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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}{{Politics of China|expanded=Publicity}}
The '''Great Firewall''' (''GFW''; {{zh|s=防火长城|t=防火長城|p=Fánghuǒ Chángchéng}}) is the combination of legislative actions and technologies enforced by the [[People's Republic of China]] to regulate the [[Internet]] domestically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Richard |last2=Murdoch |first2=Steven J. |last3=Watson |first3=Robert N. M. |title=Ignoring the great firewall of china |journal=International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies}}</ref> Its role in [[internet censorship in China]] is to block access to selected foreign websites and to slow down cross-border internet traffic.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mozur|first1=Paul|title=Baidu and CloudFlare Boost Users Over China's Great Firewall|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 September 2015|language=en|access-date=16 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124123846/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html|archive-date=24 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Great Firewall operates by checking [[transmission control protocol]] (TCP) packets for keywords or sensitive words. If the keywords or sensitive words appear in the TCP packets, access will be closed. If one link is closed, more links from the same machine will be blocked by the Great Firewall.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=Richard |last2=Murdoch |first2=Steven J. |last3=Watson |first3=Robert N. M. |date=2006 |editor-last=Danezis |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Golle |editor2-first=Philippe |title=Ignoring the Great Firewall of China |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11957454_2 |journal=Privacy Enhancing Technologies |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=4258 |language=en |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |pages=20–35 |doi=10.1007/11957454_2 |isbn=978-3-540-68793-1|hdl=1811/72793 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The effect includes: limiting access to foreign information sources, blocking foreign internet tools (e.g. [[Google Search]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.greatfire.org/google.com|title=google.com is blocked in China {{!}} GreatFire Analyzer|website=en.greatfire.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805232352/https://en.greatfire.org/google.com|archive-date=2014-08-05|access-date=2020-01-18}}</ref> [[Facebook]],<ref>{{cite web |title=How China's social media users created a new language to beat censorship on COVID-19 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/ |website=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=3 April 2020 |language=en |date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403023740/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/ |archive-date=3 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Twitter]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html|title=China Blocks Access To Twitter, Facebook After Riots|newspaper=Washington Post|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919204716/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html|archive-date=19 September 2010|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> [[Wikipedia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china|title=Wikipedia founder defends decision to encrypt the site in China|date=4 September 2015|publisher=[[The Verge]]|access-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141751/https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/chinas-government-has-blocked-wikipedia-its-entirety-again-1532138|title=China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again|last=Skipper|first=Ben|date=7 December 2015|work=[[International Business Times]] UK|access-date=2 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111142/https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/chinas-government-has-blocked-wikipedia-its-entirety-again-1532138|archive-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and others) and mobile apps, and requiring foreign companies to adapt to domestic regulations.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mozur|first1=Paul|last2=Goel|first2=Vindu|title=To Reach China, LinkedIn Plays by Local Rules|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/technology/to-reach-china-linkedin-plays-by-local-rules.html?mcubz=0|work=The New York Times|date=5 October 2014|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613111912/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/technology/to-reach-china-linkedin-plays-by-local-rules.html?mcubz=0|archive-date=13 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Branigan|first1=Tania|title=New York Times launches website in Chinese language|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/jun/28/new-york-times-launches-chinese-website|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=28 June 2012|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904154029/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/jun/28/new-york-times-launches-chinese-website|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
Besides censorship, the Great Firewall has also influenced the development of China's internal internet economy by giving preference to domestic companies<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=5 September 2017|date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and reducing the effectiveness of products from foreign internet companies.<ref name="WaPo2017">{{cite news|last1=Rauhala|first1=Emily|date=19 July 2016|title=America wants to believe China can't innovate. Tech tells a different story.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/america-wants-to-believe-china-cant-innovate-tech-tells-a-different-story/2016/07/19/c17cbea9-6ee6-479c-81fa-54051df598c5_story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903210759/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/america-wants-to-believe-china-cant-innovate-tech-tells-a-different-story/2016/07/19/c17cbea9-6ee6-479c-81fa-54051df598c5_story.html|archive-date=3 September 2017|access-date=5 September 2017|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> The techniques deployed by the Chinese government to maintain control of the Great Firewall can include modifying search results for terms, such as they did following [[Ai Weiwei]]’s arrest, and petitioning global conglomerates to remove content, as happened when they petitioned [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] to remove the [[Quartz (publication)|''Quartz'']] business news publication’s app from its Chinese App Store after reporting on the [[2019–2020 Hong Kong protests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://9to5mac.com/2019/10/09/apple-china-quartz-app-store/|title=Apple removes 'Quartz' news app from Chinese App Store|last=Miller|first=Chance|date=2019-10-09|website=9to5Mac|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010065316/https://9to5mac.com/2019/10/09/apple-china-quartz-app-store/|archive-date=2019-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20907228/apple-quartz-app-store-china-removal-hong-kong-protests-censorship|title=Apple removes Quartz news app from the Chinese App Store over Hong Kong coverage|last=Statt|first=Nick|date=2019-10-09|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=2019-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010015646/https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20907228/apple-quartz-app-store-china-removal-hong-kong-protests-censorship|archive-date=2019-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Great Firewall was formerly operated by the [[State Internet Information Office|SIIO]], as part of the [[Golden Shield Project]]. Since 2013, the firewall is technically operated by the [[Cyberspace Administration of China]] (CAC), which is the entity in charge of translating the [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s doctrine and policy into technical specifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfa.org/english/commentaries/china_internet-11242008134108.html|title=How China's Internet Police Control Speech on the Internet|website=[[Radio Free Asia]]|language=en|access-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620175605/http://www.rfa.org/english/commentaries/china_internet-11242008134108.html|archive-date=20 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
As mentioned in the "[[one country, two systems]]" principle, China's [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] (SARs) such as [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are not affected by the firewall, as SARs have their own governmental and legal systems and therefore enjoy a higher degree of autonomy. Nevertheless, the [[U.S. State Department]] has reported that the central government authorities have closely monitored Internet use in these regions,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2011/eap/187483.htm|title=China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) - Hong Kong|work=[[U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=29 July 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701191914/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2011/eap/187483.htm|archive-date=1 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and Hong Kong's [[2020 Hong Kong national security law|National Security Law]] has been used to block websites documenting [[List of protests in Hong Kong|anti-government protests]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hong Kong police use national security law for first time to block access to website recording anti-government protests, officers' details |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3117072/hong-kong-police-use-national-security-law-block |website=South China Morning Post |date=9 January 2021 |access-date=13 January 2021}}</ref>
The term ''Great Firewall of China'' is a combination of the word [[Firewall (computing)|firewall]] with the [[Great Wall of China]]. The phrase "Great Firewall of China" was first used in print by Australian [[sinologist]] [[Geremie Barmé]] in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lanfranco|first1=Edward|title=The China Yahoo! welcome: You've got Jail!|url=http://www.upi.com/The-China-Yahoo-welcome-Youve-got-Jail/40351126286824/|work=UPI|date=9 September 2005|language=en|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810052910/http://www.upi.com/The-China-Yahoo-welcome-Youve-got-Jail/40351126286824/|archive-date=10 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/ |title=The Great Firewall of China |journal=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |last1=Barme |first1=Geremie R. |last2=Ye |first2=Sang |date=6 January 1997 |access-date=29 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101024548/http://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/ |archive-date=2016-01-01|url-status=live }}</ref> RedfishGroup's Stephen Guerin first described the internet filtering as a reversed "firewall" on CNN on Feb 9, 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN - China roadblocks the Internet - Feb 9, 1996 |url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9602/china_information/index.html |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=www.cnn.com}}</ref>
==History==
A favorite saying of [[Deng Xiaoping]]'s in the early 1980s, "If you open the window, both fresh air and flies will be blown in", is considered to be the political and ideological basis of the GFW Project.<ref group=nb>{{zh|c=打开窗户，新鲜空气和苍蝇就会一起进来。|p= Dǎkāi chuānghù, xīnxiān kōngqì hé cāngying jiù huì yìqǐ jìnlái|scase=yes}}.<br />There are several variants of this saying in Chinese, including "如果你打开窗户换新鲜空气，就得想到苍蝇也会飞进来。" and "打开窗户，新鲜空气进来了，苍蝇也飞进来了。". Their meanings are the same.</ref> The saying is related to a period of the economic reform of China that became known as the "[[socialist market economy]]". Superseding the political ideologies of the [[Cultural Revolution]], the reform led China towards a [[market economy]] and opened up the market for foreign investors. Nonetheless, despite the economic freedom, values and political ideas of the Chinese Communist Party have had to be protected by "swatting flies" of other unwanted ideologies.<ref>R. MacKinnon "Flatter world and thicker walls? Blogs, censorship and civic discourse in China" ''[[Public Choice (journal)|Public Choice]]'' (2008) 134: p. 31–46, Springer</ref>
The [[internet in China]] arrived in 1994,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/special/guoqing/60/2009/06-25/122.shtml |title=中国接入互联网 |publisher=[[China News Service]] |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219141011/http://www.chinanews.com/special/guoqing/60/2009/06-25/122.shtml |archive-date=19 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> as the inevitable consequence of and supporting tool for a "socialist market economy". Gradually, while Internet availability has been increasing, the Internet has become a common communication platform and tool for trading information.
The [[Ministry of Public Security (China)|Ministry of Public Security]] took initial steps to control Internet use in 1997, when it issued comprehensive regulations governing its use. The key sections, Articles 4–6, are:
{{blockquote|Individuals are prohibited from using the Internet to: harm national security; disclose state secrets; or injure the interests of the state or society. Users are prohibited from using the Internet to create, replicate, retrieve, or transmit information that incites resistance to the [[PRC Constitution]], laws, or administrative regulations; promoting the overthrow of the government or socialist system; undermining national unification; distorting the truth, spreading rumors, or destroying social order; or providing sexually suggestive material or encouraging gambling, violence, or murder. Users are prohibited from engaging in activities that harm the security of computer information networks and from using networks or changing network resources without prior approval.<ref>"China and the Internet.", ''[[International Debates]]'', 15420345, Apr2010, Vol. 8, Issue 4</ref>}}
In 1998, the Chinese Communist Party feared that the [[China Democracy Party]] (CDP) would breed a powerful new network that the party elites might not be able to control.<ref>Goldman, Merle Goldman. Gu, Edward X. [2004] (2004). Chinese Intellectuals between State and Market. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|0415325978}}</ref> The CDP was immediately banned, followed by arrests and imprisonment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldsmith |first1=Jack L. |author-link1=Jack Goldsmith |last2=Wu |first2=Tim |author-link2=Tim Wu |title=Who Controls the Internet?: Illusions of a Borderless World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-515266-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whocontrolsinter00gold/page/91 91] |title-link=Who Controls the Internet? }}</ref> That same year, the GFW project was started. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006. The second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008.
On 6 December 2002, 300 people in charge of the GFW project from 31 [[Province (China)|provinces]] and [[List of cities in China|cities]] throughout China participated in a four-day inaugural "Comprehensive Exhibition on Chinese Information System".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group|title=Adsale Corporate Website - Adsale Group|first=Adsale Corporate|last=Website|website=www.adsale.com.hk|access-date=2020-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502184124/https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group|archive-date=2020-05-02|url-status=live}}</ref> At the exhibition, many western high-tech products, including [[Internet security]], [[video monitoring]] and human [[Facial recognition system|face recognition]] were purchased. It is estimated that around 30,000–50,000 police were employed in this gigantic project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-27 |title=What is internet censorship? - Amnesty International Australia |url=http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/ |access-date=2023-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427065800/http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/ |archive-date=27 April 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Fang binxing.jpg|thumb|left|Fang Binxing]]
[[Fang Binxing]] is known for his substantial contribution to [[Internet censorship in China|China's Internet censorship infrastructure]], and has been dubbed "Father of China's Great Fire Wall".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%E2%80%98father%E2%80%99-of-china%E2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/ | title='Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog | work=[[China Digital Times]] (CDT) | date=20 December 2010 | access-date=24 October 2019 | first=Xiao | last=Qiang | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225145914/https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%e2%80%98father%e2%80%99-of-china%e2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/ | archive-date=25 December 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=WSJ>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/|title='Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog – China Real Time Report – WSJ|date=20 December 2010|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=25 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119154634/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/|archive-date=19 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = Yunnan Information Times | script-title = zh:"防火墙之父"北邮校长方滨兴微博遭网民"围攻" | url = http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm | date = 23 December 2010 | access-date = 20 May 2011 | language = zh | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721182306/http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm | archive-date = 21 July 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
==Origins of Chinese Internet law==
China's view of the Internet is one of "[[Network sovereignty|Internet sovereignty]]": the notion that the Internet inside the country is part of the country's sovereignty and should be governed by the country.<ref name=WaPo2017/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=23 May 2016|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
While the United States and several other western countries passed laws creating computer crimes beginning in the 1970s, China had no such legislation until 1997. That year, China's sole legislative body – the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC) – passed CL97, a law that deals with cyber crimes, which it divided into two broad categories: crimes that target computer networks, and crimes carried out over computer networks. Behavior illegal under the latter category includes, among many things, the dissemination of [[pornographic]] material, and the usurping of "[[classified information|state secrets]]."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (1997) |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384075.htm |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=www.npc.gov.cn}}</ref>
Some Chinese judges were critical of CL97, calling it ineffective and unenforceable. However, the NPC claimed that it intentionally left the law "flexible" so that it could be open to future interpretation and development. Given the gaps in the law, the central government of China relies heavily on its administrative body, the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], to determine what falls under the definitions, and their determinations are not required to go through the NPC legislative process. As a result, the Chinese Communist Party has ended up relying heavily on state regulation to carry out CL97.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keith |first=Ronald |author2=Lin, Zhiqiu |title=New Crime in China |url=https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group |date=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit/page/n229 217]–225 |isbn=0415314828 }}</ref>
The latter definition of online activities punishable under CL97, or "crimes carried out over computer networks", is used as justification for the Great Firewall, and can be cited when the government blocks any ISP, gateway connections, or any access to anything on the internet. The definition also includes using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to national security," and using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to public order, social stability, and Chinese morality." The central government relies heavily on its State Council regulators to determine what specific online behavior and speech fall under these definitions.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}
The reasons behind the Internet censorship in China include:
* Social control: the Internet is a means for freedom of speech, and dissemination of campaigns could lead to protests against the government.
