lunda_houses-1854.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lunda_houses-1854.jpg/330px-Lunda_houses-1854.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lunda_houses-1854.jpg/440px-Lunda_houses-1854.jpg 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Lunda dwellings displaying the square and the cone-on-ground types of African vernacular architecture</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Musumba" title="Musumba">Musumba</a> the capital of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Lunda" title="Kingdom of Lunda">Kingdom of Lunda</a>, was 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kasai_River" title="Kasai River">Kasai River</a>, in open woodland, between two rivers 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) apart. The city was surrounded by fortified earthen ramparts and dry moats. The compound of the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mwato_Yamvo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mwato Yamvo (page does not exist)">Mwato Yamvo</a></i> (sovereign ruler) was surrounded by large fortifications of double-layered tree, or wood, ramparts. Musumba had multiple courtyards with designated functions, straight roads, and public squares. Its cleanliness was noted by European observers.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mozambique">Mozambique</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Mozambique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Maravi">Maravi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Maravi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Maravi" title="Maravi">Maravi</a> people built bridges (<i>uraro</i>) of <a href="/info/en/?search=Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> because of changing river depths. Bamboo was placed parallel to each other and tied together by bark (<i>maruze</i>). One end of the bridge would be tied to a tree. The bridge would curve downward.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Zambia">Zambia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Zambia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern_Lunda">Eastern Lunda</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Eastern Lunda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Eastern_Lunda" title="Eastern Lunda">Eastern Lunda</a> dwelling of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kazembe" title="Kazembe">Kazembe</a> was described as containing fenced roads a mile long. The enclosing walls were made of grass, 12 to 13 <a href="/info/en/?search=Span_(unit)" title="Span (unit)">span</a> in height. The enclosed roads led to a rectangular hut opened on the west side. In the center was a wooden base with a statue on top of about 3 span in height.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Southern_Africa_2">Southern Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Southern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Madagascar">Madagascar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Madagascar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Madagascar" title="Architecture of Madagascar">Architecture of Madagascar</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg/220px-Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg/330px-Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg/440px-Mix_of_architectural_materials_in_Antananarivo_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="746" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Architecture in <a href="/info/en/?search=Antananarivo" title="Antananarivo">Antananarivo</a>, Madagascar, in 1905</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Southeast Asian origins of the first settlers of <a href="/info/en/?search=Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> are reflected in the island's architecture, typified by rectangular dwellings topped with peaked roofs and often built on short stilts. Coastal dwellings, generally made of plant materials, are more like those of East Africa; those of the central highlands tend to be constructed in cob or brick. The introduction of brick-making, by European missionaries in the 19th century, led to the emergence of a distinctly Malagasy architectural style that blends the norms of traditional wooden aristocratic homes with European details.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the mid-2nd millennium CE, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Megalithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic">megalithic</a> funerary monuments of <a href="/info/en/?search=Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> were constructed amid the <a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Madagascar#Rise_of_the_great_kingdoms" title="History of Madagascar">emergent period</a> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Merina Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup> Some of the megaliths remain utilized by <a href="/info/en/?search=Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a>-speakers for funerary practices (e.g., ceremony of turning the dead) in present-day.<sup id="cite_ref-Holl_II_15-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl_II-15">[15]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Namibia">Namibia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Namibia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The fortress of <a href="/info/en/?search=%C7%81Khauxa%C7%83nas" title="ǁKhauxaǃnas">ǁKhauxaǃnas</a>, built by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Oorlam" class="mw-redirect" title="Oorlam">Oorlam</a> in southeastern Namibia, included a wall that was 700 metres (2,300 ft) in length and 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height. It was built with stone slabs and displays features of both the Zimbabwean and Transvaal-Free-State styles of stone construction.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Africa">South Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Sotho-Tswana">Sotho-Tswana</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Sotho-Tswana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Sotho%E2%80%93Tswana_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Sotho–Tswana peoples">Sotho–Tswana</a> architecture represents the other stone-building tradition of southern Africa, centered in the transvaal, highveld north and south of the Vaal. Numerous large stonewalled enclosures and stone-house foundations have been found in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a></sup> Tswana, the capital of the <i>Kwena</i> (ruler), was a stone-walled town as large as the capital of Eastern Lunda.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>At sites such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Kweneng%27_Ruins" title="Kweneng' Ruins">Kweneng' Ruins</a>, the Tswana lived in city states with stone walls and complex sociopolitical structures that they built in the 1300s or earlier. These cities had populations of up to 20,000 people, which at the time rivalled Cape Town in size.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Zulu_and_Nguni">Zulu and Nguni</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Zulu and Nguni"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Zulu_Architecture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zulu Architecture (page does not exist)">Zulu Architecture</a> was constructed with more perishable materials. Dome-shaped huts typically come to mind when one thinks of <a href="/info/en/?search=Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu</a> dwellings, but later on their design evolved into dome over cylinder-shaped walls. Zulu capital cities were elliptical in plan. The exterior was lined with a durable wood palisade. Domed huts, in rows of 6 to 8, stood just inside the palisade. In the center was the kraal, used by the king to examine his soldiers, hold cattle, or conduct ceremonies. It was an empty circular area at the center of the capital, enclosed by a less durable interior palisade, compared to the exterior. The entrance to the city was opposite to the fortified royal enclosure called the <i>Isigodlo</i>.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Zimbabwe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Mapungubwe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a> is considered the most socially complex society in southern Africa<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and the first southern African culture to display economic differentiation. The elite lived separately in a mountain settlement made of sandstone. It was the precursor to <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a>. Large amounts of dirt were carried to the top of the hill. At the bottom of the hill was a natural amphitheater, and at the top an elite graveyard. There were only two pathways to the top, one following a narrow steep cleft along the side of the hill of which observers at the top had a clear view.
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Great_Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Great Zimbabwe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg/220px-Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg/330px-Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg/440px-Great-Zimbabwe-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure in <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a>, a medieval city built by a prosperous culture</figcaption></figure>
<p>Great Zimbabwe was the largest medieval city in sub-Saharan Africa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in a local style that eschewed rectilinearity for flowing curves. Neither the first nor the last of some 300 similar complexes located on the Zimbabwean plateau, Great Zimbabwe is set apart by the large scale of its structures. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has dressed stone walls as high as 36 feet (11 m) extending for approximately 820 feet (250 m),<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a></sup> making it the largest ancient structure south of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>. Houses within the enclosure were circular and constructed of <a href="/info/en/?search=Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">wattle and daub</a>, with conical thatched roofs.
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Torwa_State">Torwa State</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Torwa State"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Khamiruins2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Khamiruins2.jpg/220px-Khamiruins2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Khamiruins2.jpg/330px-Khamiruins2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Khamiruins2.jpg/440px-Khamiruins2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Terraced hill, entranceway of <a href="/info/en/?search=Khami" title="Khami">Khami</a>, capital of the Torwa State</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Khami" title="Khami">Khami</a> was the capital of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kingdom_of_Butua" title="Kingdom of Butua">Kingdom of Butua</a> during the <a href="/info/en/?search=Torwa_dynasty" title="Torwa dynasty">Torwa dynasty</a>. It was the successor to Great Zimbabwe and where the techniques of Great Zimbabwe were further refined and developed. Elaborate walls were constructed by connecting carefully cut stones to form terraced hills.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_architecture">Modern architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Modern architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="African_rural_architecture">African rural architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: African rural architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg/250px-A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg/375px-A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg/500px-A_mud_house_in_a_rural_area_in_Nigeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>A mud house in a rural area in Nigeria</figcaption></figure>
<p>Rural African architecture research has generally been viewed in a limited perspective and has widely been considered <i>primitive</i> in building technology and techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a></sup> Architecture as a practice in rural Africa also extends to the construction of religious dwellings as well.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>Typically, materials such as wood, metal, terra-cotta, and stone were used in the construction of armature, walls, floors, and roofing for rural homes and community buildings. Changes in structure and material are based on changes in the climate, what building materials are available, and the techniques and skills of an area. As the construction of these buildings required many individual procedures, the overall execution of constructing homes and communal dwellings within a rural village is a communal process. However, the owner [of the dwelling] has the most control over the construction process and is considered the master builder.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sub-Saharan_African_rural_architecture">Sub-Saharan African rural architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan African rural architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg/220px-Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg/330px-Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg/440px-Togo_Taberma_house_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Taberma houses in Togo</figcaption></figure>
<p>Although there generally a wide range of architectural styles across Africa, sub-saharan Africa encompasses the widest diversity in architectural styles due to the extensive scope of physical [climate] settings.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Coastal_rainforest">Coastal rainforest</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: Coastal rainforest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the coastal rainforest belt of Africa, where temperatures are regularly torrid and humid regardless of daytime or nighttime, rural dwellings require interior cross-ventilation to ensure maximum bodily comfort. To achieve this, the craftsperson would incorporate openings into the dwelling. Open, screen-like walls and elevated floorings would be built to provide natural airflow throughout the building.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Inland_savannah">Inland savannah</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: Inland savannah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In contrast to the coastal rainforest belt, the inland savannah climate, which is composed of an annual, brief rainy season and a long, dry season in which chilling winds blow into the region from the Sahara, require an architectural solution that can both cut the biting cold of dusk and prevent individuals from enduring the overwhelming heat of the midday sun.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Modern_African_Rural_Architecture_.5BEthiopia.2C_Ghana.2C_Nigeria.2C_and_South_Africa.5D"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_African_Rural_Architecture_[Ethiopia,_Ghana,_Nigeria,_and_South_Africa]">Modern African Rural Architecture [Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa]</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Modern African Rural Architecture [Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethiopia_3">Ethiopia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG/245px-Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="245" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG/368px-Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG/490px-Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_Addis_Abeba_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Structures neighboring the city of Lalibela, Ethiopia like the Monolithic churches have been hewed from stones within the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a></sup> Systems of catacombs were built inside for ceremonial purposes as were ditches imitating the River Jordan in Jerusalem and the ditches separate the churches into three groups, five in the north, five in the east and two in west. These churches were carved out in the 12th century during King Lalibela's reign. Another church that can illustrate the architecture style and design in Ethiopia in the modern era is the <a href="/info/en/?search=Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_(Addis_Ababa)" title="Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)">Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa</a> which contains the tombs of Emperor Haile Salassie, his wife, and those who were executed during the Italian regime's occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a></sup> It is at the epicenter of the capital and in close proximity to the imperial palace. Materials used in this structure includes a huge quantity of copper for the dome and statues positioned in various locations on and around the cathedral. It should also be noted that it imitates the Aksumites (Kingdom of Axum) artistic design.