* Sensitive content: to control information about the government in China.
* Economic protectionism: China prefers the use of local companies that are regulated by Chinese regulations, since they have more power over them, e.g. [[Baidu]] over [[Google]].{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Daniel|title=Splinternet Behind the Great Firewall of China: Once China opened its door to the world, it could not close it again.|publisher=Queue}}</ref>
==Campaigns and crackdowns==
As part of the Great Firewall, beginning in 2003, China started the [[Golden Shield Project]], a massive surveillance and censoring system, the hardware for which was provided by mostly U.S. companies, including [[Cisco Systems]]. The project was completed in 2006, and is now carried out in buildings with machines manned by civilians and supervised by China's national police force, the [[Chinese public security bureau|Public Security Bureau]] (PSB). The main operating procedures of the gatekeepers at the Golden Shield Project include monitoring domestic websites, email, and searching for politically sensitive language and calls to protest. When damaging content is found, local PSB officials can be dispatched to investigate or make arrests. However, by late 2007, the Golden Shield Project proved to operate sporadically at best, as users had long adapted to [[Block (Internet)|internet blocking]] by using proxy servers, among other strategies, to make communications and circumnavigate to blocked content.<ref name="OliverAugust">{{Cite magazine |url=http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall |title=The Great Firewall: China's Misguided — and Futile — Attempt to Control What Happens Online |last=August |first=Oliver |date=23 October 2007 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired Magazine]] |access-date=1 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093349/http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Internet cafés, an extremely popular way of getting online in developing countries and where fewer people can afford a personal computer, are regulated by the Chinese government and by local Chinese government officials. Minors (in China, those under the age of 18) are not allowed into Internet cafés, although this law is widely ignored, and when enforced, has spurred the creation of underground "Black Web Bars" visited by those underage. As of 2008, internet cafés were required to register every customer in a log when they used the internet there. These records may be confiscated by either local government officials or the PSB. To illustrate local regulation of internet cafés, in one instance, a government official in the town of Gedong lawfully banned internet cafés from operating in the town because he believed them to be harmful to minors, who frequented them to play online games (including those considered violent) and surf the internet. However, internet cafés in this town simply went underground, and most minors were not deterred from visiting them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html |title=Despite a Ban, Chinese Youth Navigate to Internet Cafés |date=9 February 2007 |access-date=1 April 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |last=Cody |first=Edward |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220053356/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html |archive-date=20 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In May 2015, China indefinitely blocked access to the Chinese-language Wikipedia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Charlie |title=We Had Our Arguments, But We Will Miss You Wikipedia |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html |access-date=31 December 2018 |work=Huffington Post |date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619083431/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html |archive-date=19 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, China discussed plans for its own version of Wikipedia.<ref name=Verge2017>{{cite news|last1=Toor|first1=Amar|title=China is building its own version of Wikipedia|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship|work=The Verge|date=4 May 2017|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904155402/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Indep2017>{{cite news|last1=Watt|first1=Louise|title=China is launching its own Wikipedia – but only the government can contribute to it|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-wikipedia-chinese-version-government-no-public-authors-contributions-communist-party-line-a7717861.html|work=The Independent|date=4 May 2017|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210224316/https://www.dw.com/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%80-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9/a-46669373|archive-date=10 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> As of May 2019, all language versions of Wikipedia have been blocked by the Chinese government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/|title=Search result not found: China bans Wikipedia in all languages|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003155/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/|archive-date=7 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Blocking methods==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2020}}
===Active filtering===
One function of the Chinese firewall is to selectively prevent content from being accessed. It is mostly made of Cisco, Huawei, and Semptian hardware.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/|title=Huawei's (And China's) Dangerous High-Tech Game|last=Herman|first=Arthur|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515103447/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/|archive-date=15 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/|title=Cisco, Huawei and Semptian: A Look Behind the Great Firewall of China|date=15 December 2014|website=C5IS|language=en-US|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714193154/https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Not all sensitive content gets blocked; in 2007, scholar Jedidiah R. Crandall and others argued that the main purpose is not to block 100%, but rather to flag and to warn, in order to encourage self-censorship.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Oliver Farnan |author2=Alexander Darer |author3=Joss Wright |title=Proceedings of the 2016 ACM on Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society - WPES'16 |chapter=Poisoning the Well |year=2016 |pages=95–98 |doi=10.1145/2994620.2994636 |isbn=9781450345699 |s2cid=7275132 }}</ref> An illustrative but incomplete list of tactics includes:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Method
!Description
|-
|IP range ban using [[Black hole (networking)|black holes]]
|The Chinese firewall maintains a list of [[IP address|IP ranges]] that are automatically dropped ([[Black hole (networking)|network black-holing]]).
Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]).
|-
|[[DNS spoofing]], filtering and redirection
|One part of the Chinese firewall is made of liar DNS servers and [[DNS hijacking|DNS hijackers]] returning incorrect IP addresses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/ |title=how to unblock websites in China |date=26 January 2018 |publisher=pcwizardpro.com |access-date=27 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084214/http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/ |archive-date=27 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies seems to point out that this censorship is keyword-based.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf|title=The Great DNS Wall of China - Analysis of the DNS infrastructure|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121058/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf|archive-date=2019-04-03|url-status=live}}</ref>
Contrary to popular belief,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035|title=8.8.8.8 goes pretty well in the Chinese market. (8 being a popular number.) I th... {{!}} Hacker News|website=news.ycombinator.com|access-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326175426/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035|archive-date=26 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> foreign DNS resolvers such as [[Google Public DNS]] IP address 8.8.8.8 are reported to work correctly inside the country; however, these DNS servers are also subject to hijacking as their connections are not encrypted: DNS queries do reach the DNS server, but if the request matches a banned keyword, the firewall will inject a fake DNS reply before the legitimate DNS reply arrives. The vast majority of these fake responses contain public IP addresses of U.S. companies, including Facebook, Twitter, and Dropbox.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |last1=Hoang |first1=Nguyen Phong |last2=Niaki |first2=Arian Akhavan |last3=Dalek |first3=Jakub |last4=Knockel |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Lin |first5=Pellaeon |last6=Marczak |first6=Bill |last7=Crete-Nishihata |first7=Masashi |last8=Gill |first8=Phillipa |last9=Polychronakis |first9=Michalis |date=2021-06-03 |title=How Great is the Great Firewall? Measuring China's DNS Censorship |class=cs.CR |eprint=2106.02167 }}</ref>
Typical circumvention methods include modifying the [[Hosts file]], typing the IP address instead of the domain name in a [[Web browser]] or using [[DNS over TLS]]/[[DNS over HTTPS|HTTPS]].<ref>{{Cite arXiv |last1=Hoang |first1=Nguyen Phong |last2=Polychronakis |first2=Michalis |last3=Gill |first3=Phillipa |date=2022-02-01 |title=Measuring the Accessibility of Domain Name Encryption and Its Impact on Internet Filtering |class=cs.NI |eprint=2202.00663 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] filtering using transparent proxies
|The Chinese firewall is made of [[Transparent proxy|transparent proxies]] filtering web traffic. These proxies scan the requested [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]], the "Host" Header and the content of the web page (for HTTP requests) or the [[Server Name Indication]] (for HTTPS requests) for target keywords.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.xeovo.com/what-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care/ |title=What is the Great Firewall of China and why you should care|publisher=xeovo.com |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref>
Like for DNS filtering, this method is keyword-based. Encrypting the Server Name Indication (Encrypted Client Hello or ECH) can be used to bypass this method of filtering. It is currently in development by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/|title=draft-ietf-tls-esni-03 - Encrypted Server Name Indication for TLS 1.3|newspaper=Ietf Datatracker|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606041824/https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/|archive-date=6 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and is enabled by default for supported websites in [[Firefox]] and [[Chromium (web browser)|Chromium]] ([[Google Chrome]], [[Microsoft Edge]], [[Samsung Internet]], and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/|title=Encrypted SNI Comes to Firefox Nightly|website=Mozilla Security Blog|date=18 October 2018 |access-date=2020-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324233735/https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/|archive-date=2020-03-24|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/|title=Encrypt that SNI: Firefox edition|date=October 18, 2018|website=The Cloudflare Blog|access-date=February 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214223249/https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/|archive-date=February 14, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://chasersystems.com/blog/disabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why/ |title=How to disable TLS Encrypted ClientHello in Google Chrome using PowerShell |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=9 October 2023 |website= |publisher=Chaser Systems Ltd |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://chromestatus.com/feature/6196703843581952 |title=Feature: TLS Encrypted Client Hello (ECH) |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=12 December 2023 |website=Chrome Platform Status |publisher=[[Google]] |access-date=21 February 2024 |quote=}}</ref>
|-
|[[Quality of service]] filtering
|Since 2012, the GFW is able to "learn, filter, and block" users based on traffic behavior, using [[deep packet inspection]].<ref name="guardvpn2">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control|title=China tightens 'Great Firewall' internet control with new technology|last=Arthur|first=Charles|date=14 December 2012|work=guardian.co.uk|access-date=8 March 2013|publisher=The Guardian|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910001533/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control|archive-date=10 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This method was originally developed for blocking VPNs and has been extended to become part of the standard filtering system of the GFW. The method works by mirroring all traffic (using a [[network tap]]) to a dedicated analytics unit, that will then deliver a score for each destination IP based on how suspicious the connection is deemed to be. This score is then used to determine a [[Packet loss|packet loss rate]] to be implemented by routers of the Chinese firewall, resulting in a slowed connection on the client side. The method aims to slow down traffic to such an extent that the request times out on the client side, thus effectively having succeeded in blocking the service altogether.
It is believed that the analytics system is using [[Side-channel attack|side-channel]] (such as the handshake headers, and packet sizes) to estimate how suspicious a connection is.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/|title=My Experience With the Great Firewall of China|website=blog.zorinaq.com|language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701195829/http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/|archive-date=1 July 2016|url-status=live}}{{Self-published source|date=October 2020}}</ref> It is able to detect traffic protocols (such as SSH tunneling, [[Virtual private network|VPN]] or [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] protocols), and can measure the [[Entropy (information theory)|entropy]] of packets to detect encrypted-over-encrypted traffic (such as HTTPS over an SSL tunnel).
This attack may be resisted by using a pluggable transport in order to mimic 'innocent' traffic, and never connect to 'suspicious' IPs by always having the circumvention software turned on, yet not proxy unblocked content, and the software itself never directly connects to a central server.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf|title=How the Great Firewall of China is blocking Tor|access-date=2022-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127204429/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf|archive-date=2022-01-27|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Packet forging and [[TCP reset attack]]s
|The Chinese firewall may arbitrarily terminate TCP transmissions, using [[Packet injection|packet forging]]. The blocking is performed using a TCP reset attack. This attack does not block TCP requests nor TCP replies, but sends a malicious TCP RST packet to the sender, simulating an end-of-connection.
Side channel analysis seems to indicate that TCP Resets are coming from an infrastructure co-located or shared with QoS filtering routers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf|title=Ignoring TCP RST send by the firewall|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611203524/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf|archive-date=2019-06-11|url-status=live}}</ref> This infrastructure seems to update the scoring system: if a previous TCP connection is blocked by the filter, future connection attempts from both sides may also be blocked for short periods of time (up to a few hours).
An efficient circumvention method is to ignore the reset packet sent by the firewall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm|title=zdnetasia.com|publisher=zdnetasia.com|access-date=13 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008214629/http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm|archive-date=8 October 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> A patch for FreeBSD has been developed for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff|title=FreeBSD patch - ignore TCP RST|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629073234/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff|archive-date=2008-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Man-in-the-middle attack]] with TLS
|The [http://cs.brown.edu/courses/csci1800/sources/2017_PRC_NationalIntelligenceLaw.pdf Chinese National Intelligence Law] theoretically allows the Chinese government to request and use the root certificate from any Chinese certificate authority,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html|title=Cyber-security Law of the People's Republic of China|website=www.dezshira.com|date=11 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601010621/https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html|archive-date=1 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> such as [[CNNIC]], to make MITM attacks with valid certificates.
Multiple TLS incidents have occurred within the last decade, before the creation of the law.
On 26 January 2013, the [[GitHub]] SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784|title=GitHub SSL replaced by self-signed certificate in China | Hacker News|publisher=News.ycombinator.com|access-date=15 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705135606/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784|archive-date=5 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 20 October 2014, the iCloud SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud|title=Chinese MITM Attack on iCloud - NETRESEC Blog|website=Netresec|date=20 October 2014|access-date=2019-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329044228/https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud|archive-date=2020-03-29|url-status=live}}</ref> It is believed that the Chinese government discovered a vulnerability on Apple devices and was exploiting it.<ref>{{CVE|2014-4449}}</ref>
On 20 March 2015, Google detected valid certificates for Google signed by CNNIC in Egypt. In response to this event, and after a deeper investigation, the CNNIC certificate was removed by some browsers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/|title=TLS certificate blunder revisited – whither China Internet Network Information Center?|publisher=nakedsecurity.sophos.com|access-date=18 October 2018|date=2015-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232209/https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to the removal being based on proof and not suspicion, no other Chinese certificate authority has been removed from web browsers, and some have been added since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392|title=1128392 - Add GDCA Root Certificate|website=bugzilla.mozilla.org|language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324235853/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392|archive-date=24 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
This type of attack can be circumvented by websites implementing [[Certificate Transparency]] and [[OCSP stapling]] or by using browser extensions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patrol.psyced.org/|title=Certificate Patrol - a psyced Firefox/Mozilla add-on|website=patrol.psyced.org|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613113932/http://patrol.psyced.org/|archive-date=13 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}
=== Active probing ===
In addition to previously discussed techniques, the [[Cyberspace Administration of China|CAC]] is also using [[Network mapping#Active probing|active probing]] in order to identify and block network services that would help escaping the firewall. Multiple services such as [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] or [[VPN]] providers reported receiving unsolicited TCP/IP connections shortly after legitimate use, for the purported purpose of [[network enumerating|network enumeration]] of services, in particular [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]]/[[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] and Tor services, with the aim of facilitating IP blocking. For example, shortly after a VPN request is issued by a legitimate Chinese VPN client and passes outbound though the Great Firewall to a hidden VPN IP, the Great Firewall may detect the activity and issue its own active probe to verify the nature of the previously unknown VPN IP and, if the probe confirms the IP is part of a blacklisted VPN, blacklist the IP.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors|title=Knock Knock Knockin' on Bridges' Doors|last=Wilde|first=Tim|date=7 January 2012|publisher=[[Tor Project]]|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060455/https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors|archive-date=13 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="blog.torproject.org">{{cite web|url=https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system|title=Learning more about the GFW's active probing system {{!}} Tor Blog|website=blog.torproject.org|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008214120/https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system|archive-date=8 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> This attack can be circumvented with the Obfs4 protocol, which relies on an out-of-band [[shared secret]].<ref name="auto"/><ref name="blog.torproject.org"/>
=== Proxy distribution ===
The Great Firewall scrapes the IPs of Tor and VPN servers from the official distribution channels, and enumerates them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831 |title=28c3: How governments have tried to block Tor |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-12-28 |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329110424/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743 |title=Roger Dingledine - The Tor Censorship Arms Race The Next Chapter - DEF CON 27 Conference |publisher=YouTube |date=2019-11-15 |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329111727/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117|title=#32117 (Understand and document BridgeDB bot scraping attempts) – Tor Bug Tracker & Wiki|website=trac.torproject.org|date=16 October 2019 |access-date=2020-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327035436/https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117|archive-date=2020-03-27|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs |title=Jinyang Li - Censorship Circumvention via Kaleidoscope |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523012421/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs |archive-date=2020-05-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> The strategy to resist this attack is to limit the quantity of proxy IPs revealed to each user and making it very difficult for users to create more than one identity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf |title=Tor Games |publisher=people.cs.umass.edu |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217222223/https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf |title=Data |publisher=www-users.cs.umn.edu |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612072343/https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf |title=Info |publisher=censorbib.nymity.ch |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317075430/https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> Academics have proposed solutions such as Salmon, a volunteer-based proxy network designed to combat censorship.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Douglas2016a.pdf |title=Info |publisher=censorbib.nymity.ch |access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY |title=Frederick Douglas - Salmon: Robust Proxy Distribution for Censorship Circumvention |publisher=YouTube |date=2016-10-10 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204190605/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY |archive-date=2019-02-04 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626231844/https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/ |archive-date=2020-06-26 |title=Tor Project {{!}} Implementing Salmon as a bridge distribution mechanism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/net4people/bbs/issues/33|title = Salmon: Robust Proxy Distribution for Censorship Circumvention (PETS 2016) · Issue #33 · net4people/BBS|website = [[GitHub]]}}</ref> Dynamic IPs are quite effective to flush out from blacklists.
==Goals, impact and resistance==
=== Goal of the Firewall ===
Article 15 of a September 20, 2000 document from the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese State Council]], posted by the Xinhua News Agency, lists 9 categories of information which should be [[Censorship in China|censored]], blocked, or filtered from access to the citizens using the internet within China:
# Opposing the basic principles as they are confirmed in the Constitution.
# Jeopardizing the security of the nation, divulging state secrets, subverting state power, or jeopardizing the integrity of the nation's unity
# Harming the honor or the interests of the nation
# Inciting hatred against peoples, racism against peoples, or disrupting the solidarity of peoples
# Disrupting national policies on religion, propagating evil cults and feudal superstitions
# Spreading rumors, disturbing social order or disrupting social stability
# Spreading obscenity, pornography, gambling, violence, murder, terror, or abetting the commission of a crime
# Insulting or defaming third parties, infringing on the legal rights and interests of third parties
# Containing any other content prohibited by law or administrative rules<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 25, 2000|title=Measures for the Administration of Internet Information Services|url=https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/measures-for-the-administration-of-internet-information-services-cecc|access-date=April 21, 2021|website=Congressional-Executive Commission on China}}</ref>
To filter this content, the Chinese government not only uses its own blocking methods, but also heavily relies on internet companies, such as ISPs, social media operators such as Weibo,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Griffiths|first=James|date=March 20, 2019|title=Weibo's Free-Speech Failure|work=The Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/03/what-went-wrong-chinas-weibo-social-network/584728/|access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> and others to actively censor their users.<ref>“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," ''PEN America''. (March 13, 2018) p. 33.</ref> This results in private companies censoring their own platform for filtered content, forcing Chinese internet users to use websites not hosted in China to access this information. Much of this information is related to sensitive topics.<ref name=":02">“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," ''PEN America''. (March 13, 2018) p. 24.</ref> The Great Firewall's goal is perceived by the Communist Party as helping to protect the Chinese population by preventing users from accessing these foreign websites which, in their opinion, host content which would be 'spiritual pollution', as well as information about these sensitive topics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Abbott|first=Jason|date=April 30, 2019|title=Of Grass Mud Horses and Rice Bunnies: Chinese Internet Users Challenge Beijing's Censorship and Internet Controls|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12442|journal=Asian Politics & Policy|volume=11|pages=162–168|doi=10.1111/aspp.12442|s2cid=159308868}}</ref> These topics include:
* Names of government leaders, such as [[Xi Jinping]] and [[Deng Xiaoping]]
* [[Protest and dissent in China|Political movements and protests]]
* [[Falun Gong]] and other cults
* The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests|Tiananmen Square Massacre]]
* The [[Xinjiang internment camps]]
* Discussions of [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibetan Independence]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Xiao|first=Qiang|date=April 30, 2009|title=Baidu's internal monitoring and censorship document leaked|work=China Digital Times|url=https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/04/baidus-internal-monitoring-and-censorship-document-leaked/|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Shu|first=Catherine|date=June 3, 2019|title=A Look at the many ways China suppresses online discourse about the Tiananmen Square protests|work=Tech Crunch|url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/03/a-look-at-the-many-ways-china-suppresses-online-discourse-about-the-tiananmen-square-protests/|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," PEN America. (March 13, 2018) p. 41-42.</ref>
[[List of websites blocked in mainland China|Specific websites]] blocked or filtered include many popular search engines, social media platforms, information-hosting sites, and video-hosting websites such as Google Search, Facebook, Wikipedia, YouTube, Twitter, and many more.
=== Impact on people in China ===
The [[Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China|Cybersecurity Law]] behind the firewall is targeted at helping increase internet user privacy, increase protections on personal data, and making companies more responsible for monitoring bad actors, in hopes to make the Internet a safer place for Chinese citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wang|first=Hairong|date=January 17, 2013|title="Legal Firewall" Beijing Review|work=Beijing Review|url=http://www.bjreview.com/print/txt/2013-01/14/content_512143.htm|access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> Despite this, there have been growing criticisms that the actions of the Chinese government have only hurt Chinese free speech, due to increased censorship, and lack of non-sanctioned sources of information, such as Wikipedia and many English news sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Jennifer|last2=Roberts|first2=Margaret|date=January 2020|title=Censorship's Effect on Incidental Exposure to Information: Evidence from Wikipedia|journal=SAGE Open|volume=10|doi=10.1177/2158244019894068|doi-access=free}}</ref> This has resulted in reports of some cases of legal persecution of those charged with spreading this information.<ref name=":1" />
The Chinese government itself does legally support free speech; [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|article 35 of the Constitutions of the People's Republic]] states that "citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy [[freedom of speech]], of the [[Freedom of press|press]], of [[Freedom of assembly|assembly]], of association, of procession, and of demonstration."<ref>[http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html "CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA". People's Daily. December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609090748/http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html |date=2020-06-09 }} (4, 1982) Archived from the original on August 12, 2010. Retrieved April 20, 2021.</ref> In recent decades, many criticisms of the Chinese government found that some of these laws are often abused. A study by [[PEN America]] claimed that "Some of the government's most rights-abusive laws are aimed at criminalizing free speech that — in the eyes of the government — encourages subversion, separatism, or rejection of the State’s authority."<ref name=":02" />
Censorship of sensitive topics in China has also been easier for the government because of the firewall and its filtering. Because the monitoring of social media and chat apps in China presents a possibility of punishment for a user, the discussion of these topics is now limited to the correct thought of the Communist Party, or one's home and private spaces, reducing the chance for information about these topics to spread, reducing any threat of protest against the Communist Party.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Wang|first=Yaqiu|date=September 1, 2020|title=In China, the 'Great Firewall' is Changing a Generation|work=Politico|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/09/01/china-great-firewall-generation-405385|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Freedom of Expression in China: A Privilege, Not a Right|url=https://www.cecc.gov/freedom-of-expression-in-china-a-privilege-not-a-right|access-date=April 20, 2021|website=Congressional-Executive Commission on China}}</ref> According to Yaqiu Wang, a prominent human rights researcher, there was a time in China where the internet provided a method for Chinese citizens to learn about the sensitive topics the government had censored in the news, through access to international news reports and media coverage. She claims that, in the past 10 years, it has been increasingly difficult to access second opinions on events, meaning that students rarely have the opportunity to learn diverging viewpoints — only the "correct" thought of the Communist Party.<ref name=":2" />
=== Economic impacts ===
The Great Firewall has also allowed China to develop its own major internet services, such as [[Tencent]], [[Alibaba Group|Alibaba]], [[Baidu]],<ref name="washingtonpost.com2">{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|date=23 May 2016|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|access-date=5 September 2017|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name="WSJ20152">{{cite news|last1=Chen|first1=Te-Ping|date=28 January 2015|title=China Owns 'Great Firewall,' Credits Censorship With Tech Success|work=WSJ|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/|url-status=live|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121094528/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/|archive-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> [[Renren]], [[Youku]], and Weibo.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Shi |first=Song |title=China and the Internet: Using New Media for Development and Social Change |date=2023 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |isbn=9781978834736 |location=New Brunswick, NJ}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8}} China has its own version of many foreign web properties, for example: [[Bilibili]] and [[Tencent Video]] (YouTube), [[Sina Weibo]] (Twitter), [[Moments (social networking)|Moments]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoskins |first1=Peter |author2=Fan Wang |title=WeChat: Why does Elon Musk want X to emulate China's everything-app? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66333633 |website=BBC News |accessdate=2023-07-30 |date=2023-07-29}}</ref> and [[Qzone]] (Facebook), [[WeChat]] (WhatsApp), [[Ctrip]] (Orbitz and others), and [[Zhihu]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Millward|first1=Steven|date=12 January 2017|title=China's answer to Quora now worth a billion bucks|work=Tech in Asia|url=https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding|url-status=live|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904154318/https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding|archive-date=4 September 2017}}</ref> ([[Quora]]). With nearly one quarter of the global internet population (700 million users), the internet behind the GFW can be considered a "parallel universe" to the Internet that exists outside.<ref name="WaPo2017"/>
=== Resistance ===
While the Great Firewall has had an impact on Chinese citizens' ability to use the internet to find information about sensitive topics about the Communist Party, it has not completely stopped them from doing so. The firewall itself has caused much frustration amongst both individuals and internationally operating companies in China, many of whom have turned to VPNs, speaking in codes,<ref>Lyden, Jacki; Xiao, Qiang (September 7, 2013). [https://www.npr.org/transcripts/220106496 “In China, Avoiding The ‘Great Firewall’ Internet Censors”] NPR Podcasts Transcripts. Retrieved April 20, 2021.</ref> and other methods to retain their access to the international internet.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Li|first=Yan|date=April 6, 2016|title=Chinese Voice Frustration Over 'Great Firewall'; Many Internet users criticize intensified blocking of foreign websites|work=The Wall Street Journal Online|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese-voice-frustration-over-great-firewall-1459973164|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref>
==Circumvention==
{{See also|Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China#Evasion{{!}}Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China § Evasion|Internet censorship circumvention}}
=== Methods for bypassing the firewall ===
Because the Great Firewall blocks destination IP addresses and domain names and inspects the data being sent or received, a basic censorship circumvention strategy is to use proxy nodes and encrypt the data. Bypassing the firewall is known as {{transliteration|zh|fānqiáng}} (翻墙, "climb over the wall"), and most circumvention tools combine these two mechanisms:<ref name=Anderson2013>[http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036 "Splinternet Behind the Great Firewall of China: The Fight Against GFW"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920093321/http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036 |date=2017-09-20 }}, Daniel Anderson, ''Queue'', Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Vol. 10, No. 11 (29 November 2012), {{doi|10.1145/2390756.2405036}}. Retrieved 11 October 2013.</ref>
* [[Proxy server]]s outside China can be used, although using just a simple open proxy (HTTP or SOCKS) without also using an encrypted tunnel (such as HTTPS) does little to circumvent the sophisticated censors.<ref name=Anderson2013/>
* [[Freegate]], [[Ultrasurf]], [[Psiphon]], and [[Lantern (software)|Lantern]] are free programs designed and experienced with circumventing the China firewall using multiple [[open proxies]].