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ghana_2">Ghana</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: Ghana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In Ghana, <a href="/info/en/?search=Larabanga_Mosque" title="Larabanga Mosque">Larabanga Mosque</a> is a prime example in building from packed earth which was and continues to be a method used today.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a></sup> Sudanese architecture influences this mosque but it is notably smaller than many mosques that exist in West Africa. As construction of the mosque depends on the natural materials available, there is an environmental strain in Ghana and surrounding countries that use this method of building housing. The mosque is held together by the logs protruding from the building surface. The exterior of the mosque has whitewashed walls which are renewed every year.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Nigeria_3">Nigeria</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: Nigeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The Demas Nwoko is a chapel constructed between 1967 and 1975 using locally sourced materials such as concrete stone, brick, stained glass and wood.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a></sup> The interior walls of the chapel are covered with crosses of all sizes and it appears as if they are stained glass as they are luminescent. Unlike chapels, housing compounds in Nigeria frequently had a communal area like courtyards or shared spaces which were an important social aspect for residents. Emir's Palace also known as The Hausa Architecture in Zaria is traditionally divided into three parts: a private area (women's area), semi private area, and public area.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></sup> The palace is surrounded by the city. Nigerian architecture was shaped by Islamic culture where the women were sheltered and protected by private spaces the compound provided. Like Emir's palace, the Yoruba structure has large family residential areas in them and courtyards were commonly used by everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Africa_2">South Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In 1948 architecture in South Africa was heavily influenced by the Apartheid as segregation was enforced in all aspects of life.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a></sup> The Windhoek Airport, today known as Eros, was built in 1957, and the post office in Polokwane, South Africa, was constructed in the capital of Limpopo Province and had similar groundwork to the airport. The floor plan for the airport terminal had European and non-European entrances and exits. The post office is U-shaped and like the airport there are separate entrances and exits. Brazilian modernism affected how architecture changed in the mid-twentieth century in South Africa.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_Islamic_African_Architecture">Modern Islamic African Architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=103" title="Edit section: Modern Islamic African Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In other areas of the world Islamic architecture consists of palaces, tombs, and mosques. In West Africa, the mosque itself embodies Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a></sup> The layout of a mosque is predetermined by Islamic orthodoxy coming from the idea that rejecting certain elements, like a minaret, is seen as offensive to the religion itself. The main focus of material can be seen in mud architecture. From this architectural method came several variations, the most recent being the Bobo Dioulasso and the Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong].<sup id="cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prussin_1968_72-134">[133]</a></sup> These types have a focus on expression of a politico-religious structure within a village, different from the earlier mosques focused on imperial organization and which were much bigger in size.<sup id="cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prussin_1968_72-134">[133]</a></sup> These two types of mosques are smaller. The difference between the Bobo and Kongo type lies in having to adapt to climate conditions as opposed to cultural tradition. While the basics of mosques remains the same throughout the region, there are variations within Africa mostly dependent on the climate of the area and the accommodations that need to be made for that specific region.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Grand_Mosque_of_Bobo-Dioulasso"><a href="/info/en/?search=Grand_Mosque_of_Bobo-Dioulasso" title="Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso">Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso</a></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg/273px-Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg" decoding="async" width="273" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg/410px-Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg/546px-Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3354" data-file-height="2236" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Grand_Mosque_of_Bobo-Dioulasso" title="Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso">Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>At Bobo-Dioulasso, vertical buttresses minarets are a part of the mosques, flaring out and thickening of the buttresses at the base of these elements are still evident but disappearing due to reduced scale and changes in the climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prussin_1968_72-134">[133]</a></sup> Projecting timbers and horizontal bracing are added due to the increased humidity of the southern savannah. There are parts of the classic mosque within the modern mosque that still remain. This can be seen in the enclosed prayer hall and interior courtyard.
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<h4><span id="Mosqu.C3.A9e_de_Kong_.5BMosque_of_Kong.5D"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mosquée_de_Kong_[Mosque_of_Kong]">Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong]</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: Mosquée de Kong [Mosque of Kong]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Heavier buttressing is required in the Mosque of Kong because of more rain in the area. This area also sits closer to a rainforest, making wood a material that can be more easily accessed for reinforcement within the structure. Due to the generally wet climate, this mosque also requires more maintenance due to consistent erosion.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Kawara_Mosque">Kawara Mosque</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=106" title="Edit section: Kawara Mosque"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>One last example can be seen within the Kawara mosque. The Kawara lacks verticality or monumentality, but is clear in its three dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethiopia_4">Ethiopia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=107" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="External_influences">External influences</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=108" title="Edit section: External influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg/220px-Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg/330px-Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg/440px-Fasilides_Palace_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2827" data-file-height="2039" /></a><figcaption>Fasiledes's castle, <a href="/info/en/?search=Fasil_Ghebbi" title="Fasil Ghebbi">Fasil Ghebbi</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Gondar" title="Gondar">Gondar</a>, Ethiopia</figcaption></figure>
<p>In the early modern period, Ethiopia's absorption of diverse new influences—such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles—began with the arrival of Portuguese <a href="/info/en/?search=Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese soldiers had initially come in the mid-16th century as allies to aid Ethiopia in <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethiopian-Adal_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian-Adal War">its fight against Adal</a>, and the Jesuits came hoping to convert the country.
</p><p>Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during Ethiopia's war with the Ottoman Empire (see <a href="/info/en/?search=Habesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Habesh">Habesh</a>), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally hard to defensible because of its numerous <a href="/info/en/?search=Amba_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amba (geology)">ambas</a> or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, gained little tactical use from these structures, in contrast to advantages they bestowed when placed on the flat terrain of Europe and other areas; and so Ethiopia had not nurtured the tradition. Castle building, especially around the <a href="/info/en/?search=Lake_Tana" title="Lake Tana">Lake Tana</a> region, began with the reign of <a href="/info/en/?search=Sarsa_Dengel" title="Sarsa Dengel">Sarsa Dengel</a>; and subsequent emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Fasil_Ghebbi" title="Fasil Ghebbi">Fasil Ghebbi</a></i> (royal enclosure of castles) in the newly founded capital, <a href="/info/en/?search=Gondar" title="Gondar">Gondar</a> (1635).
</p><p>Emperor <a href="/info/en/?search=Susenyos_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Susenyos of Ethiopia">Susenyos</a> (r. 1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion, declaring it as such from 1624 until his abdication. During this time, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the Jesuits), Jesuit and local masons, some of whom were <a href="/info/en/?search=Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a>, and adopted their styles. With the reign of his son <a href="/info/en/?search=Fasilides_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasilides of Ethiopia">Fasilides</a>, most of these foreigners were expelled, although some of their architectural styles were absorbed into the prevailing Ethiopian architectural style. This style of the Gondarine dynasty would persist throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, especially, and influenced modern 19th-century-and-later styles.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Europeans_and_European_influences">Europeans and European influences</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=109" title="Edit section: Europeans and European influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Afrikaner">Afrikaner</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=110" title="Edit section: Afrikaner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cape_Dutch_architecture" title="Cape Dutch architecture">Cape Dutch architecture</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Burgher_House,_Stellenbosch.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG/220px-Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG/330px-Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG/440px-Burgher_House%2C_Stellenbosch.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Typical Cape Dutch styled house in <a href="/info/en/?search=Stellenbosch" title="Stellenbosch">Stellenbosch</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Cape Dutch architecture is traditional <a href="/info/en/?search=Afrikaner" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaner">Afrikaner</a> architecture and is one of the most distinctive types of settler architecture in the world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was developed during the century-and-a-half that the Cape was a Dutch colony. Even by the end of that period, the early 19th-century, the colony was inhabited by fewer than fifty thousand people, spread over an area roughly the size of the <a href="/info/en/?search=United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. The Cape Dutch–style buildings showed a remarkable consistency and were clearly related to rural architecture in northwestern Europe but equally clearly having its own unmistakable African character and features.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Colonial_fortifications_in_West_Africa">Colonial fortifications in West Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=111" title="Edit section: Colonial fortifications in West Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Early European colonies on the West African coast built large forts, as can be seen at <a href="/info/en/?search=Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Elmina Castle</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cape_Coast_Castle" title="Cape Coast Castle">Cape Coast Castle</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Osu_Castle" title="Osu Castle">Christiansborg</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Jesus" title="Fort Jesus">Fort Jesus</a>, and elsewhere. These were usually plain, with little ornamentation, but with more adornment at <a href="/info/en/?search=Dixcove_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Dixcove Fort">Dixcove Fort</a>. Other embellishments were gradually accreted, with the style inspiring later buildings such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Lamu_Fort" title="Lamu Fort">Lamu Fort</a> and the stone palace of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kumasi" title="Kumasi">Kumasi</a>.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=112" title="Edit section: Eclecticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>European artists in the 18th century would go out to Africa and the Middle East in hopes of finding new inspiration to include in their art. These travels became common and changed political and cultural relations between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a></sup> By the late 19th century, most buildings reflected the fashionable European <a href="/info/en/?search=Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclecticism</a> and transplanted Mediterranean, or even Northern European, styles. Examples of colonial towns from this era survive at <a href="/info/en/?search=Saint-Louis,_Senegal" title="Saint-Louis, Senegal">Saint-Louis</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Grand-Bassam" title="Grand-Bassam">Grand-Bassam</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Swakopmund" title="Swakopmund">Swakopmund</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a>. A few buildings were <a href="/info/en/?search=Pre-fabricated" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-fabricated">pre-fabricated</a> in Europe and shipped over for erection. This European tradition continued well into the 20th century, with the construction of European-style <a href="/info/en/?search=Manor_house" title="Manor house">manor houses</a>, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Shiwa_Ng%27andu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiwa Ng'andu">Shiwa Ng'andu</a> in what is now Zambia, or the <a href="/info/en/?search=Boer" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer">Boer</a> homesteads in South Africa, and with many town buildings.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modernism">Modernism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=113" title="Edit section: Modernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The effect of modern architecture began to be felt in the 1920s and 1930s. <a href="/info/en/?search=Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> designed several never-built schemes for Algeria, including ones for <a href="/info/en/?search=Nemours" title="Nemours">Nemours</a> and for the reconstruction of Algiers. Elsewhere, <a href="/info/en/?search=Steffen_Ahrends" title="Steffen Ahrends">Steffen Ahrends</a> was active in South Africa, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Ernst_May" title="Ernst May">Ernst May</a> in Nairobi and <a href="/info/en/?search=Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a>.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Eritrea">Eritrea</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=114" title="Edit section: Eritrea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Italian <a href="/info/en/?search=Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">futurist architecture</a> heavily influenced the designs of <a href="/info/en/?search=Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>. Planned villages were constructed in Libya and <a href="/info/en/?search=Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>, including the new town of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>, all utilising modern designs.