* [[VPN]]s (virtual private networks) are one of the most popular tools used by Westerners for bypassing censorship technologies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall|title=Tech in Asia - Connecting Asia's startup ecosystem|website=www.techinasia.com|access-date=2020-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329074408/https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall|archive-date=2020-03-29|url-status=live}}</ref> They use the same basic approaches, proxies, and encrypted channels used by other circumvention tools, but depend on a private host, a virtual host, or an account outside of China, rather than open, free proxies.<ref name=Anderson2013/>
* [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] partially can be used in China.<ref name="Anderson2013" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/|title=r/TOR - Does Tor still work in China?|website=reddit|date=16 April 2018|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904021327/https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/|archive-date=2019-09-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2010, almost all bridges at TorProject.org are blocked through [[#Proxy distribution|proxy distribution]]. Tor still functions in China using Snowflake,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlZZQYLIXe8&t=1400s | title=DEF CON 30 - Roger Dingledine - How Russia is trying to block Tor | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> independently published Obfs4 bridges and meek.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf |title=Conference paper |publisher=www.usenix.org |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028052521/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf |archive-date=2019-10-28 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949 |title=28c3: How governments have tried to block Tor |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-12-28 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523011126/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949 |archive-date=2020-05-23 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/29279|title = Test obfs4 reachability (#29279) · Issues · Legacy / Trac| date=February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6xEfNHkFKY|title=Circumventing Internet Censorship with Tor|accessdate=Dec 3, 2022|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref>
* [[I2P]] or [[garlic routing]] is useful when properties similar to Tor's anonymity are needed. Due to I2P being much less popular than Tor, it has faced little to no blocking attempts.
In 2017, the Chinese government declared unauthorized VPN services illegal, requiring VPN providers to obtain state approval.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ye |first=Josh |date=January 2017 |title=China tightens Great Firewall by declaring unauthorized VPN services illegal |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2064587/chinas-move-clean-vpns-and-strengthen-great-firewall |access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> Although China restricts VPNs, they remain widely used by private individuals.<ref name=":9222">{{Cite book |last=Šebok |first=Filip |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Social Control and Propaganda |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=109}} [[State-owned enterprises of China|State-owned enterprises]] or state institutions also use VPNs for official work.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}} The Chinese government has authorized several official VPN providers.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}} Those who develop or sell their own VPNs potentially face years in prison.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}}
Non-proxy circumvention strategies include:
* Using [[DNS over HTTPS|encrypted DNS]] may bypass blocking of a few sites including TorProject and all of GitHub, which may be used to obtain further circumvention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html|title=How to Use DNSCrypt to Prevent DNS Spoofing in China | Tips for China|website=www.tipsforchina.com|date=13 May 2019|access-date=2020-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217221544/https://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html|archive-date=2020-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019 Firefox released an update to make it easy to enable DNS over HTTPS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps|title=DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) Update – Recent Testing Results and Next Steps|first=Selena|last=Deckelmann|website=Future Releases|date=2 April 2019 |access-date=2020-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107031853/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps/|archive-date=2020-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite DNS over encryption, the majority of services remain blocked by IP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=dnsencryption.info |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026013416/https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Ignoring TCP reset packets sent by the GFW. Distinguishing them by the TTL value (time to live), and not routing any further packets to sites that have triggered blocking behavior.<ref>[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf "Ignoring the Great Firewall of China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233123/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf |date=2017-09-09 }}, Richard Clayton, Steven J. Murdoch, and Robert N. M. Watson, ''PET'06: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Privacy Enhancing Technologies'', Springer-Verlag (2006), pages 20–35, {{ISBN|3-540-68790-4}}, {{doi|10.1007/11957454_2}}. Retrieved 11 October 2013.</ref>
=== Known blocked methods ===
* The [[OpenVPN]] protocol is detected and blocked. Connections not using symmetric keys or using "tls-auth" are blocked at handshake, and connections using the new "tls-crypt" option are detected and throttled (under 56 kbit/s) by the QoS filtering system.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
* [[Generic Routing Encapsulation|GRE]] tunnels and protocols that use GRE (e.g., [[PPTP]]) are blocked.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
* [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], the Great Firewall can identify the difference between HTTPS TLS and other implementations by inspecting the handshake parameters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY |title=Defcon 21 - Defeating Internet Censorship with Dust, the Polymorphic Protocol Engine |publisher=YouTube |date=2013-11-16 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707183101/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY |archive-date=2016-07-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBp6opkcxoc&feature=youtu.be&t=361 |title=32C3 - How the Great Firewall discovers hidden circumvention servers |publisher=YouTube |date=2016-04-24 |access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf |title=Data |publisher=tlsfingerprint.io |date=2019 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227201210/https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf |archive-date=2019-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35l56KjTCb8&feature=youtu.be&t=5315 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/35l56KjTCb8 |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Anti-Censorship & Transparency - Roger Dingledine |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2020-05-24}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
==Outside China==
===Off-target incidents===
In 2010, a [[root name server]] run by [[Netrod]] in China started returning poisoned DNS results to global users, preventing users in [[Chile]] and the U.S. from accessing sites such as Facebook. The server was shut down to stop the poisoning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McMillan |first1=Robert |title=After DNS problem, Chinese root server is shut down |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2755924/after-dns-problem--chinese-root-server-is-shut-down.html |website=Computerworld |language=en |date=26 March 2010}}</ref>
In 2014, two-thirds of China's DNS infrastructure began resolving unrelated domains to 65.49.2.178, an address owned by the US-based [[Freegate|Dynamic Internet Technology, Inc.]], [[Internet anomalies in mainland China in 2014|resulting in widespread internet outage in China]]. No damage to DIT services were reported despite what amounts to an accidental [[DDoS]]. While some sources attribute this incident to GFW's DNS poisoning,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leyden |first1=John |title=DNS poisoning slams web traffic from millions in China into the wrong hole |url=https://www.theregister.com/2014/01/21/china_dns_poisoning_attack/ |website=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> others (mostly quoting Chinese sources) speculate this incident was somehow caused by DIT themselves.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Carsten|first=Paul|title="Massive Internet mishap sparks Great Firewall scrutiny in China"|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-china-internet-idUKBREA0K04T20140122|access-date=22 Jan 2014|website=Reuters}}</ref>
=== Exporting Great Firewall technology ===
[[Reporters Without Borders]] suspects that countries such as [[Censorship in Cuba|Cuba]], [[Censorship in Iran|Iran]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iran To Work With China To Create National Internet System|url=https://www.rferl.org/amp/iran-china-national-internet-system-censorship/30820857.html|access-date=2020-09-30|website=www.rferl.org}}</ref> [[Censorship in Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Censorship in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]], and [[Censorship in Belarus|Belarus]] have obtained surveillance technology from China, although the censorship in these countries is less stringent than in China.<ref name="cubaonline">{{cite web|year=2006|title=Going online in Cuba: Internet under surveillance|url=http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303221407/http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2009|publisher=Reporters Without Borders|df=dmy}}</ref>
Since at least 2015, the Russian [[Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media|Roskomnadzor]] agency collaborates with Chinese Great Firewall security officials in implementing its data retention and filtering infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Soldatov|first1=Andrei|last2=Borogan|first2=Irina|date=2016-11-29|title=Putin brings China's Great Firewall to Russia in cybersecurity pact|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/29/putin-china-internet-great-firewall-russia-cybersecurity-pact|access-date=2017-07-04|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="eurozine">{{cite news|date=2017-02-21|title=China: The architect of Putin's firewall|publisher=[[Eurozine]]|url=https://www.eurozine.com/china-the-architect-of-putins-firewall/|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2016-04-29|title=Russia's chief internet censor enlists China's know-how|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f |archive-date=2022-12-11 |url-access=subscription|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> During his visit to Beijing in June 2016, Vladimir Putin signed a joint communiqué with Xi Jinping on information space, followed by Russia’s National Forum for Information Security in October hosted by [[Fang Binxing]], the architect of the Chinese Great Firewall.<ref name="eurozine"/>
Especially since the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], in order to enforce the [[Russian 2022 war censorship laws|war censorship law]], Russian authorities were making an internet surveillance system akin to Chinese Great Firewall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-internet-censorship-efforts-reveal-shortcomings-c2156ead73e1c33cb9357fb954f958f8|title=War censorship exposes Putin's leaky internet controls|website=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 14, 2022}}</ref>
=== Opposition ===
Critics have argued that if other large countries begin following China's approach, the whole purpose of the creation of the Internet could be put in jeopardy. If like-minded countries are successful in imposing the same restrictions on their inhabitants and globalized online companies, then the free global exchange of information could cease to exist.<ref name="The Great Firewall of China">{{cite news|title=The Great Firewall of China|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331034226/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china|archive-date=31 March 2018|access-date=2 April 2018|website=Bloomberg}}</ref>
The [[United States Trade Representative]]'s (USTR) "National Trade Estimate Report" in 2016 referred the China's digital Great Firewall: "China's filtering of cross-border Internet traffic has posed a significant burden to foreign suppliers."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Barfield|first1=Claude|title=China's Internet censorship: A WTO challenge is long overdue|url=https://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/|access-date=26 January 2017|publisher=TechPolicyDaily.com|date=29 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430114152/http://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/|archive-date=30 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Claude Barfield, the [[American Enterprise Institute]]'s expert of International trade, suggested that the U.S. government should bring a case against the Firewall, a huge trade barrier, in the World Trade Organization in January 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Barfield|first1=Claude|title=China bans 8 of the world's top 25 websites? There's still more to the digital trade problem.|url=http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/|access-date=26 January 2017|agency=American Enterprise Institute|date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126092521/http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/|archive-date=26 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Eight of the 24 more trafficked websites in China have been blocked by the Great Firewall. This has created a burden to foreign suppliers who rely on these websites to sell their products or services. The lobby's 2016 business climate survey showed 79 percent of its members reported a negative impact on business due to internet censorship.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Martina|first1=Paul|title=U.S. says China internet censorship a burden for businesses|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD|newspaper=Reuters|agency=Reuters|access-date=23 March 2018|date=8 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225919/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD|archive-date=2 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to [[Stephen Peter Rosen|Stephen Rosen]], the GFW is reflective of the Chinese government's fear of civil disobedience or rebellion among the Chinese population against the Chinese Communist Party's rule:
{{blockquote|If you want to know what people are worried about look at what they spend their money on. If you’re afraid of burglars you buy a burglar alarm. What are the Chinese spending their money on? We’re told from Chinese figures they’re spending on the [[People's Armed Police]], the internal security force is about as big as they’re spending on the regular military. This whole great firewall of China, this whole massive effort to control the internet, this effort to use modern information technology not to disseminate information, empowering individuals, but to make people think what you want them to think and to monitor their behavior so that you can isolate and suppress them. That’s because this is a regime which is fundamentally afraid of its own people. And it’s fundamentally hostile to them.<ref>{{cite episode |url=https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/ |first=Bill |last=Kristol |author-link=Bill Kristol |title=Stephen Rosen interview |date=30 November 2018 |series=Conversations With Bill Kristol |transcript-url=https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/stephen-rosen-ii-transcript/ |transcript=Transcript |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014729/https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/ |archive-date=25 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|China|Internet}}
{{div-col}}
* [[List of websites blocked in mainland China]]
* [[Bamboo Curtain]]
* [[Berlin Wall]]
* [[Censorship in China]]
* [[Wikipedia blocked by China|Censorship of Wikipedia by China]]
* [[Cipher|Cypher]]
* [[Great Cannon]] — A [[denial-of-service attack|distributed denial-of-service]] attack tool co-located with the Great Firewall.
* [[GreatFire]] — An organization monitoring and providing apps, 12 websites, code, tests and tools related to the Great Firewall
* [[Green Dam Youth Escort]]
* [[Great Wall of Sand]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]] – monitors<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050423180620/http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147 Internet censorship in China]</ref>
* [[Internet censorship circumvention]]
* [[Media of China]]
* [[Politics of China]]
* [[Splinternet]]
* ''[[Who Controls the Internet?]]''
{{div-col-end}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
* Griffiths, James, "The Great Firewall of China: How to Build and Control an Alternative Version of the Internet", ''[[Zed Books]]'' (May 2019).
* [[Nandan Nilekani|Nilekani, Nandan]], "Data to the People: India's Inclusive Internet", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 19–26.
* [[Adam Segal|Segal, Adam]], "When China Rules the Web: Technology in Service of the State", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 10–14, 16–18.
== External links ==
* {{Commonscat-inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|firewall}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{-}}
{{Censorship in China}}
{{Internet censorship circumvention technologies}}
[[Category:Internet censorship in China]]
[[Category:Firewall software]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Chinese internet regulations}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}{{Politics of China|expanded=Publicity}}
The '''Great Firewall''' (''GFW''; {{zh|s=防火长城|t=防火長城|p=Fánghuǒ Chángchéng}}) is the combination of legislative actions and technologies enforced by the [[People's Republic of China]] to regulate the [[Internet]] domestically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Richard |last2=Murdoch |first2=Steven J. |last3=Watson |first3=Robert N. M. |title=Ignoring the great firewall of china |journal=International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies}}</ref> Its role in [[internet censorship in China]] is to block access to selected foreign websites and to slow down cross-border internet traffic.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mozur|first1=Paul|title=Baidu and CloudFlare Boost Users Over China's Great Firewall|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 September 2015|language=en|access-date=16 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124123846/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html|archive-date=24 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Great Firewall operates by checking [[transmission control protocol]] (TCP) packets for keywords or sensitive words. If the keywords or sensitive words appear in the TCP packets, access will be closed. If one link is closed, more links from the same machine will be blocked by the Great Firewall.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=Richard |last2=Murdoch |first2=Steven J. |last3=Watson |first3=Robert N. M. |date=2006 |editor-last=Danezis |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Golle |editor2-first=Philippe |title=Ignoring the Great Firewall of China |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11957454_2 |journal=Privacy Enhancing Technologies |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=4258 |language=en |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |pages=20–35 |doi=10.1007/11957454_2 |isbn=978-3-540-68793-1|hdl=1811/72793 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The effect includes: limiting access to foreign information sources, blocking foreign internet tools (e.g. [[Google Search]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.greatfire.org/google.com|title=google.com is blocked in China {{!}} GreatFire Analyzer|website=en.greatfire.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805232352/https://en.greatfire.org/google.com|archive-date=2014-08-05|access-date=2020-01-18}}</ref> [[Facebook]],<ref>{{cite web |title=How China's social media users created a new language to beat censorship on COVID-19 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/ |website=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=3 April 2020 |language=en |date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403023740/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/ |archive-date=3 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Twitter]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html|title=China Blocks Access To Twitter, Facebook After Riots|newspaper=Washington Post|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919204716/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html|archive-date=19 September 2010|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> [[Wikipedia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china|title=Wikipedia founder defends decision to encrypt the site in China|date=4 September 2015|publisher=[[The Verge]]|access-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141751/https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/chinas-government-has-blocked-wikipedia-its-entirety-again-1532138|title=China's government has blocked Wikipedia in its entirety again|last=Skipper|first=Ben|date=7 December 2015|work=[[International Business Times]] UK|access-date=2 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111142/https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/chinas-government-has-blocked-wikipedia-its-entirety-again-1532138|archive-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and others) and mobile apps, and requiring foreign companies to adapt to domestic regulations.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mozur|first1=Paul|last2=Goel|first2=Vindu|title=To Reach China, LinkedIn Plays by Local Rules|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/technology/to-reach-china-linkedin-plays-by-local-rules.html?mcubz=0|work=The New York Times|date=5 October 2014|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613111912/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/technology/to-reach-china-linkedin-plays-by-local-rules.html?mcubz=0|archive-date=13 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Branigan|first1=Tania|title=New York Times launches website in Chinese language|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/jun/28/new-york-times-launches-chinese-website|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=28 June 2012|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904154029/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/jun/28/new-york-times-launches-chinese-website|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
Besides censorship, the Great Firewall has also influenced the development of China's internal internet economy by giving preference to domestic companies<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=5 September 2017|date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and reducing the effectiveness of products from foreign internet companies.<ref name="WaPo2017">{{cite news|last1=Rauhala|first1=Emily|date=19 July 2016|title=America wants to believe China can't innovate. Tech tells a different story.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/america-wants-to-believe-china-cant-innovate-tech-tells-a-different-story/2016/07/19/c17cbea9-6ee6-479c-81fa-54051df598c5_story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903210759/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/america-wants-to-believe-china-cant-innovate-tech-tells-a-different-story/2016/07/19/c17cbea9-6ee6-479c-81fa-54051df598c5_story.html|archive-date=3 September 2017|access-date=5 September 2017|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> The techniques deployed by the Chinese government to maintain control of the Great Firewall can include modifying search results for terms, such as they did following [[Ai Weiwei]]’s arrest, and petitioning global conglomerates to remove content, as happened when they petitioned [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] to remove the [[Quartz (publication)|''Quartz'']] business news publication’s app from its Chinese App Store after reporting on the [[2019–2020 Hong Kong protests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://9to5mac.com/2019/10/09/apple-china-quartz-app-store/|title=Apple removes 'Quartz' news app from Chinese App Store|last=Miller|first=Chance|date=2019-10-09|website=9to5Mac|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010065316/https://9to5mac.com/2019/10/09/apple-china-quartz-app-store/|archive-date=2019-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20907228/apple-quartz-app-store-china-removal-hong-kong-protests-censorship|title=Apple removes Quartz news app from the Chinese App Store over Hong Kong coverage|last=Statt|first=Nick|date=2019-10-09|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=2019-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010015646/https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20907228/apple-quartz-app-store-china-removal-hong-kong-protests-censorship|archive-date=2019-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Great Firewall was formerly operated by the [[State Internet Information Office|SIIO]], as part of the [[Golden Shield Project]]. Since 2013, the firewall is technically operated by the [[Cyberspace Administration of China]] (CAC), which is the entity in charge of translating the [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s doctrine and policy into technical specifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfa.org/english/commentaries/china_internet-11242008134108.html|title=How China's Internet Police Control Speech on the Internet|website=[[Radio Free Asia]]|language=en|access-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620175605/http://www.rfa.org/english/commentaries/china_internet-11242008134108.html|archive-date=20 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
As mentioned in the "[[one country, two systems]]" principle, China's [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] (SARs) such as [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are not affected by the firewall, as SARs have their own governmental and legal systems and therefore enjoy a higher degree of autonomy. Nevertheless, the [[U.S. State Department]] has reported that the central government authorities have closely monitored Internet use in these regions,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2011/eap/187483.htm|title=China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) - Hong Kong|work=[[U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=29 July 2018|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701191914/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2011/eap/187483.htm|archive-date=1 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and Hong Kong's [[2020 Hong Kong national security law|National Security Law]] has been used to block websites documenting [[List of protests in Hong Kong|anti-government protests]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hong Kong police use national security law for first time to block access to website recording anti-government protests, officers' details |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-and-crime/article/3117072/hong-kong-police-use-national-security-law-block |website=South China Morning Post |date=9 January 2021 |access-date=13 January 2021}}</ref>
The term ''Great Firewall of China'' is a combination of the word [[Firewall (computing)|firewall]] with the [[Great Wall of China]]. The phrase "Great Firewall of China" was first used in print by Australian [[sinologist]] [[Geremie Barmé]] in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lanfranco|first1=Edward|title=The China Yahoo! welcome: You've got Jail!|url=http://www.upi.com/The-China-Yahoo-welcome-Youve-got-Jail/40351126286824/|work=UPI|date=9 September 2005|language=en|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810052910/http://www.upi.com/The-China-Yahoo-welcome-Youve-got-Jail/40351126286824/|archive-date=10 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/ |title=The Great Firewall of China |journal=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |last1=Barme |first1=Geremie R. |last2=Ye |first2=Sang |date=6 January 1997 |access-date=29 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101024548/http://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/ |archive-date=2016-01-01|url-status=live }}</ref> RedfishGroup's Stephen Guerin first described the internet filtering as a reversed "firewall" on CNN on Feb 9, 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN - China roadblocks the Internet - Feb 9, 1996 |url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9602/china_information/index.html |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=www.cnn.com}}</ref>
==History==
A favorite saying of [[Deng Xiaoping]]'s in the early 1980s, "If you open the window, both fresh air and flies will be blown in", is considered to be the political and ideological basis of the GFW Project.<ref group=nb>{{zh|c=打开窗户，新鲜空气和苍蝇就会一起进来。|p= Dǎkāi chuānghù, xīnxiān kōngqì hé cāngying jiù huì yìqǐ jìnlái|scase=yes}}.<br />There are several variants of this saying in Chinese, including "如果你打开窗户换新鲜空气，就得想到苍蝇也会飞进来。" and "打开窗户，新鲜空气进来了，苍蝇也飞进来了。". Their meanings are the same.</ref> The saying is related to a period of the economic reform of China that became known as the "[[socialist market economy]]". Superseding the political ideologies of the [[Cultural Revolution]], the reform led China towards a [[market economy]] and opened up the market for foreign investors. Nonetheless, despite the economic freedom, values and political ideas of the Chinese Communist Party have had to be protected by "swatting flies" of other unwanted ideologies.<ref>R. MacKinnon "Flatter world and thicker walls? Blogs, censorship and civic discourse in China" ''[[Public Choice (journal)|Public Choice]]'' (2008) 134: p. 31–46, Springer</ref>
The [[internet in China]] arrived in 1994,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinanews.com/special/guoqing/60/2009/06-25/122.shtml |title=中国接入互联网 |publisher=[[China News Service]] |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219141011/http://www.chinanews.com/special/guoqing/60/2009/06-25/122.shtml |archive-date=19 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> as the inevitable consequence of and supporting tool for a "socialist market economy". Gradually, while Internet availability has been increasing, the Internet has become a common communication platform and tool for trading information.
The [[Ministry of Public Security (China)|Ministry of Public Security]] took initial steps to control Internet use in 1997, when it issued comprehensive regulations governing its use. The key sections, Articles 4–6, are:
{{blockquote|Individuals are prohibited from using the Internet to: harm national security; disclose state secrets; or injure the interests of the state or society. Users are prohibited from using the Internet to create, replicate, retrieve, or transmit information that incites resistance to the [[PRC Constitution]], laws, or administrative regulations; promoting the overthrow of the government or socialist system; undermining national unification; distorting the truth, spreading rumors, or destroying social order; or providing sexually suggestive material or encouraging gambling, violence, or murder. Users are prohibited from engaging in activities that harm the security of computer information networks and from using networks or changing network resources without prior approval.<ref>"China and the Internet.", ''[[International Debates]]'', 15420345, Apr2010, Vol. 8, Issue 4</ref>}}
In 1998, the Chinese Communist Party feared that the [[China Democracy Party]] (CDP) would breed a powerful new network that the party elites might not be able to control.<ref>Goldman, Merle Goldman. Gu, Edward X. [2004] (2004). Chinese Intellectuals between State and Market. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|0415325978}}</ref> The CDP was immediately banned, followed by arrests and imprisonment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldsmith |first1=Jack L. |author-link1=Jack Goldsmith |last2=Wu |first2=Tim |author-link2=Tim Wu |title=Who Controls the Internet?: Illusions of a Borderless World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-515266-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whocontrolsinter00gold/page/91 91] |title-link=Who Controls the Internet? }}</ref> That same year, the GFW project was started. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006. The second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008.
On 6 December 2002, 300 people in charge of the GFW project from 31 [[Province (China)|provinces]] and [[List of cities in China|cities]] throughout China participated in a four-day inaugural "Comprehensive Exhibition on Chinese Information System".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group|title=Adsale Corporate Website - Adsale Group|first=Adsale Corporate|last=Website|website=www.adsale.com.hk|access-date=2020-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502184124/https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group|archive-date=2020-05-02|url-status=live}}</ref> At the exhibition, many western high-tech products, including [[Internet security]], [[video monitoring]] and human [[Facial recognition system|face recognition]] were purchased. It is estimated that around 30,000–50,000 police were employed in this gigantic project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-27 |title=What is internet censorship? - Amnesty International Australia |url=http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/ |access-date=2023-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427065800/http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/ |archive-date=27 April 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Fang binxing.jpg|thumb|left|Fang Binxing]]
[[Fang Binxing]] is known for his substantial contribution to [[Internet censorship in China|China's Internet censorship infrastructure]], and has been dubbed "Father of China's Great Fire Wall".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%E2%80%98father%E2%80%99-of-china%E2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/ | title='Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog | work=[[China Digital Times]] (CDT) | date=20 December 2010 | access-date=24 October 2019 | first=Xiao | last=Qiang | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225145914/https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%e2%80%98father%e2%80%99-of-china%e2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/ | archive-date=25 December 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=WSJ>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/|title='Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog – China Real Time Report – WSJ|date=20 December 2010|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=25 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119154634/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/|archive-date=19 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = Yunnan Information Times | script-title = zh:"防火墙之父"北邮校长方滨兴微博遭网民"围攻" | url = http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm | date = 23 December 2010 | access-date = 20 May 2011 | language = zh | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721182306/http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm | archive-date = 21 July 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
==Origins of Chinese Internet law==
China's view of the Internet is one of "[[Network sovereignty|Internet sovereignty]]": the notion that the Internet inside the country is part of the country's sovereignty and should be governed by the country.<ref name=WaPo2017/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=23 May 2016|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
While the United States and several other western countries passed laws creating computer crimes beginning in the 1970s, China had no such legislation until 1997. That year, China's sole legislative body – the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC) – passed CL97, a law that deals with cyber crimes, which it divided into two broad categories: crimes that target computer networks, and crimes carried out over computer networks. Behavior illegal under the latter category includes, among many things, the dissemination of [[pornographic]] material, and the usurping of "[[classified information|state secrets]]."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (1997) |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384075.htm |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=www.npc.gov.cn}}</ref>
Some Chinese judges were critical of CL97, calling it ineffective and unenforceable. However, the NPC claimed that it intentionally left the law "flexible" so that it could be open to future interpretation and development. Given the gaps in the law, the central government of China relies heavily on its administrative body, the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], to determine what falls under the definitions, and their determinations are not required to go through the NPC legislative process. As a result, the Chinese Communist Party has ended up relying heavily on state regulation to carry out CL97.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keith |first=Ronald |author2=Lin, Zhiqiu |title=New Crime in China |url=https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group |date=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit/page/n229 217]–225 |isbn=0415314828 }}</ref>
The latter definition of online activities punishable under CL97, or "crimes carried out over computer networks", is used as justification for the Great Firewall, and can be cited when the government blocks any ISP, gateway connections, or any access to anything on the internet. The definition also includes using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to national security," and using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to public order, social stability, and Chinese morality." The central government relies heavily on its State Council regulators to determine what specific online behavior and speech fall under these definitions.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}
The reasons behind the Internet censorship in China include:
* Social control: the Internet is a means for freedom of speech, and dissemination of campaigns could lead to protests against the government.
* Sensitive content: to control information about the government in China.