</p><p>After 1945, <a href="/info/en/?search=Maxwell_Fry" title="Maxwell Fry">Maxwell Fry</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Jane_Drew" title="Jane Drew">Jane Drew</a> extended their work on British schools into Ghana, and also designed the <a href="/info/en/?search=University_of_Ibadan" title="University of Ibadan">University of Ibadan</a>. The reconstruction of Algiers offered more opportunities, with <a href="/info/en/?search=Cath%C3%A9drale_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_d%27Alger" title="Cathédrale du Sacré-Cœur d'Alger">Sacred Heart Cathedral of Algiers</a>, and universities by <a href="/info/en/?search=Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Kenzo_Tange" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenzo Tange">Kenzo Tange</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Jakob_Zweifel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jakob Zweifel (page does not exist)">Jakob Zweifel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_Zweifel" class="extiw" title="de:Jakob Zweifel">de</a>]</span>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Skidmore,_Owings_and_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings and Merrill">Skidmore, Owings and Merrill</a>. But modern architecture in this sense largely remained the preserve of European architects until the 1960s, one notable exception being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Le_Groupe_Transvaal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Groupe Transvaal (page does not exist)">Le Groupe Transvaal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transvaal-groep" class="extiw" title="af:Transvaal-groep">af</a>]</span> in South Africa, which built homes inspired by <a href="/info/en/?search=Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and Le Corbusier.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Morocco_2">Morocco</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=115" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Elie_Azagury" title="Elie Azagury">Elie Azagury</a> became the first <a href="/info/en/?search=Morocco" title="Morocco">Moroccan</a> modernist architect in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-:8222_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8222-138">[137]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-139">[138]</a></sup> The <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/info/en/?search=Groupe_des_Architectes_Modernes_Marocains" title="Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains">Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains</a></i></span>—at first led by <a href="/info/en/?search=Michel_%C3%89cochard" title="Michel Écochard">Michel Écochard</a>, director of urban planning under the <a href="/info/en/?search=French_Protectorate_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate in Morocco">French Protectorate</a>—was active building <a href="/info/en/?search=Public_housing" title="Public housing">public housing</a> in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Hay_Mohammadi" title="Hay Mohammadi">Hay Mohammedi</a> neighborhood of <a href="/info/en/?search=Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a> that provided a "culturally specific living tissue" for laborers and migrants <a href="/info/en/?search=Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">from the countryside</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8222_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8222-138">[137]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=S%C3%A9miramis_(Casablanca)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sémiramis (Casablanca) (page does not exist)">Sémiramis</a>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Nid_d%27Abeille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nid d'Abeille (page does not exist)">Nid d'Abeille</a></i></span> (Honeycomb), and <a href="/info/en/?search=Carri%C3%A8res_Centrales" title="Carrières Centrales">Carrières Centrales</a> were some of the first examples of this <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Vernacular_Modernism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vernacular Modernism (page does not exist)">Vernacular Modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-140">[139]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Carri%C3%A8res_Centrales" title="Carrières Centrales">Carrières Centrales</a> was the first project to employ the 8x8 grid associated with GAMMA.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="1953_CIAM">1953 CIAM</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=116" title="Edit section: 1953 CIAM"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>At the 1953 <a href="/info/en/?search=Congr%C3%A8s_Internationaux_d%27Architecture_Moderne" title="Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne"><i>Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture</i> Moderne</a> (CIAM), Écochard presented, along with <a href="/info/en/?search=Georges_Candilis" title="Georges Candilis">Georges Candilis</a>, the work of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=ATBAT-Afrique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATBAT-Afrique (page does not exist)">ATBAT-Afrique</a>—the Africa branch of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Atelier_des_B%C3%A2tisseurs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atelier des Bâtisseurs (page does not exist)">Atelier des Bâtisseurs</a></i></span>, founded in 1947 by figures including <a href="/info/en/?search=Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Vladimir_Bodiansky" title="Vladimir Bodiansky">Vladimir Bodiansky</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Andr%C3%A9_Wogenscky" title="André Wogenscky">André Wogenscky</a>. It was a study of Casablanca's <a href="/info/en/?search=Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">bidonvilles</a> entitled "Habitat for the Greatest Number".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a></sup> It argued against doctrine, arguing that architects must consider local culture and climate in their designs.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-144">[143]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8222_138-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8222-138">[137]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a></sup> This generated great debate among modernist architects around the world and eventually <a href="/info/en/?search=Team_10" title="Team 10">provoked a schism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-144">[143]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a></sup>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-independence">Post-independence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=117" title="Edit section: Post-independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>The French-Moroccan architect <a href="/info/en/?search=Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Zevaco" title="Jean-François Zevaco">Jean-François Zevaco</a> built experimental modernist works in Morocco.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Abdeslam_Faraoui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdeslam Faraoui (page does not exist)">Abdeslam Faraoui</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Patrice_de_Mazi%C3%A8res&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patrice de Mazières (page does not exist)">Patrice de Mazières</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Mourad_Ben_Embarek" title="Mourad Ben Embarek">Mourad Ben Embarek</a> were also notable modernist architects in Morocco.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-149">[148]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-colonial_architecture">Post-colonial architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=118" title="Edit section: Post-colonial architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Downtown_Lusaka.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Downtown_Lusaka.JPG/220px-Downtown_Lusaka.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Downtown_Lusaka.JPG/330px-Downtown_Lusaka.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Downtown_Lusaka.JPG/440px-Downtown_Lusaka.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3786" data-file-height="2853" /></a><figcaption>Downtown <a href="/info/en/?search=Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>, capital city of Zambia with <a href="/info/en/?search=FINDECO_House" title="FINDECO House">FINDECO House</a> on the right</figcaption></figure>
<p>A number of new cities were built following the end of <a href="/info/en/?search=Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, while others were greatly expanded. Perhaps the best known example is that of <a href="/info/en/?search=Abidjan" title="Abidjan">Abidjan</a>, where the majority of buildings were still designed by high-profile non-African architects. In <a href="/info/en/?search=Yamoussoukro" title="Yamoussoukro">Yamoussoukro</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Basilica_of_Our_Lady_of_Peace_of_Yamoussoukro" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro">Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro</a> is an example of a desire for monumentality in these new cities, but <a href="/info/en/?search=Arch_22" title="Arch 22">Arch 22</a> in the old <a href="/info/en/?search=The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambian</a> capital of <a href="/info/en/?search=Banjul" title="Banjul">Banjul</a> displays the same bravado.
</p><p>Experimental designs have also appeared, most notably the <a href="/info/en/?search=Eastgate_Centre,_Harare" title="Eastgate Centre, Harare">Eastgate Centre</a> in Zimbabwe. With an advanced form of natural air-conditioning, this building was designed to respond precisely to Harare's climate and needs, rather than import less suitable designs. Neo-<a href="/info/en/?search=Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">vernacular architecture</a> continues, for instance with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Mosque_of_Niono" title="Great Mosque of Niono">Great Mosque of Niono</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Hassan_Fathy" title="Hassan Fathy">Hassan Fathy</a>'s <a href="/info/en/?search=New_Gourna" class="mw-redirect" title="New Gourna">New Gourna</a>.
</p><p>Other notable structures of recent years have been some of the world's largest dams. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan High Dam</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Akosombo_Dam" title="Akosombo Dam">Akosombo Dam</a> hold back the world's largest <a href="/info/en/?search=Reservoir_(water)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoir (water)">reservoirs</a>. In recent years, there has also been renewed <a href="/info/en/?search=Bridge" title="Bridge">bridge</a> building in many nations, while the <a href="/info/en/?search=Trans-Gabon_Railway" title="Trans-Gabon Railway">Trans-Gabon Railway</a> is perhaps the last of the great railways to be constructed.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Traditional_revival">Traditional revival</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=119" title="Edit section: Traditional revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Lamu_housing_structure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lamu_housing_structure.jpg/220px-Lamu_housing_structure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lamu_housing_structure.jpg/330px-Lamu_housing_structure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lamu_housing_structure.jpg/440px-Lamu_housing_structure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Modern housing in <a href="/info/en/?search=Lamu" title="Lamu">Lamu</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced to <a href="/info/en/?search=Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in the early 19th century. This had spread to <a href="/info/en/?search=Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> and Morocco by the early 20th century, from which time colonial buildings across the continent began to consist of recreations of traditional African architecture, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Jamia_Mosque_(Kenya)" title="Jamia Mosque (Kenya)">Jamia Mosque</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Nairobi" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</a> being a typical example. In some cases, architects attempted to mix local and European styles, such as at <a href="/info/en/?search=Bagamoyo" title="Bagamoyo">Bagamoyo</a>.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=120" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">List of World Heritage Sites in Africa</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=121" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-fn2-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn2_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see <a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Archives/Language/2021_June_9#Colonial_fort_quote" title="Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2021 June 9">this link</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Archives/Language/2022_January_7#Caroselli" title="Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2022 January 7">this link</a><br />*The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=122" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEglash1999" class="citation book cs1">Eglash, Ron (1999). <i>African Fractals Modern Computing and Indigenous Design</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2613-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2613-3"><bdi>978-0-8135-2613-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Fractals+Modern+Computing+and+Indigenous+Design&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-2613-3&rft.aulast=Eglash&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Osypiński-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osypiński_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsypińskiOsypińskaGautier2011" class="citation journal cs1">Osypiński, Piotr; Osypińska, Marta; Gautier, Achilles (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549">"Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan"</a>. <i>Journal of African Archaeology</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 177–188. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3213%2F2191-5784-10186">10.3213/2191-5784-10186</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1612-1651">1612-1651</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549">43135549</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7787802958">7787802958</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161078189">161078189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Affad+23%2C+a+Late+Middle+Palaeolithic+Site+With+Refitted+Lithics+and+Animal+Remains+in+the+Southern+Dongola+Reach%2C+Sudan&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=177-188&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43135549%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3213%2F2191-5784-10186&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7787802958&rft.issn=1612-1651&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161078189%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft.au=Osypi%C5%84ska%2C+Marta&rft.au=Gautier%2C+Achilles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43135549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Osypiński_II-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osypiński_II_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsypiński2020" class="citation web cs1">Osypiński, Piotr (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf">"Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Science Centre.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unearthing+Pan-African+crossroad%3F+Significance+of+the+middle+Nile+valley+in+prehistory&rft.pub=National+Science+Centre&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprojekty.ncn.gov.pl%2Fopisy%2F480275-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Osypińska-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osypińska_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsypińska2021" class="citation book cs1">Osypińska, Marta (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Animals in the history of the Middle Nile"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan</i>. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw. p. 460. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9788395336256" title="Special:BookSources/9788395336256"><bdi>9788395336256</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1374884636">1374884636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animals+in+the+history+of+the+Middle+Nile&rft.btitle=From+Faras+to+Soba%3A+60+years+of+Sudanese%E2%80%93Polish+cooperation+in+saving+the+heritage+of+Sudan&rft.pages=460&rft.pub=Polish+Centre+of+Mediterranean+Archaeology%2FUniversity+of+Warsaw&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1374884636&rft.isbn=9788395336256&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ska&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepot.ceon.pl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F21580%2FKatalog%2520wystawy%2520From%2520Faras%2520to%2520Soba%2520-%2520ONLINE%2520o2.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Osypińska_II-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osypińska_II_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOsypińskaOsypiński2021" class="citation book cs1">Osypińska, Marta; Osypiński, Piotr (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan</i>. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw. pp. 187–188. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9788395336256" title="Special:BookSources/9788395336256"><bdi>9788395336256</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1374884636">1374884636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+oldest+huts+and+the+first+cattle+keepers+in+Africa&rft.btitle=From+Faras+to+Soba%3A+60+years+of+Sudanese%E2%80%93Polish+cooperation+in+saving+the+heritage+of+Sudan&rft.pages=187-188&rft.pub=Polish+Centre+of+Mediterranean+Archaeology%2FUniversity+of+Warsaw&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1374884636&rft.isbn=9788395336256&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ska&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft.au=Osypi%C5%84ski%2C+Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepot.ceon.pl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F21580%2FKatalog%2520wystawy%2520From%2520Faras%2520to%2520Soba%2520-%2520ONLINE%2520o2.