* Economic protectionism: China prefers the use of local companies that are regulated by Chinese regulations, since they have more power over them, e.g. [[Baidu]] over [[Google]].{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Daniel|title=Splinternet Behind the Great Firewall of China: Once China opened its door to the world, it could not close it again.|publisher=Queue}}</ref>
==Campaigns and crackdowns==
As part of the Great Firewall, beginning in 2003, China started the [[Golden Shield Project]], a massive surveillance and censoring system, the hardware for which was provided by mostly U.S. companies, including [[Cisco Systems]]. The project was completed in 2006, and is now carried out in buildings with machines manned by civilians and supervised by China's national police force, the [[Chinese public security bureau|Public Security Bureau]] (PSB). The main operating procedures of the gatekeepers at the Golden Shield Project include monitoring domestic websites, email, and searching for politically sensitive language and calls to protest. When damaging content is found, local PSB officials can be dispatched to investigate or make arrests. However, by late 2007, the Golden Shield Project proved to operate sporadically at best, as users had long adapted to [[Block (Internet)|internet blocking]] by using proxy servers, among other strategies, to make communications and circumnavigate to blocked content.<ref name="OliverAugust">{{Cite magazine |url=http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall |title=The Great Firewall: China's Misguided — and Futile — Attempt to Control What Happens Online |last=August |first=Oliver |date=23 October 2007 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired Magazine]] |access-date=1 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093349/http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Internet cafés, an extremely popular way of getting online in developing countries and where fewer people can afford a personal computer, are regulated by the Chinese government and by local Chinese government officials. Minors (in China, those under the age of 18) are not allowed into Internet cafés, although this law is widely ignored, and when enforced, has spurred the creation of underground "Black Web Bars" visited by those underage. As of 2008, internet cafés were required to register every customer in a log when they used the internet there. These records may be confiscated by either local government officials or the PSB. To illustrate local regulation of internet cafés, in one instance, a government official in the town of Gedong lawfully banned internet cafés from operating in the town because he believed them to be harmful to minors, who frequented them to play online games (including those considered violent) and surf the internet. However, internet cafés in this town simply went underground, and most minors were not deterred from visiting them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html |title=Despite a Ban, Chinese Youth Navigate to Internet Cafés |date=9 February 2007 |access-date=1 April 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |last=Cody |first=Edward |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220053356/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html |archive-date=20 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In May 2015, China indefinitely blocked access to the Chinese-language Wikipedia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Charlie |title=We Had Our Arguments, But We Will Miss You Wikipedia |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html |access-date=31 December 2018 |work=Huffington Post |date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619083431/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html |archive-date=19 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, China discussed plans for its own version of Wikipedia.<ref name=Verge2017>{{cite news|last1=Toor|first1=Amar|title=China is building its own version of Wikipedia|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship|work=The Verge|date=4 May 2017|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904155402/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Indep2017>{{cite news|last1=Watt|first1=Louise|title=China is launching its own Wikipedia – but only the government can contribute to it|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-wikipedia-chinese-version-government-no-public-authors-contributions-communist-party-line-a7717861.html|work=The Independent|date=4 May 2017|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210224316/https://www.dw.com/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%80-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9/a-46669373|archive-date=10 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> As of May 2019, all language versions of Wikipedia have been blocked by the Chinese government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/|title=Search result not found: China bans Wikipedia in all languages|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003155/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/|archive-date=7 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Blocking methods==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2020}}
===Active filtering===
One function of the Chinese firewall is to selectively prevent content from being accessed. It is mostly made of Cisco, Huawei, and Semptian hardware.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/|title=Huawei's (And China's) Dangerous High-Tech Game|last=Herman|first=Arthur|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515103447/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/|archive-date=15 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/|title=Cisco, Huawei and Semptian: A Look Behind the Great Firewall of China|date=15 December 2014|website=C5IS|language=en-US|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714193154/https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Not all sensitive content gets blocked; in 2007, scholar Jedidiah R. Crandall and others argued that the main purpose is not to block 100%, but rather to flag and to warn, in order to encourage self-censorship.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Oliver Farnan |author2=Alexander Darer |author3=Joss Wright |title=Proceedings of the 2016 ACM on Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society - WPES'16 |chapter=Poisoning the Well |year=2016 |pages=95–98 |doi=10.1145/2994620.2994636 |isbn=9781450345699 |s2cid=7275132 }}</ref> An illustrative but incomplete list of tactics includes:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Method
!Description
|-
|IP range ban using [[Black hole (networking)|black holes]]
|The Chinese firewall maintains a list of [[IP address|IP ranges]] that are automatically dropped ([[Black hole (networking)|network black-holing]]).
Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]). This is real and I like big black men.
|-
|[[DNS spoofing]], filtering and redirection
|One part of the Chinese firewall is made of liar DNS servers and [[DNS hijacking|DNS hijackers]] returning incorrect IP addresses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/ |title=how to unblock websites in China |date=26 January 2018 |publisher=pcwizardpro.com |access-date=27 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084214/http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/ |archive-date=27 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies seems to point out that this censorship is keyword-based.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf|title=The Great DNS Wall of China - Analysis of the DNS infrastructure|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121058/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf|archive-date=2019-04-03|url-status=live}}</ref>
Contrary to popular belief,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035|title=8.8.8.8 goes pretty well in the Chinese market. (8 being a popular number.) I th... {{!}} Hacker News|website=news.ycombinator.com|access-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326175426/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035|archive-date=26 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> foreign DNS resolvers such as [[Google Public DNS]] IP address 8.8.8.8 are reported to work correctly inside the country; however, these DNS servers are also subject to hijacking as their connections are not encrypted: DNS queries do reach the DNS server, but if the request matches a banned keyword, the firewall will inject a fake DNS reply before the legitimate DNS reply arrives. The vast majority of these fake responses contain public IP addresses of U.S. companies, including Facebook, Twitter, and Dropbox.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |last1=Hoang |first1=Nguyen Phong |last2=Niaki |first2=Arian Akhavan |last3=Dalek |first3=Jakub |last4=Knockel |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Lin |first5=Pellaeon |last6=Marczak |first6=Bill |last7=Crete-Nishihata |first7=Masashi |last8=Gill |first8=Phillipa |last9=Polychronakis |first9=Michalis |date=2021-06-03 |title=How Great is the Great Firewall? Measuring China's DNS Censorship |class=cs.CR |eprint=2106.02167 }}</ref>
Typical circumvention methods include modifying the [[Hosts file]], typing the IP address instead of the domain name in a [[Web browser]] or using [[DNS over TLS]]/[[DNS over HTTPS|HTTPS]].<ref>{{Cite arXiv |last1=Hoang |first1=Nguyen Phong |last2=Polychronakis |first2=Michalis |last3=Gill |first3=Phillipa |date=2022-02-01 |title=Measuring the Accessibility of Domain Name Encryption and Its Impact on Internet Filtering |class=cs.NI |eprint=2202.00663 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] filtering using transparent proxies
|The Chinese firewall is made of [[Transparent proxy|transparent proxies]] filtering web traffic. These proxies scan the requested [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]], the "Host" Header and the content of the web page (for HTTP requests) or the [[Server Name Indication]] (for HTTPS requests) for target keywords.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.xeovo.com/what-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care/ |title=What is the Great Firewall of China and why you should care|publisher=xeovo.com |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref>
Like for DNS filtering, this method is keyword-based. Encrypting the Server Name Indication (Encrypted Client Hello or ECH) can be used to bypass this method of filtering. It is currently in development by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/|title=draft-ietf-tls-esni-03 - Encrypted Server Name Indication for TLS 1.3|newspaper=Ietf Datatracker|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606041824/https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/|archive-date=6 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and is enabled by default for supported websites in [[Firefox]] and [[Chromium (web browser)|Chromium]] ([[Google Chrome]], [[Microsoft Edge]], [[Samsung Internet]], and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/|title=Encrypted SNI Comes to Firefox Nightly|website=Mozilla Security Blog|date=18 October 2018 |access-date=2020-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324233735/https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/|archive-date=2020-03-24|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/|title=Encrypt that SNI: Firefox edition|date=October 18, 2018|website=The Cloudflare Blog|access-date=February 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214223249/https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/|archive-date=February 14, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://chasersystems.com/blog/disabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why/ |title=How to disable TLS Encrypted ClientHello in Google Chrome using PowerShell |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=9 October 2023 |website= |publisher=Chaser Systems Ltd |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://chromestatus.com/feature/6196703843581952 |title=Feature: TLS Encrypted Client Hello (ECH) |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=12 December 2023 |website=Chrome Platform Status |publisher=[[Google]] |access-date=21 February 2024 |quote=}}</ref>
|-
|[[Quality of service]] filtering
|Since 2012, the GFW is able to "learn, filter, and block" users based on traffic behavior, using [[deep packet inspection]].<ref name="guardvpn2">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control|title=China tightens 'Great Firewall' internet control with new technology|last=Arthur|first=Charles|date=14 December 2012|work=guardian.co.uk|access-date=8 March 2013|publisher=The Guardian|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910001533/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control|archive-date=10 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This method was originally developed for blocking VPNs and has been extended to become part of the standard filtering system of the GFW. The method works by mirroring all traffic (using a [[network tap]]) to a dedicated analytics unit, that will then deliver a score for each destination IP based on how suspicious the connection is deemed to be. This score is then used to determine a [[Packet loss|packet loss rate]] to be implemented by routers of the Chinese firewall, resulting in a slowed connection on the client side. The method aims to slow down traffic to such an extent that the request times out on the client side, thus effectively having succeeded in blocking the service altogether.
It is believed that the analytics system is using [[Side-channel attack|side-channel]] (such as the handshake headers, and packet sizes) to estimate how suspicious a connection is.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/|title=My Experience With the Great Firewall of China|website=blog.zorinaq.com|language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701195829/http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/|archive-date=1 July 2016|url-status=live}}{{Self-published source|date=October 2020}}</ref> It is able to detect traffic protocols (such as SSH tunneling, [[Virtual private network|VPN]] or [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] protocols), and can measure the [[Entropy (information theory)|entropy]] of packets to detect encrypted-over-encrypted traffic (such as HTTPS over an SSL tunnel).
This attack may be resisted by using a pluggable transport in order to mimic 'innocent' traffic, and never connect to 'suspicious' IPs by always having the circumvention software turned on, yet not proxy unblocked content, and the software itself never directly connects to a central server.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf|title=How the Great Firewall of China is blocking Tor|access-date=2022-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127204429/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf|archive-date=2022-01-27|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Packet forging and [[TCP reset attack]]s
|The Chinese firewall may arbitrarily terminate TCP transmissions, using [[Packet injection|packet forging]]. The blocking is performed using a TCP reset attack. This attack does not block TCP requests nor TCP replies, but sends a malicious TCP RST packet to the sender, simulating an end-of-connection.
Side channel analysis seems to indicate that TCP Resets are coming from an infrastructure co-located or shared with QoS filtering routers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf|title=Ignoring TCP RST send by the firewall|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611203524/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf|archive-date=2019-06-11|url-status=live}}</ref> This infrastructure seems to update the scoring system: if a previous TCP connection is blocked by the filter, future connection attempts from both sides may also be blocked for short periods of time (up to a few hours).
An efficient circumvention method is to ignore the reset packet sent by the firewall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm|title=zdnetasia.com|publisher=zdnetasia.com|access-date=13 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008214629/http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm|archive-date=8 October 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> A patch for FreeBSD has been developed for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff|title=FreeBSD patch - ignore TCP RST|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629073234/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff|archive-date=2008-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Man-in-the-middle attack]] with TLS
|The [http://cs.brown.edu/courses/csci1800/sources/2017_PRC_NationalIntelligenceLaw.pdf Chinese National Intelligence Law] theoretically allows the Chinese government to request and use the root certificate from any Chinese certificate authority,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html|title=Cyber-security Law of the People's Republic of China|website=www.dezshira.com|date=11 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601010621/https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html|archive-date=1 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> such as [[CNNIC]], to make MITM attacks with valid certificates.
Multiple TLS incidents have occurred within the last decade, before the creation of the law.