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ferhat-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferhat_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferhat_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferhat_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFerhatStriedterTauveron2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ferhat, Nadjib; Striedter, Karl Heinz; Tauveron, Michel (April 30, 2000). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3715024">"Les " Kel Essuf " : un nouveau faciès de l'art rupestre du Sahara central"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA</i>. <b>330</b> (8): 577–580. <a href="/info/en/?search=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000CRASE.330..577F">2000CRASE.330..577F</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1251-8050%2800%2900177-4">10.1016/S1251-8050(00)00177-4</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1251-8050">1251-8050</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4931567223">4931567223</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126951785">126951785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+des+Sciences%2C+S%C3%A9rie+IIA&rft.atitle=Les+%22+Kel+Essuf+%22+%3A+un+nouveau+faci%C3%A8s+de+l%27art+rupestre+du+Sahara+central&rft.volume=330&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=577-580&rft.date=2000-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126951785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000CRASE.330..577F&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4931567223&rft.issn=1251-8050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1251-8050%2800%2900177-4&rft.aulast=Ferhat&rft.aufirst=Nadjib&rft.au=Striedter%2C+Karl+Heinz&rft.au=Tauveron%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3715024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Aïn-Séba-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aïn-Séba_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aïn-Séba_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAïn-Séba2022" class="citation journal cs1">Aïn-Séba, Nagète (June 3, 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://riull.ull.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/915/27450/TB_22_%282022%29_15.pdf">"Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología</i>. <b>22</b> (22): 308. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25145%2Fj.tabona.2022.22.15">10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2530-8327">2530-8327</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249349324">249349324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tabona%3A+Revista+de+Prehistoria+y+Arqueolog%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=Saharan+Rock+Art%2C+A+Reflection+Of+Climate+Change+In+The+Sahara&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=308&rft.date=2022-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249349324%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2530-8327&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25145%2Fj.tabona.2022.22.15&rft.aulast=A%C3%AFn-S%C3%A9ba&rft.aufirst=Nag%C3%A8te&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Friull.ull.es%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F915%2F27450%2FTB_22_%25282022%2529_15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Soukopova-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Soukopova_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soukopova_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSoukopova2013" class="citation book cs1">Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=07wwBwAAQBAJ&q=Tuareg&pg=PR5"><i>Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 20. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781443845793" title="Special:BookSources/9781443845793"><bdi>9781443845793</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/826685273">826685273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Round+Heads%3A+The+Earliest+Rock+Paintings+in+the+Sahara&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2013-01-16&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F826685273&rft.isbn=9781443845793&rft.aulast=Soukopova&rft.aufirst=Jitka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D07wwBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DTuareg%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Di_Lernia-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Lernia2013" class="citation journal cs1">Di Lernia, Savino (June 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271666951">"Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara"</a>. <i>Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 176, 179–181, 183–186. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0067270X.2013.788867">10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0067-270X">0067-270X</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5136086464">5136086464</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162877973">162877973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Azania%3A+Archaeological+Research+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Places%2C+monuments%2C+and+landscape%3A+Evidence+from+the+Holocene+central+Sahara&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=176%2C+179-181%2C+183-186&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5136086464&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162877973%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0067-270X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0067270X.2013.788867&rft.aulast=Di+Lernia&rft.aufirst=Savino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F271666951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Di_Lernia_II-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_II_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Lernia2013" class="citation journal cs1">Di Lernia, Savino; et al. (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3577651">"Inside the "African Cattle Complex": Animal Burials in the Holocene Central Sahara"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>8</b> (2): e56879. <a href="/info/en/?search=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...856879D">2013PLoSO...856879D</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0056879">10.1371/journal.pone.0056879</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/828565064">828565064</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3577651">3577651</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23437260">23437260</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4057938">4057938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Inside+the+%22African+Cattle+Complex%22%3A+Animal+Burials+in+the+Holocene+Central+Sahara&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e56879&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3577651%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4057938%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLoSO...856879D&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F828565064&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0056879&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23437260&rft.aulast=Di+Lernia&rft.aufirst=Savino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3577651&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Muscat-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Muscat_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMuscat2012" class="citation book cs1">Muscat, Iona (January 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6584373"><i>Megalithism and monumentality in prehistoric North Africa</i></a>. University of Malta. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133240608">133240608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Megalithism+and+monumentality+in+prehistoric+North+Africa&rft.pub=University+of+Malta&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133240608%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Muscat&rft.aufirst=Iona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6584373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Di_Lernia_III-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_III_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Lernia_III_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDi_LerniaTafuri2013" class="citation journal cs1">Di Lernia, Savino; Tafuri, Mary Anne (March 2013). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257118118">"Persistent deathplaces and mobile landmarks: The Holocene mortuary and isotopic record from Wadi Takarkori (SW Libya)"</a>. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i>. <b>32</b>: 3–5, 8–14. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FJ.JAA.2012.07.002">10.1016/J.JAA.2012.07.002</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0278-4165">0278-4165</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5902856678">5902856678</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144968825">144968825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Anthropological+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Persistent+deathplaces+and+mobile+landmarks%3A+The+Holocene+mortuary+and+isotopic+record+from+Wadi+Takarkori+%28SW+Libya%29&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=3-5%2C+8-14&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5902856678&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144968825%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0278-4165&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FJ.JAA.2012.07.002&rft.aulast=Di+Lernia&rft.aufirst=Savino&rft.au=Tafuri%2C+Mary+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F257118118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hassan-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHassan2002" class="citation book cs1">Hassan, F. A. (2002). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2">"Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview"</a>. <i>Droughts, Food and Culture</i>. Droughts, Food and Culture. p. 17. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-306-47547-2_2">10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-306-46755-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-46755-0"><bdi>0-306-46755-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51874863">51874863</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126608903">126608903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palaeoclimate%2C+Food+And+Culture+Change+In+Africa%3A+An+Overview&rft.btitle=Droughts%2C+Food+and+Culture&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Droughts%2C+Food+and+Culture&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51874863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126608903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F0-306-47547-2_2&rft.isbn=0-306-46755-0&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=F.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F0-306-47547-2_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Holl_V-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holl_V_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoll1998" class="citation journal cs1">Holl, A. (1998). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2558487">"The Dawn of African Pastoralisms: An Introductory Note"</a>. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 81–83. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjaar.1998.0318">10.1006/jaar.1998.0318</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0278-4165">0278-4165</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/361174899">361174899</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144518526">144518526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Anthropological+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Dawn+of+African+Pastoralisms%3A+An+Introductory+Note&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81-83&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F361174899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144518526%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0278-4165&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fjaar.1998.0318&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2558487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Holl_II-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_II_15-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2020" class="citation journal cs1">Holl, Augustin F.C. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350557762">"Megaliths in Tropical Africa: Social Dynamics and Mortuary Practices in Ancient Senegambia (ca. 1350 BCE -1500 CE)"</a>. <i>International Journal of Modern Anthropology</i>. <b>2</b> (15): 364–368, 372, 405. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4314%2FIJMA.V2I15.1">10.4314/IJMA.V2I15.1</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1737-7374">1737-7374</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9053151421">9053151421</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236340668">236340668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Megaliths+in+Tropical+Africa%3A+Social+Dynamics+and+Mortuary+Practices+in+Ancient+Senegambia+%28ca.+1350+BCE+-1500+CE%29&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=364-368%2C+372%2C+405&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9053151421&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236340668%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1737-7374&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4314%2FIJMA.V2I15.1&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F350557762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrettFentress1996" class="citation book cs1">Brett, Michael; Fentress, Elizabeth (1996). <i>The Berbers</i>. Blackwell. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780631207672" title="Special:BookSources/9780631207672"><bdi>9780631207672</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Berbers&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780631207672&rft.aulast=Brett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Fentress%2C+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture">"ancient Egyptian architecture | Types, History, & Facts"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=ancient+Egyptian+architecture+%7C+Types%2C+History%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FEgyptian-architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBianchi2004" class="citation book cs1">Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian"><i>Daily Life of the Nubians</i></a></span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifenubians00bian/page/n249">227</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4"><bdi>978-0-313-32501-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Nubians&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32501-4&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Robert+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifenubians00bian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bietak, Manfred. <a class="external text" href="https://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm">The C-Group culture and the Pan Grave culture</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511234450/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/c-group.htm">Archived</a> May 11, 2009, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cairo: Austrian Archaeological Institute</span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kendall, Timothy. <a class="external text" href="https://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm">The 25th Dynasty</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090430085438/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/25th.htm">Archived</a> April 30, 2009, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm">Nubia Museum</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Aswan</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kendall, Timothy. <a class="external text" href="https://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm">The Meroitic State: Nubia as a Hellenistic African State. 300 B.C.-350 AD</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426001841/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/meroe.htm">Archived</a> April 26, 2009, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm">Nubia Museum</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615223915/http://www.numibia.net/nubia/index.htm">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>:Aswan</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prof. James Giblin, Department of History, The University of Iowa. <a class="external text" href="https://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html">Issues in African History</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415144652/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/history/giblinhistory.html">Archived</a> April 15, 2008, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:5-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37/">"Archaeological Site of Carthage"</a>. <i>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Site+of+Carthage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F37%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/punic-ports/a/poi-sig/1484892/355691">"Punic Ports | Tunis, Tunisia Attractions"</a>. <i>Lonely Planet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Punic+Ports+%7C+Tunis%2C+Tunisia+Attractions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Ftunisia%2Ftunis%2Fattractions%2Fpunic-ports%2Fa%2Fpoi-sig%2F1484892%2F355691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/tunisia/tunis/attractions/sanctuary-of-tophet/a/poi-sig/1000411/355691">"Sanctuary of Tophet | Tunis, Tunisia Attractions"</a>. <i>Lonely Planet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Sanctuary+of+Tophet+%7C+Tunis%2C+Tunisia+Attractions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Ftunisia%2Ftunis%2Fattractions%2Fsanctuary-of-tophet%2Fa%2Fpoi-sig%2F1000411%2F355691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEnnabli2000" class="citation web cs1">Ennabli, Abdelmajid (2000). <a class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056/">"North Africa's Roman art. Its future"</a>. <i>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912130852/http://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/6056">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-09-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=North+Africa%27s+Roman+art.