On 26 January 2013, the [[GitHub]] SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784|title=GitHub SSL replaced by self-signed certificate in China | Hacker News|publisher=News.ycombinator.com|access-date=15 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705135606/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784|archive-date=5 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 20 October 2014, the iCloud SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud|title=Chinese MITM Attack on iCloud - NETRESEC Blog|website=Netresec|date=20 October 2014|access-date=2019-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329044228/https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud|archive-date=2020-03-29|url-status=live}}</ref> It is believed that the Chinese government discovered a vulnerability on Apple devices and was exploiting it.<ref>{{CVE|2014-4449}}</ref>
On 20 March 2015, Google detected valid certificates for Google signed by CNNIC in Egypt. In response to this event, and after a deeper investigation, the CNNIC certificate was removed by some browsers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/|title=TLS certificate blunder revisited – whither China Internet Network Information Center?|publisher=nakedsecurity.sophos.com|access-date=18 October 2018|date=2015-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232209/https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to the removal being based on proof and not suspicion, no other Chinese certificate authority has been removed from web browsers, and some have been added since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392|title=1128392 - Add GDCA Root Certificate|website=bugzilla.mozilla.org|language=en|access-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324235853/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392|archive-date=24 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
This type of attack can be circumvented by websites implementing [[Certificate Transparency]] and [[OCSP stapling]] or by using browser extensions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patrol.psyced.org/|title=Certificate Patrol - a psyced Firefox/Mozilla add-on|website=patrol.psyced.org|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613113932/http://patrol.psyced.org/|archive-date=13 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}
=== Active probing ===
In addition to previously discussed techniques, the [[Cyberspace Administration of China|CAC]] is also using [[Network mapping#Active probing|active probing]] in order to identify and block network services that would help escaping the firewall. Multiple services such as [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] or [[VPN]] providers reported receiving unsolicited TCP/IP connections shortly after legitimate use, for the purported purpose of [[network enumerating|network enumeration]] of services, in particular [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]]/[[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] and Tor services, with the aim of facilitating IP blocking. For example, shortly after a VPN request is issued by a legitimate Chinese VPN client and passes outbound though the Great Firewall to a hidden VPN IP, the Great Firewall may detect the activity and issue its own active probe to verify the nature of the previously unknown VPN IP and, if the probe confirms the IP is part of a blacklisted VPN, blacklist the IP.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors|title=Knock Knock Knockin' on Bridges' Doors|last=Wilde|first=Tim|date=7 January 2012|publisher=[[Tor Project]]|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060455/https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors|archive-date=13 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="blog.torproject.org">{{cite web|url=https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system|title=Learning more about the GFW's active probing system {{!}} Tor Blog|website=blog.torproject.org|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008214120/https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system|archive-date=8 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> This attack can be circumvented with the Obfs4 protocol, which relies on an out-of-band [[shared secret]].<ref name="auto"/><ref name="blog.torproject.org"/>
=== Proxy distribution ===
The Great Firewall scrapes the IPs of Tor and VPN servers from the official distribution channels, and enumerates them.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831 |title=28c3: How governments have tried to block Tor |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-12-28 |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329110424/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743 |title=Roger Dingledine - The Tor Censorship Arms Race The Next Chapter - DEF CON 27 Conference |publisher=YouTube |date=2019-11-15 |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329111727/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117|title=#32117 (Understand and document BridgeDB bot scraping attempts) – Tor Bug Tracker & Wiki|website=trac.torproject.org|date=16 October 2019 |access-date=2020-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327035436/https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117|archive-date=2020-03-27|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs |title=Jinyang Li - Censorship Circumvention via Kaleidoscope |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523012421/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs |archive-date=2020-05-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> The strategy to resist this attack is to limit the quantity of proxy IPs revealed to each user and making it very difficult for users to create more than one identity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf |title=Tor Games |publisher=people.cs.umass.edu |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217222223/https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf |title=Data |publisher=www-users.cs.umn.edu |access-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612072343/https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf |title=Info |publisher=censorbib.nymity.ch |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317075430/https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> Academics have proposed solutions such as Salmon, a volunteer-based proxy network designed to combat censorship.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Douglas2016a.pdf |title=Info |publisher=censorbib.nymity.ch |access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY |title=Frederick Douglas - Salmon: Robust Proxy Distribution for Censorship Circumvention |publisher=YouTube |date=2016-10-10 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204190605/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY |archive-date=2019-02-04 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626231844/https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/ |archive-date=2020-06-26 |title=Tor Project {{!}} Implementing Salmon as a bridge distribution mechanism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/net4people/bbs/issues/33|title = Salmon: Robust Proxy Distribution for Censorship Circumvention (PETS 2016) · Issue #33 · net4people/BBS|website = [[GitHub]]}}</ref> Dynamic IPs are quite effective to flush out from blacklists.
==Goals, impact and resistance==
=== Goal of the Firewall ===
Article 15 of a September 20, 2000 document from the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese State Council]], posted by the Xinhua News Agency, lists 9 categories of information which should be [[Censorship in China|censored]], blocked, or filtered from access to the citizens using the internet within China:
# Opposing the basic principles as they are confirmed in the Constitution.
# Jeopardizing the security of the nation, divulging state secrets, subverting state power, or jeopardizing the integrity of the nation's unity
# Harming the honor or the interests of the nation
# Inciting hatred against peoples, racism against peoples, or disrupting the solidarity of peoples
# Disrupting national policies on religion, propagating evil cults and feudal superstitions
# Spreading rumors, disturbing social order or disrupting social stability
# Spreading obscenity, pornography, gambling, violence, murder, terror, or abetting the commission of a crime
# Insulting or defaming third parties, infringing on the legal rights and interests of third parties
# Containing any other content prohibited by law or administrative rules<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 25, 2000|title=Measures for the Administration of Internet Information Services|url=https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/measures-for-the-administration-of-internet-information-services-cecc|access-date=April 21, 2021|website=Congressional-Executive Commission on China}}</ref>
To filter this content, the Chinese government not only uses its own blocking methods, but also heavily relies on internet companies, such as ISPs, social media operators such as Weibo,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Griffiths|first=James|date=March 20, 2019|title=Weibo's Free-Speech Failure|work=The Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/03/what-went-wrong-chinas-weibo-social-network/584728/|access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> and others to actively censor their users.<ref>“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," ''PEN America''. (March 13, 2018) p. 33.</ref> This results in private companies censoring their own platform for filtered content, forcing Chinese internet users to use websites not hosted in China to access this information. Much of this information is related to sensitive topics.<ref name=":02">“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," ''PEN America''. (March 13, 2018) p. 24.</ref> The Great Firewall's goal is perceived by the Communist Party as helping to protect the Chinese population by preventing users from accessing these foreign websites which, in their opinion, host content which would be 'spiritual pollution', as well as information about these sensitive topics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Abbott|first=Jason|date=April 30, 2019|title=Of Grass Mud Horses and Rice Bunnies: Chinese Internet Users Challenge Beijing's Censorship and Internet Controls|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12442|journal=Asian Politics & Policy|volume=11|pages=162–168|doi=10.1111/aspp.12442|s2cid=159308868}}</ref> These topics include:
* Names of government leaders, such as [[Xi Jinping]] and [[Deng Xiaoping]]
* [[Protest and dissent in China|Political movements and protests]]
* [[Falun Gong]] and other cults
* The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests|Tiananmen Square Massacre]]
* The [[Xinjiang internment camps]]
* Discussions of [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibetan Independence]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Xiao|first=Qiang|date=April 30, 2009|title=Baidu's internal monitoring and censorship document leaked|work=China Digital Times|url=https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/04/baidus-internal-monitoring-and-censorship-document-leaked/|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Shu|first=Catherine|date=June 3, 2019|title=A Look at the many ways China suppresses online discourse about the Tiananmen Square protests|work=Tech Crunch|url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/03/a-look-at-the-many-ways-china-suppresses-online-discourse-about-the-tiananmen-square-protests/|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>“[https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf FORBIDDEN FEEDS: Government Controls on Social Media in China]," PEN America. (March 13, 2018) p. 41-42.</ref>
[[List of websites blocked in mainland China|Specific websites]] blocked or filtered include many popular search engines, social media platforms, information-hosting sites, and video-hosting websites such as Google Search, Facebook, Wikipedia, YouTube, Twitter, and many more.
=== Impact on people in China ===
The [[Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China|Cybersecurity Law]] behind the firewall is targeted at helping increase internet user privacy, increase protections on personal data, and making companies more responsible for monitoring bad actors, in hopes to make the Internet a safer place for Chinese citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wang|first=Hairong|date=January 17, 2013|title="Legal Firewall" Beijing Review|work=Beijing Review|url=http://www.bjreview.com/print/txt/2013-01/14/content_512143.htm|access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> Despite this, there have been growing criticisms that the actions of the Chinese government have only hurt Chinese free speech, due to increased censorship, and lack of non-sanctioned sources of information, such as Wikipedia and many English news sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Jennifer|last2=Roberts|first2=Margaret|date=January 2020|title=Censorship's Effect on Incidental Exposure to Information: Evidence from Wikipedia|journal=SAGE Open|volume=10|doi=10.1177/2158244019894068|doi-access=free}}</ref> This has resulted in reports of some cases of legal persecution of those charged with spreading this information.<ref name=":1" />
The Chinese government itself does legally support free speech; [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|article 35 of the Constitutions of the People's Republic]] states that "citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy [[freedom of speech]], of the [[Freedom of press|press]], of [[Freedom of assembly|assembly]], of association, of procession, and of demonstration."<ref>[http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html "CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA". People's Daily. December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609090748/http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html |date=2020-06-09 }} (4, 1982) Archived from the original on August 12, 2010. Retrieved April 20, 2021.</ref> In recent decades, many criticisms of the Chinese government found that some of these laws are often abused. A study by [[PEN America]] claimed that "Some of the government's most rights-abusive laws are aimed at criminalizing free speech that — in the eyes of the government — encourages subversion, separatism, or rejection of the State’s authority."<ref name=":02" />
Censorship of sensitive topics in China has also been easier for the government because of the firewall and its filtering. Because the monitoring of social media and chat apps in China presents a possibility of punishment for a user, the discussion of these topics is now limited to the correct thought of the Communist Party, or one's home and private spaces, reducing the chance for information about these topics to spread, reducing any threat of protest against the Communist Party.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Wang|first=Yaqiu|date=September 1, 2020|title=In China, the 'Great Firewall' is Changing a Generation|work=Politico|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/09/01/china-great-firewall-generation-405385|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Freedom of Expression in China: A Privilege, Not a Right|url=https://www.cecc.gov/freedom-of-expression-in-china-a-privilege-not-a-right|access-date=April 20, 2021|website=Congressional-Executive Commission on China}}</ref> According to Yaqiu Wang, a prominent human rights researcher, there was a time in China where the internet provided a method for Chinese citizens to learn about the sensitive topics the government had censored in the news, through access to international news reports and media coverage. She claims that, in the past 10 years, it has been increasingly difficult to access second opinions on events, meaning that students rarely have the opportunity to learn diverging viewpoints — only the "correct" thought of the Communist Party.<ref name=":2" />
=== Economic impacts ===
The Great Firewall has also allowed China to develop its own major internet services, such as [[Tencent]], [[Alibaba Group|Alibaba]], [[Baidu]],<ref name="washingtonpost.com2">{{cite news|last1=Denyer|first1=Simon|date=23 May 2016|title=China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|access-date=5 September 2017|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name="WSJ20152">{{cite news|last1=Chen|first1=Te-Ping|date=28 January 2015|title=China Owns 'Great Firewall,' Credits Censorship With Tech Success|work=WSJ|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/|url-status=live|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121094528/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/|archive-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> [[Renren]], [[Youku]], and Weibo.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Shi |first=Song |title=China and the Internet: Using New Media for Development and Social Change |date=2023 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |isbn=9781978834736 |location=New Brunswick, NJ}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8}} China has its own version of many foreign web properties, for example: [[Bilibili]] and [[Tencent Video]] (YouTube), [[Sina Weibo]] (Twitter), [[Moments (social networking)|Moments]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoskins |first1=Peter |author2=Fan Wang |title=WeChat: Why does Elon Musk want X to emulate China's everything-app? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66333633 |website=BBC News |accessdate=2023-07-30 |date=2023-07-29}}</ref> and [[Qzone]] (Facebook), [[WeChat]] (WhatsApp), [[Ctrip]] (Orbitz and others), and [[Zhihu]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Millward|first1=Steven|date=12 January 2017|title=China's answer to Quora now worth a billion bucks|work=Tech in Asia|url=https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding|url-status=live|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904154318/https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding|archive-date=4 September 2017}}</ref> ([[Quora]]). With nearly one quarter of the global internet population (700 million users), the internet behind the GFW can be considered a "parallel universe" to the Internet that exists outside.<ref name="WaPo2017"/>
=== Resistance ===
While the Great Firewall has had an impact on Chinese citizens' ability to use the internet to find information about sensitive topics about the Communist Party, it has not completely stopped them from doing so. The firewall itself has caused much frustration amongst both individuals and internationally operating companies in China, many of whom have turned to VPNs, speaking in codes,<ref>Lyden, Jacki; Xiao, Qiang (September 7, 2013). [https://www.npr.org/transcripts/220106496 “In China, Avoiding The ‘Great Firewall’ Internet Censors”] NPR Podcasts Transcripts. Retrieved April 20, 2021.</ref> and other methods to retain their access to the international internet.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Li|first=Yan|date=April 6, 2016|title=Chinese Voice Frustration Over 'Great Firewall'; Many Internet users criticize intensified blocking of foreign websites|work=The Wall Street Journal Online|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese-voice-frustration-over-great-firewall-1459973164|access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref>
==Circumvention==
{{See also|Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China#Evasion{{!}}Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China § Evasion|Internet censorship circumvention}}
=== Methods for bypassing the firewall ===
Because the Great Firewall blocks destination IP addresses and domain names and inspects the data being sent or received, a basic censorship circumvention strategy is to use proxy nodes and encrypt the data. Bypassing the firewall is known as {{transliteration|zh|fānqiáng}} (翻墙, "climb over the wall"), and most circumvention tools combine these two mechanisms:<ref name=Anderson2013>[http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036 "Splinternet Behind the Great Firewall of China: The Fight Against GFW"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920093321/http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036 |date=2017-09-20 }}, Daniel Anderson, ''Queue'', Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Vol. 10, No. 11 (29 November 2012), {{doi|10.1145/2390756.2405036}}. Retrieved 11 October 2013.</ref>
* [[Proxy server]]s outside China can be used, although using just a simple open proxy (HTTP or SOCKS) without also using an encrypted tunnel (such as HTTPS) does little to circumvent the sophisticated censors.<ref name=Anderson2013/>
* [[Freegate]], [[Ultrasurf]], [[Psiphon]], and [[Lantern (software)|Lantern]] are free programs designed and experienced with circumventing the China firewall using multiple [[open proxies]].
* [[VPN]]s (virtual private networks) are one of the most popular tools used by Westerners for bypassing censorship technologies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall|title=Tech in Asia - Connecting Asia's startup ecosystem|website=www.techinasia.com|access-date=2020-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329074408/https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall|archive-date=2020-03-29|url-status=live}}</ref> They use the same basic approaches, proxies, and encrypted channels used by other circumvention tools, but depend on a private host, a virtual host, or an account outside of China, rather than open, free proxies.<ref name=Anderson2013/>
* [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]] partially can be used in China.<ref name="Anderson2013" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/|title=r/TOR - Does Tor still work in China?|website=reddit|date=16 April 2018|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904021327/https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/|archive-date=2019-09-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2010, almost all bridges at TorProject.org are blocked through [[#Proxy distribution|proxy distribution]]. Tor still functions in China using Snowflake,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlZZQYLIXe8&t=1400s | title=DEF CON 30 - Roger Dingledine - How Russia is trying to block Tor | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> independently published Obfs4 bridges and meek.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf |title=Conference paper |publisher=www.usenix.org |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028052521/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf |archive-date=2019-10-28 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949 |title=28c3: How governments have tried to block Tor |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-12-28 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523011126/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949 |archive-date=2020-05-23 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/29279|title = Test obfs4 reachability (#29279) · Issues · Legacy / Trac| date=February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6xEfNHkFKY|title=Circumventing Internet Censorship with Tor|accessdate=Dec 3, 2022|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref>
* [[I2P]] or [[garlic routing]] is useful when properties similar to Tor's anonymity are needed. Due to I2P being much less popular than Tor, it has faced little to no blocking attempts.