+Its+future.&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Ennabli&rft.aufirst=Abdelmajid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2F6056%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNijst1973" class="citation book cs1">Nijst, A. L. M. T. (1973). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K1M3AQAAIAAJ&q=ceuta+chellah+volubilis+architecture"><i>Living on the edge of the Sahara: a study of traditional forms of habitation and types of settlement in Morocco</i></a>. Govt. Pub. Office. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9789012001052" title="Special:BookSources/9789012001052"><bdi>9789012001052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+on+the+edge+of+the+Sahara%3A+a+study+of+traditional+forms+of+habitation+and+types+of+settlement+in+Morocco&rft.pub=Govt.+Pub.+Office&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9789012001052&rft.aulast=Nijst&rft.aufirst=A.+L.+M.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK1M3AQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dceuta%2Bchellah%2Bvolubilis%2Barchitecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/frontiers-of-the-roman-empire.html">"Frontiers of the Roman empire | African World Heritage Sites"</a>. <i>www.africanworldheritagesites.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.africanworldheritagesites.org&rft.atitle=Frontiers+of+the+Roman+empire+%7C+African+World+Heritage+Sites&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.africanworldheritagesites.org%2Fcultural-places%2Ffrontiers-of-the-roman-empire.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1995" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Basil (1995). <i>Africa in History</i>. Simon & Schuster. p. 50. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82667-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82667-7"><bdi>978-0-684-82667-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+in+History&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82667-7&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Basil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Dueppen-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dueppen_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dueppen_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dueppen_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDueppenGallagher2023" class="citation journal cs1">Dueppen, Stephen A.; Gallagher, Daphne (5 January 2023). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2">"Networked Farmers, Ancestral Rituals, Regional Marketplaces, and Salt: New Insights into the Complexity of First Millennium BC/AD Farming Societies in West Africa"</a>. <i>African Archaeological Review</i>. <b>39</b> (4): 21–52. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-022-09509-2">10.1007/s10437-022-09509-2</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255557451">255557451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Networked+Farmers%2C+Ancestral+Rituals%2C+Regional+Marketplaces%2C+and+Salt%3A+New+Insights+into+the+Complexity+of+First+Millennium+BC%2FAD+Farming+Societies+in+West+Africa&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=21-52&rft.date=2023-01-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-022-09509-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255557451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dueppen&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rft.au=Gallagher%2C+Daphne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-022-09509-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMunson1980" class="citation journal cs1">Munson, Patrick J. (1980). "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana empire". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>21</b> (4): 457–466. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700018685">10.1017/S0021853700018685</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161981607">161981607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+the+prehistoric+origins+of+the+Ghana+empire&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=457-466&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700018685&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161981607%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munson&rft.aufirst=Patrick+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2009" class="citation journal cs1">Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005/">"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Geoscience</i>. <b>341</b> (8–9): 703–712. <a href="/info/en/?search=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009CRGeo.341..703H">2009CRGeo.341..703H</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005">10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Coping+with+uncertainty%3A+Neolithic+life+in+the+Dhar+Tichitt-Walata%2C+Mauritania%2C+%28ca.+4000%E2%80%932300+BP%29&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=8%E2%80%939&rft.pages=703-712&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009CRGeo.341..703H&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr%2Fgeoscience%2Farticles%2F10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFageOliver1978" class="citation book cs1">Fage, J.D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1978). <i>The Cambridge History of Africa</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 338. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21592-3"><bdi>978-0-521-21592-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21592-3&rft.aulast=Fage&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. p. 42. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-McDougall-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McDougall_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2019" class="citation book cs1">McDougall, E. Ann (25 February 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-285">"Saharan Peoples and Societies"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History</i>. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.285">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4"><bdi>978-0-19-027773-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159184437">159184437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saharan+Peoples+and+Societies&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+African+History&rft.pub=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedias&rft.date=2019-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159184437%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.285&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027773-4&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=E.+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fafricanhistory%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190277734-e-285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Holl-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2009" class="citation journal cs1">Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071309000996">"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Geoscience</i>. <b>341</b> (8–9): 703. <a href="/info/en/?search=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009CRGeo.341..703H">2009CRGeo.341..703H</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005">10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1631-0713">1631-0713</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5900121710">5900121710</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128545688">128545688</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Coping+with+uncertainty%3A+Neolithic+life+in+the+Dhar+Tichitt-Walata%2C+Mauritania%2C+%28ca.+4000%E2%80%932300+BP%29&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=8%E2%80%939&rft.pages=703&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128545688%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009CRGeo.341..703H&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5900121710&rft.issn=1631-0713&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1631071309000996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-MacDonald_IV-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacDonald_IV_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonaldVernet2007" class="citation book cs1">MacDonald, K.; Vernet, R. (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTnffH-elc0C&q=%22Tichitt%22+%22metallurgy%22&pg=PA71">"Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper"</a>. <i>Fields of Change: Progress in African Archaeobotany</i>. Barkhuis. pp. 71–72. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9789077922309" title="Special:BookSources/9789077922309"><bdi>9789077922309</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/309688961">309688961</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130234059">130234059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+domesticated+pearl+millet+in+Dhar+Nema+%28Mauritania%29%3A+evidence+of+crop+processing+waste+as+ceramic+temper&rft.btitle=Fields+of+Change%3A+Progress+in+African+Archaeobotany&rft.pages=71-72&rft.pub=Barkhuis&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F309688961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130234059%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=9789077922309&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Vernet%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgTnffH-elc0C%26q%3D%2522Tichitt%2522%2B%2522metallurgy%2522%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Amblard-Pison-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amblard-Pison_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAmblard-Pison2014" class="citation journal cs1">Amblard-Pison, Sylvie (2014). <a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fafriques%2F1496">"Between sands and stones: eating and drinking in the Neolithic villages of a Saharan refuge area in south-eastern Mauritania"</a>. <i>Afriques Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire</i>. <b>5</b>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2FAFRIQUES.1496">10.4000/AFRIQUES.1496</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:190294373">190294373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Afriques+D%C3%A9bats%2C+M%C3%A9thodes+et+Terrains+d%27Histoire&rft.atitle=Between+sands+and+stones%3A+eating+and+drinking+in+the+Neolithic+villages+of+a+Saharan+refuge+area+in+south-eastern+Mauritania&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2FAFRIQUES.1496&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A190294373%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Amblard-Pison&rft.aufirst=Sylvie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslate.google.com%2Ftranslate%3Fsl%3Dauto%26tl%3Den%26u%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fjournals.openedition.org%252Fafriques%252F1496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lim-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lim_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLim2020" class="citation book cs1">Lim, J (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:77740928-4f32-478c-924d-09ceeb61f75d">"Archaeology"</a>. <i>Geometric data for tumuli in Dhar Tagant, Mauritania</i>. University of Oxford. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5287%2FBODLEIAN%3ANRYV1OB2R">10.5287/BODLEIAN:NRYV1OB2R</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236798102">236798102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology&rft.btitle=Geometric+data+for+tumuli+in+Dhar+Tagant%2C+Mauritania&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5287%2FBODLEIAN%3ANRYV1OB2R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236798102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A77740928-4f32-478c-924d-09ceeb61f75d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sterry-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sterry_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSterryMattingly2020" class="citation book cs1">Sterry, Martin; Mattingly, David J. (Mar 26, 2020). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B9PKDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Tichitt+culture%22&pg=PR8">"Pre-Islamic Oasis Settlements in the Southern Sahara"</a>. <i>Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108637978.008">10.1017/9781108637978.008</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781108494441" title="Special:BookSources/9781108494441"><bdi>9781108494441</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1128066278">1128066278</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243375056">243375056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pre-Islamic+Oasis+Settlements+in+the+Southern+Sahara&rft.btitle=Urbanisation+and+State+Formation+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020-03-26&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1128066278&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243375056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108637978.008&rft.isbn=9781108494441&rft.aulast=Sterry&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Mattingly%2C+David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB9PKDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Tichitt%2Bculture%2522%26pg%3DPR8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Garcea-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garcea_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garcea_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garcea_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGarcea2013" class="citation book cs1">Garcea, Elena A. A. (2013). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fUy8gejsmSIC&q=%22Tumuli%22">"Regional Overview During The Time Frame of the Gobero Occupation"</a>. <i>Gobero The No-return Frontier: Archaeology and Landscape at the Saharo-Sahelian Borderland</i>. Africa Magna Verlag. p. 258. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9783937248349" title="Special:BookSources/9783937248349"><bdi>9783937248349</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/849683991">849683991</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202916401">202916401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Regional+Overview+During+The+Time+Frame+of+the+Gobero+Occupation&rft.btitle=Gobero+The+No-return+Frontier%3A+Archaeology+and+Landscape+at+the+Saharo-Sahelian+Borderland&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Africa+Magna+Verlag&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F849683991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202916401%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=9783937248349&rft.aulast=Garcea&rft.aufirst=Elena+A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfUy8gejsmSIC%26q%3D%2522Tumuli%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. pp. 44–45. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=44-45&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Rupp-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rupp_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rupp_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rupp_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rupp_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRuppAmejeBreunig2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rupp, Nicole; Ameje, James; Breunig, Peter (2005). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228965010">"New Studies on the Nok Culture of Central Nigeria"</a>. <i>Journal of African Archaeology</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 287. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3213%2F1612-1651-10056">10.3213/1612-1651-10056</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1612-1651">1612-1651</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5919406005">5919406005</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162190915">162190915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Archaeology&rft.atitle=New+Studies+on+the+Nok+Culture+of+Central+Nigeria&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=287&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5919406005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162190915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1612-1651&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3213%2F1612-1651-10056&rft.aulast=Rupp&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft.au=Ameje%2C+James&rft.au=Breunig%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F228965010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Holl_IV-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holl_IV_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2018" class="citation book cs1">Holl, Augustin F. C. (May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36474475">"Megaliths and Cultural Landscape: Archaeology of the Petit Bao Bolon Drainage"</a>. <i>Preserving African Cultural Heritage</i>. Panafrican Archaeological Association. p. 120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Megaliths+and+Cultural+Landscape%3A+Archaeology+of+the+Petit+Bao+Bolon+Drainage&rft.btitle=Preserving+African+Cultural+Heritage&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Panafrican+Archaeological+Association&rft.date=2018-05&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36474475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sall-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sall_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSall2017" class="citation book cs1">Sall, Moustapha (May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316739653">"Academic Research In West Africa: The Case Of Senegal"</a>. <i>Field Manual for African Archaeology</i>. Royal Museum for Central Africa. p. 13. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-9-4922-4427-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4922-4427-7"><bdi>978-9-4922-4427-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987859017">987859017</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222116314">222116314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Academic+Research+In+West+Africa%3A+The+Case+Of+Senegal&rft.btitle=Field+Manual+for+African+Archaeology&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Royal+Museum+for+Central+Africa&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F987859017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222116314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-9-4922-4427-7&rft.aulast=Sall&rft.aufirst=Moustapha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F316739653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Coutros-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coutros_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coutros_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoutros2017" class="citation journal cs1">Coutros, Peter R. (4 April 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/130FA79106C62F9C5B1FAAC9C8E6AAAE/S0003598X17000308a.pdf/div-class-title-the-malian-lakes-region-redefined-archaeological-survey-of-the-gorbi-valley-div.pdf">"The Malian Lakes Region redefined:archaeological survey of the Gorbi Valley"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>91</b> (356): 481. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2017.30">10.15184/aqy.2017.30</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8271821798">8271821798</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161053129">161053129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Malian+Lakes+Region+redefined%3Aarchaeological+survey+of+the+Gorbi+Valley&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=356&rft.pages=481&rft.date=2017-04-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8271821798&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161053129%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-598X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2017.30&rft.aulast=Coutros&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F130FA79106C62F9C5B1FAAC9C8E6AAAE%2FS0003598X17000308a.pdf%2Fdiv-class-title-the-malian-lakes-region-redefined-archaeological-survey-of-the-gorbi-valley-div.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&lang=en#:~:text=This%20mosque,%20the%20oldest%20and,dressed%20stone%20cut%20like%20brick.">"Qantara - Great Mosque of Kairouan"</a>. <i>www.qantara-med.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.qantara-med.org&rft.atitle=Qantara+-+Great+Mosque+of+Kairouan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qantara-med.org%2Fpublic%2Fshow_document.php%3Fdo_id%3D399%26lang%3Den%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThis%2520mosque%2C%2520the%2520oldest%2520and%2Cdressed%2520stone%2520cut%2520like%2520brick.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_58-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2020" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1"><i>Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780300218701" title="Special:BookSources/9780300218701"><bdi>9780300218701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780300218701&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRHbDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DArchitecture%2Bof%2Bthe%2BIslamic%2BWest%253A%2BNorth%2BAfrica%2Band%2Bthe%2BIberian%2BPeninsula%252C%2B700-1800%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="(Rashed_&_Morelon_1996,_pp._751–95)_harv_error:_no_target:_CITEREFRashedMorelon1996_(help)Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Donald_Routledge_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Routledge Hill">Hill, Donald Routledge</a> (1996). <a href="/info/en/?search=Roshdi_Rashed" title="Roshdi Rashed">Rashed, Roshdi</a>; Morelon, Régis (eds.). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/RoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996/Roshdi+Rashed+%28ed.%29-Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science%2C+Vol.+3-Routledge+%281996%29_djvu.txt"><i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i></a>. Vol. 3. London: <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 766. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-415-02063-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-02063-8"><bdi>0-415-02063-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=766&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-415-02063-8&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Donald+Routledge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FRoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996%2FRoshdi%2BRashed%2B%2528ed.%2529-Encyclopedia%2Bof%2Bthe%2BHistory%2Bof%2BArabic%2BScience%252C%2BVol.%2B3-Routledge%2B%25281996%2529_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:24-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:24_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_60-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFM._BloomS._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture". <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780195309911" title="Special:BookSources/9780195309911"><bdi>9780195309911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Architecture&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195309911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:04-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:04_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2013" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2013). <i>The minaret</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0748637256" title="Special:BookSources/978-0748637256"><bdi>978-0748637256</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/856037134">856037134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+minaret&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F856037134&rft.isbn=978-0748637256&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2017" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Felix (2017). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA215"><i>Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062455-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062455-2"><bdi>978-0-19-062455-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-062455-2&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbXjXDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:242-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:242_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFM._BloomS._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Tlemcen". <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780195309911" title="Special:BookSources/9780195309911"><bdi>9780195309911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tlemcen&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195309911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStewart" class="citation web cs1">Stewart, Courtney Ann. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33423812">"Art and Architecture of Morocco and Muslim Spain: Bronze Age to Idrisid Dynasty"</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Art+and+Architecture+of+Morocco+and+Muslim+Spain%3A+Bronze+Age+to+Idrisid+Dynasty&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Courtney+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F33423812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRuggles1999" class="citation journal cs1">Ruggles, D. (1999-04-22). <a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3202%2Fcaa.reviews.1999.75">"D. Fairchild Ruggles. Review of "The Minbar from Kutubiyya Mosque" by Jonathan M. Bloom"</a>. <i>Caa.reviews</i>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3202%2Fcaa.reviews.1999.75">10.3202/caa.reviews.1999.75</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1543-950X">1543-950X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caa.reviews&rft.atitle=D.+Fairchild+Ruggles.+Review+of+%22The+Minbar+from+Kutubiyya+Mosque%22+by+Jonathan+M.+Bloom.&rft.date=1999-04-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3202%2Fcaa.reviews.1999.75&rft.issn=1543-950X&rft.aulast=Ruggles&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3202%252Fcaa.reviews.1999.75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:23-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:23_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBennison2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennison, Amira K. (2016). <i>The Almoravid and Almohad Empires</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780748646821" title="Special:BookSources/9780748646821"><bdi>9780748646821</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Almoravid+and+Almohad+Empires&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780748646821&rft.aulast=Bennison&rft.aufirst=Amira+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:8-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2020" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1"><i>Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780300218701" title="Special:BookSources/9780300218701"><bdi>9780300218701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780300218701&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRHbDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DIslamic%2BPalace%2BArchitecture%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWestern%2BMediterranean%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2020" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020-06-30). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA276"><i>Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21870-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21870-1"><bdi>978-0-300-21870-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2020-06-30&rft.isbn=978-0-300-21870-1&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRHbDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSoo-Hoo" class="citation web cs1">Soo-Hoo, Anna. <a class="external text" href="https://henripeyrefi.ws.gc.cuny.edu/2017/01/27/a-very-sweet-present-moroccan-sugar-loaves-by-iziar-de-miguel/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"A Very Sweet Present: Moroccan Sugar Loaves" by Iziar de Miguel"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22A+Very+Sweet+Present%3A+Moroccan+Sugar+Loaves%22+by+Iziar+de+Miguel&rft.aulast=Soo-Hoo&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhenripeyrefi.ws.gc.cuny.edu%2F2017%2F01%2F27%2Fa-very-sweet-present-moroccan-sugar-loaves-by-iziar-de-miguel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:032-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:032_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:032_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2018" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Caroline (2018). <i>Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide</i> (7th ed.). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Monuments+in+Cairo%3A+The+Practical+Guide&rft.place=Cairo&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAwuah2021" class="citation book cs1">Awuah, Kwasi Gyau Baffour (2021). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WRYeEAAAQBAJ&dq=benin+city+underground+drainage&pg=PT63"><i>Economic Incentives in Sub-Saharan African Urban Planning: A Ghanaian Case Study</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-100037333-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-100037333-2"><bdi>978-100037333-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Incentives+in+Sub-Saharan+African+Urban+Planning%3A+A+Ghanaian+Case+Study&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-100037333-2&rft.aulast=Awuah&rft.aufirst=Kwasi+Gyau+Baffour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWRYeEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dbenin%2Bcity%2Bunderground%2Bdrainage%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. pp. 123–126. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=123-126&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.nigeriagalleria.com/Nigeria/States_Nigeria/Katsina/Gobarau-Minaret-Katsina.html">"Gobarau Minaret Katsina State :: Nigeria Information & Guide"</a>. <i>www.nigeriagalleria.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nigeriagalleria.com&rft.atitle=Gobarau+Minaret+Katsina+State+%3A%3A+Nigeria+Information+%26+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nigeriagalleria.com%2FNigeria%2FStates_Nigeria%2FKatsina%2FGobarau-Minaret-Katsina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://ng.africabz.com/katsina/gobarau-198786">"Gobarau, Katsina, phone +234 903 249 8940"</a>. <i>ng.africabz.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ng.africabz.com&rft.atitle=Gobarau%2C+Katsina%2C+phone+%2B234+903+249+8940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fng.africabz.com%2Fkatsina%2Fgobarau-198786&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. p. 68. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1450/">"Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site"</a>. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thimlich+Ohinga+Archaeological+Site&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F1450%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Secrets in stone. Who built the stone settlements of Nyanza Province. Kenya Past and Present</i>. 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secrets+in+stone.+Who+built+the+stone+settlements+of+Nyanza+Province.+Kenya+Past+and+Present&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. pp. 69–70. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=69-70&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Man, God and Civilization pg 216</span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diriye, p.102</span>
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<li id="cite_note-caroselli-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-caroselli_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven <i>garesas</i> (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."<a class="external text" href="https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/handle/2307/4173">viewable link</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHull1976" class="citation book cs1">Hull, Richard W. (1976). <i>African Cities and Towns Before the European Conquest</i>. New York : Norton. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05581-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05581-8"><bdi>978-0-393-05581-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Cities+and+Towns+Before+the+European+Conquest&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Norton&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05581-8&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2004" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of African history</i>. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 1368. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-453-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-453-5"><bdi>978-1-57958-453-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+history&rft.pages=1368&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-453-5&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">African Archaeological Review, Volume 15, Number 3, September 1998, pp. 199-218(20)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. p. 74. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTracy2000" class="citation book cs1">Tracy, James D. (2000). <i>City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65221-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65221-6"><bdi>978-0-521-65221-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+Walls+The+Urban+Enceinte+in+Global+Perspective&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65221-6&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. pp. 106–107. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=106-107&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. p. 77. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoquery-Vidrovitch2005" class="citation book cs1">Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005). <i>The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization</i>. Markus Wiener Pub. p. 83. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-303-6"><bdi>978-1-55876-303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+African+Cities+South+of+the+Sahara+From+the+Origins+to+Colonization&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-303-6&rft.aulast=Coquery-Vidrovitch&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBirmingham1981" class="citation book cs1">Birmingham, David (1981). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95"><i>Central Africa to 1870 Zambezia, Zaire and the South Atlantic</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centralafricato100birm/page/95">95</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28444-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28444-8"><bdi>978-0-521-28444-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Africa+to+1870+Zambezia%2C+Zaire+and+the+South+Atlantic&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-28444-8&rft.aulast=Birmingham&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcentralafricato100birm%2Fpage%2F95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1991" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Basil (1991). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343"><i>African Civilization Revisiteed From Antiquity to Modern Times</i></a>. Africa World Press. pp. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africancivilizat0000davi/page/343">343–344</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-86543-124-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86543-124-9"><bdi>978-0-86543-124-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Civilization+Revisiteed+From+Antiquity+to+Modern+Times&rft.pages=343-344&rft.pub=Africa+World+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-86543-124-9&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricancivilizat0000davi%2Fpage%2F343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Acquier, Jean-Louis. Architectures de Madagascar. Paris: Berger-Levrault.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTracy2000" class="citation book cs1">Tracy, James D. (2000). <i>City Walls The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65221-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65221-6"><bdi>978-0-521-65221-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+Walls+The+Urban+Enceinte+in+Global+Perspective&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65221-6&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2005" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2005). <i>History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition</i>. Palgrave MacMillan. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-333-59957-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-59957-0"><bdi>978-0-333-59957-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa%2C+Revised+2nd+Edition&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-333-59957-0&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFIliffe2007" class="citation book cs1">Iliffe, John (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122"><i>Africans The History of a Continent</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/page/122">122</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68297-8"><bdi>978-0-521-68297-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+The+History+of+a+Continent&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68297-8&rft.aulast=Iliffe&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricanshistoryo00ilif%2Fpage%2F122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/64694-lost-african-city-lidar.html">"Lost City in South Africa Discovered Hiding Beneath Thick Vegetation"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Live_Science" title="Live Science">Live Science</a></i>. 6 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Lost+City+in+South+Africa+Discovered+Hiding+Beneath+Thick+Vegetation&rft.date=2019-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F64694-lost-african-city-lidar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iEtAQAAIAAJ&q=These+populous+Tswana%0Asettlements+were+characterized+by%0Acomplex+sociopolitical+structures,">"Nyame Akuma"</a>. 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nyame+Akuma&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5iEtAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DThese%2Bpopulous%2BTswana%250Asettlements%2Bwere%2Bcharacterized%2Bby%250Acomplex%2Bsociopolitical%2Bstructures%2C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJenkinsBonnerEsterhuysen2007" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Trefor; Bonner, Phil; Esterhuysen, Amanda (October 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDZjDwAAQBAJ&dq=tswana+cities+rivalled+capetown+in+size&pg=PT24"><i>A Search for Origins: Science, history and South Africa's 'Cradle of Humankind'<span></span></i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781776142309" title="Special:BookSources/9781776142309"><bdi>9781776142309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Search+for+Origins%3A+Science%2C+history+and+South+Africa%27s+%27Cradle+of+Humankind%27&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2007-10&rft.isbn=9781776142309&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Trefor&rft.au=Bonner%2C+Phil&rft.au=Esterhuysen%2C+Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiDZjDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtswana%2Bcities%2Brivalled%2Bcapetown%2Bin%2Bsize%26pg%3DPT24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFIreland2009" class="citation book cs1">Ireland, Jeannie (2009). <i>History of Interior Design</i>. Fairchild Books & Visuals. p. 65. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-56367-462-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56367-462-4"><bdi>978-1-56367-462-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Interior+Design&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Fairchild+Books+%26+Visuals&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-56367-462-4&rft.aulast=Ireland&rft.aufirst=Jeannie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2005" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2005). <i>History of Africa, Revised 2nd Edition</i>. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 151. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-333-59957-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-59957-0"><bdi>978-0-333-59957-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa%2C+Revised+2nd+Edition&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-333-59957-0&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBerndt1960" class="citation journal cs1">Berndt, Catherine H. (1960). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43643992">"The Concept of Primitive"</a>. <i>Sociologus</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 52 [A]. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0038-0377">0038-0377</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43643992">43643992</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociologus&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Primitive&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52+A&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43643992%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0038-0377&rft.aulast=Berndt&rft.aufirst=Catherine+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43643992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPrussin1974" class="citation journal cs1">Prussin, Labelle (1974-10-01). <a class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture">"An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture"</a>. <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 183–205. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F988854">10.2307/988854</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-9808">0037-9808</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/988854">988854</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Architectural+Historians&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Indigenous+African+Architecture&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=183-205&rft.date=1974-10-01&rft.issn=0037-9808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F988854%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F988854&rft.aulast=Prussin&rft.aufirst=Labelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fjsah%2Farticle%2F33%2F3%2F183%2F56797%2FAn-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPrussin1974" class="citation journal cs1">Prussin, Labelle (1974-10-01). <a class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture">"An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture"</a>. <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 191. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F988854">10.2307/988854</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-9808">0037-9808</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/988854">988854</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Architectural+Historians&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Indigenous+African+Architecture&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=191&rft.date=1974-10-01&rft.issn=0037-9808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F988854%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F988854&rft.aulast=Prussin&rft.aufirst=Labelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fjsah%2Farticle%2F33%2F3%2F183%2F56797%2FAn-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPrussin1974" class="citation journal cs1">Prussin, Labelle (1974-10-01). <a class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/jsah/article/33/3/183/56797/An-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture">"An Introduction to Indigenous African Architecture"</a>. <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 185. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F988854">10.2307/988854</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-9808">0037-9808</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/988854">988854</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Architectural+Historians&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Indigenous+African+Architecture&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=185&rft.date=1974-10-01&rft.issn=0037-9808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F988854%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F988854&rft.aulast=Prussin&rft.aufirst=Labelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fjsah%2Farticle%2F33%2F3%2F183%2F56797%2FAn-Introduction-to-Indigenous-African-Architecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Prussin_1968_72-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prussin_1968_72_134-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPrussin1968" class="citation journal cs1">Prussin, Labelle (1968). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324">"The Architecture of Islam in West Africa"</a>. <i>African Arts</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 72. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3334324">10.2307/3334324</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-9933">0001-9933</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324">3334324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Arts&rft.atitle=The+Architecture+of+Islam+in+West+Africa&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=72&rft.date=1968&rft.issn=0001-9933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3334324%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3334324&rft.aulast=Prussin&rft.aufirst=Labelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3334324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPrussin1968" class="citation journal cs1">Prussin, Labelle (1968). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324">"The Architecture of Islam in West Africa"</a>. <i>African Arts</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 74. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3334324">10.2307/3334324</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-9933">0001-9933</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3334324">3334324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Arts&rft.atitle=The+Architecture+of+Islam+in+West+Africa&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=74&rft.date=1968&rft.issn=0001-9933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3334324%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3334324&rft.aulast=Prussin&rft.aufirst=Labelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3334324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jona Schellekens, "Dutch Origins of South-African Colonial Architecture," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 56 (1997), pp. 204–206.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJiménez-VicarioGarcía-MartínezRódenas-López2018" class="citation journal cs1">Jiménez-Vicario, Pedro Miguel; García-Martínez, Pedro; Ródenas-López, Manuel Alejandro (2018-07-03). <a class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394">"The influence of North African and Middle Eastern architectures in the birth and development of modern architecture in Central Europe (1898–1937)"</a>. <i>Mediterranean Historical Review</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 179–198. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09518967.2018.1535394">10.1080/09518967.2018.1535394</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0951-8967">0951-8967</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165308576">165308576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mediterranean+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+influence+of+North+African+and+Middle+Eastern+architectures+in+the+birth+and+development+of+modern+architecture+in+Central+Europe+%281898%E2%80%931937%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-198&rft.date=2018-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165308576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0951-8967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09518967.2018.1535394&rft.aulast=Jim%C3%A9nez-Vicario&rft.aufirst=Pedro+Miguel&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+Pedro&rft.au=R%C3%B3denas-L%C3%B3pez%2C+Manuel+Alejandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F09518967.2018.1535394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:8222-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8222_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8222_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8222_138-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDahmaniEl_moumniMeslil2019" class="citation book cs1">Dahmani, Iman; El moumni, Lahbib; Meslil, El mahdi (2019). <i>Modern Casablanca Map</i>. Translated by Borim, Ian. Casablanca: <a href="/info/en/?search=MAMMA." title="MAMMA.">MAMMA Group</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-9920-9339-0-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9920-9339-0-2"><bdi>978-9920-9339-0-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Casablanca+Map&rft.place=Casablanca&rft.pub=MAMMA+Group&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2&rft.aulast=Dahmani&rft.aufirst=Iman&rft.au=El+moumni%2C+Lahbib&rft.au=Meslil%2C+El+mahdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:02-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://www.alaraby.co.uk/culture/2019/12/19/إيلي-أزاجوري-استعادة-عميد-المعماريين-المغاربة"><bdi lang="ar">إيلي أزاجوري.. استعادة عميد المعماريين المغاربة</bdi></a> [Elie Azagoury .. Acknowledging the Dean of Moroccan Architects]. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_New_Arab" title="The New Arab">Al-Araby</a></i> (in Arabic). 19 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al-Araby&rft.atitle=%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A3%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A..+%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9&rft.date=2019-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alaraby.co.uk%2Fculture%2F2019%2F12%2F19%2F%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:6-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://transculturalmodernism.org/article/12">"The Gamma Grid | Model House"</a>. <i>transculturalmodernism.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=transculturalmodernism.org&rft.atitle=The+Gamma+Grid+%7C+Model+House&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftransculturalmodernism.org%2Farticle%2F12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChnaoui2010" class="citation book cs1">Chnaoui, Aziza (2010-11-02). "Depoliticizing Group GAMMA: contesting modernism in Morocco". In Lu, Duanfang (ed.). <i>Third World Modernism: Architecture, Development and Identity</i>. Routledge. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781136895487" title="Special:BookSources/9781136895487"><bdi>9781136895487</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Depoliticizing+Group+GAMMA%3A+contesting+modernism+in+Morocco&rft.btitle=Third+World+Modernism%3A+Architecture%2C+Development+and+Identity&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010-11-02&rft.isbn=9781136895487&rft.aulast=Chnaoui&rft.aufirst=Aziza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHofbauer2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hofbauer, Lucy (2010-07-01). <a class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/emam/77">"Transferts de modèles architecturaux au Maroc. L'exemple de Jean-François Zévaco, architecte (1916-2003)"</a>. <i>Les Cahiers d'EMAM. Études sur le Monde Arabe et la Méditerranée</i> (in French) (20): 71–86. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femam.77">10.4000/emam.77</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1969-248X">1969-248X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Les+Cahiers+d%27EMAM.+%C3%89tudes+sur+le+Monde+Arabe+et+la+M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.atitle=Transferts+de+mod%C3%A8les+architecturaux+au+Maroc.+L%27exemple+de+Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois+Z%C3%A9vaco%2C+architecte+%281916-2003%29&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=71-86&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Femam.77&rft.issn=1969-248X&rft.aulast=Hofbauer&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Femam%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:9-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:9_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDahmaniEl_moumniMeslil2019" class="citation book cs1">Dahmani, Iman; El moumni, Lahbib; Meslil, El mahdi (2019). <i>Modern Casablanca Map</i>. Translated by Borim, Ian. Casablanca: MAMMA Group. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-9920-9339-0-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9920-9339-0-2"><bdi>978-9920-9339-0-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Casablanca+Map&rft.place=Casablanca&rft.pub=MAMMA+Group&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-9920-9339-0-2&rft.aulast=Dahmani&rft.aufirst=Iman&rft.au=El+moumni%2C+Lahbib&rft.au=Meslil%2C+El+mahdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Africa&action=edit&section=123" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Architecture_of_Africa" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Architecture of Africa">Architecture of Africa</a></span>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://www.greatbuildings.com/places/africa.html">Architecture of Africa - Great Buildings Online</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.africavernaculararchitecture.com/">African Vernacular Architecture - Images of vernacular architecture throughout Africa, grouped by country</a></li></ul>
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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Architecture_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Architecture of Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Algeria" title="Architecture of Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Angola" title="Architecture of Angola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Burkina_Faso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Burkina Faso (page does not exist)">Burkina Faso</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Burundi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Burundi (page does not exist)">Burundi</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Cape_Verde" title="Architecture of Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Central African Republic (page does not exist)">Central African Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Chad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Chad (page does not exist)">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Comoros&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Comoros (page does not exist)">Comoros</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Djibouti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Djibouti (page does not exist)">Djibouti</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Egypt" title="Architecture of Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Equatorial_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Equatorial Guinea (page does not exist)">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Eritrea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Eritrea (page does not exist)">Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Ethiopia" title="Architecture of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Gabon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Gabon (page does not exist)">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Gambia (page does not exist)">The Gambia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Ghana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Ghana (page does not exist)">Ghana</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Guinea (page does not exist)">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Guinea-Bissau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Guinea-Bissau (page does not exist)">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Kenya (page does not exist)">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Lesotho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Lesotho (page does not exist)">Lesotho</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Liberia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Liberia (page does not exist)">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Libya" title="Architecture of Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Madagascar" title="Architecture of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Mali" title="Architecture of Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Mauritania (page does not exist)">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Namibia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Namibia (page does not exist)">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Niger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Niger (page does not exist)">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Nigeria" title="Architecture of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Rwanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Rwanda (page does not exist)">Rwanda</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of São Tomé and Príncipe (page does not exist)">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Senegal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Senegal (page does not exist)">Senegal</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Seychelles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Seychelles (page does not exist)">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Sierra_Leone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Sierra Leone (page does not exist)">Sierra Leone</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Somalia">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Sudan" title="Architecture of Sudan">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Tanzania (page does not exist)">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Togo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Togo (page does not exist)">Togo</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Tunisia" title="Architecture of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Uganda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Uganda (page does not exist)">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Zambia (page does not exist)">Zambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Zimbabwe" title="Architecture of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Melilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Melilla">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Saint_Helena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Saint Helena (page does not exist)">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Architecture_of_Tristan_da_Cunha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Architecture of Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Coptic_architecture" title="Coptic architecture">Coptic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian Revival</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heliopolis_style" title="Heliopolis style">Heliopolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish Revival</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg/200px-Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg/300px-Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg/400px-Mali_dogon_houses_josef_stuefer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Igbo_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Igbo Architecture">Igbo</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hausa_architecture" title="Hausa architecture">Hausa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Songhai_architecture" title="Songhai architecture">Songhai</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Yoruba_architecture" title="Yoruba architecture">Yoruba</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Musgum_mud_huts" class="mw-redirect" title="Musgum mud huts">Musgum</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=East_Africa" title="East Africa">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Ethiopia" title="Architecture of Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Architecture_of_Madagascar" title="Architecture of Madagascar">Malagasy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cape_Dutch_architecture" title="Cape Dutch architecture">Cape Dutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ndebele_house_painting" title="Ndebele house painting">Ndebele</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Colonial_architecture" title="Colonial architecture">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cape_Dutch_architecture" title="Cape Dutch architecture">Cape Dutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=French_Colonial" class="mw-redirect" title="French Colonial">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese</a></li></ul>
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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Africa_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Africa_topics" title="Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Africa_topics" title="Template talk:Africa topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Africa_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_history_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient history of Africa">Antiquity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Pre-colonial kingdoms</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_empires" title="African empires">Empires</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sahelian_kingdoms" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">European colonisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Economic_history_of_Africa" title="Economic history of Africa">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_empires" title="African empires">Empires</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Talk:History_of_Africa#Historiography_of_Africa" title="Talk:History of Africa">Historiography</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Military_history_of_Africa" title="Military history of Africa">Military</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">conflicts</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Science and technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Central_Africa" title="History of Central Africa">Central</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_East_Africa" title="History of East Africa">East</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Southern_Africa" title="History of Southern Africa">South</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Geography_of_Africa" title="Geography of Africa">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa">Countries and territories</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_highest_points_of_African_countries" title="List of highest points of African countries">Highest points</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_impact_craters_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of impact craters in Africa">Impact craters</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Natural_history_of_Africa" title="Natural history of Africa">Natural history</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_regions_of_Africa" title="List of regions of Africa">Regions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=North_Africa" title="North Africa">North</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">South</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_rivers_of_Africa" title="List of rivers of Africa">Rivers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Africa#Politics" title="Africa">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elections_in_Africa" title="Elections in Africa">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Democracy_in_Africa" title="Democracy in Africa">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Heads_of_government_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of government in Africa">Heads of government</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Heads_of_state_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of state in Africa">Heads of state</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Human_rights_in_Africa" title="Human rights in Africa">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Freedom_of_religion_in_Africa_by_country" title="Freedom of religion in Africa by country">Freedom of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=LGBT_rights_in_Africa" title="LGBT rights in Africa">LGBT rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_linguistic_rights_in_African_constitutions" title="List of linguistic rights in African constitutions">Linguistic rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Women_in_Africa#More_Women_Rights" title="Women in Africa">Women's rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_feminism" title="African feminism">feminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=International_organisations_in_Africa" title="International organisations in Africa">International organisations</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pan-African_Parliament" title="Pan-African Parliament">Pan-African Parliament</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Politics_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Africa">Politics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Political_parties_in_Africa" title="Category:Political parties in Africa">parties</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Economy_of_Africa" title="Economy of Africa">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_central_banks_of_Africa" title="List of central banks of Africa">Central banks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of African countries by GDP (nominal)">Countries by GDP (nominal)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of African countries by GDP (PPP)">Countries by GDP (PPP)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of African countries by Human Development Index">Countries by HDI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Africans_by_net_worth" title="List of Africans by net worth">Billionaires</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Infrastructure_in_Africa" title="Infrastructure in Africa">Infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_in_Africa" title="Internet in Africa">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Natural_resources_of_Africa" title="Natural resources of Africa">Natural resources</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Poverty_in_Africa" title="Poverty in Africa">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Renewable energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_stock_exchanges" title="List of African stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Birth_control_in_Africa" title="Birth control in Africa">Birth control</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Etiquette_in_Africa" title="Etiquette in Africa">Etiquette</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Health_in_Africa" title="Category:Health in Africa">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_art" title="African art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cinema_of_Africa" title="Cinema of Africa">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_literature" title="African literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Media_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Africa">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sport_in_Africa" title="Sport in Africa">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_Cricket_Association" title="Africa Cricket Association">Africa Cricket Association</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Afro-Asian_Games" title="Afro-Asian Games">Afro-Asian Games</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Australian_rules_football_in_Africa" title="Australian rules football in Africa">Australian-rules football</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Confederation_of_African_Football" title="Confederation of African Football">Confederation of African Football</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=FIBA_Africa" title="FIBA Africa">FIBA Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rugby_Africa" title="Rugby Africa">Rugby Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_stadiums_by_capacity" title="List of African stadiums by capacity">Stadiums by capacity</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tour_d%27Afrique" title="Tour d'Afrique">Tour d'Afrique</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_population" title="List of African countries by population">Countries by population</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">density</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Emigration_from_Africa" title="Emigration from Africa">Emigration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lists_of_cities_in_Africa" title="Lists of cities in Africa">cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_urban_areas_in_Africa_by_population" title="List of urban areas in Africa by population">urban areas</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Youth_in_Africa" title="Youth in Africa">Youth in Africa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Years_in_Africa" title="Category:Years in Africa">By year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=2005_in_Africa" title="2005 in Africa">2005</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=2006_in_Africa" title="2006 in Africa">2006</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=2007_in_Africa" title="2007 in Africa">2007</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2008_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2008 in Africa (page does not exist)">2008</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2009_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2009 in Africa (page does not exist)">2009</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2010_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2010 in Africa (page does not exist)">2010</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2011_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2011 in Africa (page does not exist)">2011</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2012_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2012 in Africa (page does not exist)">2012</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2013_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2013 in Africa (page does not exist)">2013</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2014_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2014 in Africa (page does not exist)">2014</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2015_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2015 in Africa (page does not exist)">2015</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=2016_in_Africa" title="2016 in Africa">2016</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2017_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2017 in Africa (page does not exist)">2017</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2018_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2018 in Africa (page does not exist)">2018</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2019_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 in Africa (page does not exist)">2019</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=2020_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2020 in Africa (page does not exist)">2020</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/info/en/?search=Outline_of_Africa" title="Outline of Africa">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/info/en/?search=Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q511049#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="africká architektura"><a class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph170418&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1714610089' |