In 2017, the Chinese government declared unauthorized VPN services illegal, requiring VPN providers to obtain state approval.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ye |first=Josh |date=January 2017 |title=China tightens Great Firewall by declaring unauthorized VPN services illegal |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2064587/chinas-move-clean-vpns-and-strengthen-great-firewall |access-date=April 21, 2021}}</ref> Although China restricts VPNs, they remain widely used by private individuals.<ref name=":9222">{{Cite book |last=Šebok |first=Filip |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Social Control and Propaganda |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=109}} [[State-owned enterprises of China|State-owned enterprises]] or state institutions also use VPNs for official work.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}} The Chinese government has authorized several official VPN providers.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}} Those who develop or sell their own VPNs potentially face years in prison.<ref name=":9222" />{{Rp|page=109}}
Non-proxy circumvention strategies include:
* Using [[DNS over HTTPS|encrypted DNS]] may bypass blocking of a few sites including TorProject and all of GitHub, which may be used to obtain further circumvention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html|title=How to Use DNSCrypt to Prevent DNS Spoofing in China | Tips for China|website=www.tipsforchina.com|date=13 May 2019|access-date=2020-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217221544/https://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html|archive-date=2020-02-17|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019 Firefox released an update to make it easy to enable DNS over HTTPS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps|title=DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) Update – Recent Testing Results and Next Steps|first=Selena|last=Deckelmann|website=Future Releases|date=2 April 2019 |access-date=2020-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107031853/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps/|archive-date=2020-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite DNS over encryption, the majority of services remain blocked by IP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=dnsencryption.info |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026013416/https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Ignoring TCP reset packets sent by the GFW. Distinguishing them by the TTL value (time to live), and not routing any further packets to sites that have triggered blocking behavior.<ref>[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf "Ignoring the Great Firewall of China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233123/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf |date=2017-09-09 }}, Richard Clayton, Steven J. Murdoch, and Robert N. M. Watson, ''PET'06: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Privacy Enhancing Technologies'', Springer-Verlag (2006), pages 20–35, {{ISBN|3-540-68790-4}}, {{doi|10.1007/11957454_2}}. Retrieved 11 October 2013.</ref>
=== Known blocked methods ===
* The [[OpenVPN]] protocol is detected and blocked. Connections not using symmetric keys or using "tls-auth" are blocked at handshake, and connections using the new "tls-crypt" option are detected and throttled (under 56 kbit/s) by the QoS filtering system.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
* [[Generic Routing Encapsulation|GRE]] tunnels and protocols that use GRE (e.g., [[PPTP]]) are blocked.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
* [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], the Great Firewall can identify the difference between HTTPS TLS and other implementations by inspecting the handshake parameters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY |title=Defcon 21 - Defeating Internet Censorship with Dust, the Polymorphic Protocol Engine |publisher=YouTube |date=2013-11-16 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707183101/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY |archive-date=2016-07-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBp6opkcxoc&feature=youtu.be&t=361 |title=32C3 - How the Great Firewall discovers hidden circumvention servers |publisher=YouTube |date=2016-04-24 |access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf |title=Data |publisher=tlsfingerprint.io |date=2019 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227201210/https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf |archive-date=2019-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35l56KjTCb8&feature=youtu.be&t=5315 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/35l56KjTCb8 |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Anti-Censorship & Transparency - Roger Dingledine |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2020-05-24}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
==Outside China==
===Off-target incidents===
In 2010, a [[root name server]] run by [[Netrod]] in China started returning poisoned DNS results to global users, preventing users in [[Chile]] and the U.S. from accessing sites such as Facebook. The server was shut down to stop the poisoning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McMillan |first1=Robert |title=After DNS problem, Chinese root server is shut down |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2755924/after-dns-problem--chinese-root-server-is-shut-down.html |website=Computerworld |language=en |date=26 March 2010}}</ref>
In 2014, two-thirds of China's DNS infrastructure began resolving unrelated domains to 65.49.2.178, an address owned by the US-based [[Freegate|Dynamic Internet Technology, Inc.]], [[Internet anomalies in mainland China in 2014|resulting in widespread internet outage in China]]. No damage to DIT services were reported despite what amounts to an accidental [[DDoS]]. While some sources attribute this incident to GFW's DNS poisoning,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leyden |first1=John |title=DNS poisoning slams web traffic from millions in China into the wrong hole |url=https://www.theregister.com/2014/01/21/china_dns_poisoning_attack/ |website=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> others (mostly quoting Chinese sources) speculate this incident was somehow caused by DIT themselves.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Carsten|first=Paul|title="Massive Internet mishap sparks Great Firewall scrutiny in China"|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-china-internet-idUKBREA0K04T20140122|access-date=22 Jan 2014|website=Reuters}}</ref>
=== Exporting Great Firewall technology ===
[[Reporters Without Borders]] suspects that countries such as [[Censorship in Cuba|Cuba]], [[Censorship in Iran|Iran]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iran To Work With China To Create National Internet System|url=https://www.rferl.org/amp/iran-china-national-internet-system-censorship/30820857.html|access-date=2020-09-30|website=www.rferl.org}}</ref> [[Censorship in Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Censorship in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]], and [[Censorship in Belarus|Belarus]] have obtained surveillance technology from China, although the censorship in these countries is less stringent than in China.<ref name="cubaonline">{{cite web|year=2006|title=Going online in Cuba: Internet under surveillance|url=http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303221407/http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2009|publisher=Reporters Without Borders|df=dmy}}</ref>
Since at least 2015, the Russian [[Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media|Roskomnadzor]] agency collaborates with Chinese Great Firewall security officials in implementing its data retention and filtering infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Soldatov|first1=Andrei|last2=Borogan|first2=Irina|date=2016-11-29|title=Putin brings China's Great Firewall to Russia in cybersecurity pact|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/29/putin-china-internet-great-firewall-russia-cybersecurity-pact|access-date=2017-07-04|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="eurozine">{{cite news|date=2017-02-21|title=China: The architect of Putin's firewall|publisher=[[Eurozine]]|url=https://www.eurozine.com/china-the-architect-of-putins-firewall/|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2016-04-29|title=Russia's chief internet censor enlists China's know-how|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f |archive-date=2022-12-11 |url-access=subscription|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> During his visit to Beijing in June 2016, Vladimir Putin signed a joint communiqué with Xi Jinping on information space, followed by Russia’s National Forum for Information Security in October hosted by [[Fang Binxing]], the architect of the Chinese Great Firewall.<ref name="eurozine"/>
Especially since the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], in order to enforce the [[Russian 2022 war censorship laws|war censorship law]], Russian authorities were making an internet surveillance system akin to Chinese Great Firewall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-internet-censorship-efforts-reveal-shortcomings-c2156ead73e1c33cb9357fb954f958f8|title=War censorship exposes Putin's leaky internet controls|website=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 14, 2022}}</ref>
=== Opposition ===
Critics have argued that if other large countries begin following China's approach, the whole purpose of the creation of the Internet could be put in jeopardy. If like-minded countries are successful in imposing the same restrictions on their inhabitants and globalized online companies, then the free global exchange of information could cease to exist.<ref name="The Great Firewall of China">{{cite news|title=The Great Firewall of China|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331034226/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china|archive-date=31 March 2018|access-date=2 April 2018|website=Bloomberg}}</ref>
The [[United States Trade Representative]]'s (USTR) "National Trade Estimate Report" in 2016 referred the China's digital Great Firewall: "China's filtering of cross-border Internet traffic has posed a significant burden to foreign suppliers."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Barfield|first1=Claude|title=China's Internet censorship: A WTO challenge is long overdue|url=https://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/|access-date=26 January 2017|publisher=TechPolicyDaily.com|date=29 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430114152/http://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/|archive-date=30 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Claude Barfield, the [[American Enterprise Institute]]'s expert of International trade, suggested that the U.S. government should bring a case against the Firewall, a huge trade barrier, in the World Trade Organization in January 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Barfield|first1=Claude|title=China bans 8 of the world's top 25 websites? There's still more to the digital trade problem.|url=http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/|access-date=26 January 2017|agency=American Enterprise Institute|date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126092521/http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/|archive-date=26 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Eight of the 24 more trafficked websites in China have been blocked by the Great Firewall. This has created a burden to foreign suppliers who rely on these websites to sell their products or services. The lobby's 2016 business climate survey showed 79 percent of its members reported a negative impact on business due to internet censorship.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Martina|first1=Paul|title=U.S. says China internet censorship a burden for businesses|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD|newspaper=Reuters|agency=Reuters|access-date=23 March 2018|date=8 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225919/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD|archive-date=2 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to [[Stephen Peter Rosen|Stephen Rosen]], the GFW is reflective of the Chinese government's fear of civil disobedience or rebellion among the Chinese population against the Chinese Communist Party's rule:
{{blockquote|If you want to know what people are worried about look at what they spend their money on. If you’re afraid of burglars you buy a burglar alarm. What are the Chinese spending their money on? We’re told from Chinese figures they’re spending on the [[People's Armed Police]], the internal security force is about as big as they’re spending on the regular military. This whole great firewall of China, this whole massive effort to control the internet, this effort to use modern information technology not to disseminate information, empowering individuals, but to make people think what you want them to think and to monitor their behavior so that you can isolate and suppress them. That’s because this is a regime which is fundamentally afraid of its own people. And it’s fundamentally hostile to them.<ref>{{cite episode |url=https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/ |first=Bill |last=Kristol |author-link=Bill Kristol |title=Stephen Rosen interview |date=30 November 2018 |series=Conversations With Bill Kristol |transcript-url=https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/stephen-rosen-ii-transcript/ |transcript=Transcript |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014729/https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/ |archive-date=25 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|China|Internet}}
{{div-col}}
* [[List of websites blocked in mainland China]]
* [[Bamboo Curtain]]
* [[Berlin Wall]]
* [[Censorship in China]]
* [[Wikipedia blocked by China|Censorship of Wikipedia by China]]
* [[Cipher|Cypher]]
* [[Great Cannon]] — A [[denial-of-service attack|distributed denial-of-service]] attack tool co-located with the Great Firewall.
* [[GreatFire]] — An organization monitoring and providing apps, 12 websites, code, tests and tools related to the Great Firewall
* [[Green Dam Youth Escort]]
* [[Great Wall of Sand]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]] – monitors<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050423180620/http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147 Internet censorship in China]</ref>
* [[Internet censorship circumvention]]
* [[Media of China]]
* [[Politics of China]]
* [[Splinternet]]
* ''[[Who Controls the Internet?]]''
{{div-col-end}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
* Griffiths, James, "The Great Firewall of China: How to Build and Control an Alternative Version of the Internet", ''[[Zed Books]]'' (May 2019).
* [[Nandan Nilekani|Nilekani, Nandan]], "Data to the People: India's Inclusive Internet", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 19–26.
* [[Adam Segal|Segal, Adam]], "When China Rules the Web: Technology in Service of the State", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 10–14, 16–18.
== External links ==
* {{Commonscat-inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|firewall}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{-}}
{{Censorship in China}}
{{Internet censorship circumvention technologies}}
[[Category:Internet censorship in China]]
[[Category:Firewall software]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -60,5 +60,5 @@
|The Chinese firewall maintains a list of [[IP address|IP ranges]] that are automatically dropped ([[Black hole (networking)|network black-holing]]).
-Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]).
+Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]). This is real and I like big black men.
|-
|[[DNS spoofing]], filtering and redirection
' |
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0 => 'Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]). This is real and I like big black men.'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => 'Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using [[content delivery network]]s) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on [[Quality of service|QoS]]). '
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34 => 'https://www.wired.com/1997/06/china-3/',
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39 => 'https://archive.org/details/whocontrolsinter00gold/page/91',
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45 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20191225145914/https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%E2%80%98father%E2%80%99-of-china%E2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/',
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49 => 'http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm',
50 => 'http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384075.htm',
51 => 'https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit',
52 => 'https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit/page/n229',
53 => 'http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall',
54 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093349/http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall',
55 => 'https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html',
56 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141220053356/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html',
57 => 'https://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html',
58 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150619083431/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html',
59 => 'https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship',
60 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170904155402/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship',
61 => 'https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-wikipedia-chinese-version-government-no-public-authors-contributions-communist-party-line-a7717861.html',
62 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20181210224316/https://www.dw.com/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%80-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9/a-46669373',
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64 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003155/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/',
65 => 'https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/',
66 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190515103447/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/',
67 => 'https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/',
68 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190714193154/https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/',
69 => 'https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2994620.2994636',
70 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7275132',
71 => 'http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/',
72 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084214/http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/',
73 => 'https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf',
74 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121058/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf',
75 => 'https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035',
76 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200326175426/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035',
77 => 'https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.02167',
78 => 'https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CR',
79 => 'https://arxiv.org/abs/2202.00663',
80 => 'https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.NI',
81 => 'https://blog.xeovo.com/what-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care/',
82 => 'https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/',
83 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190606041824/https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/',
84 => 'https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/',
85 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200324233735/https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/',
86 => 'https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/',
87 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200214223249/https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/',
88 => 'https://chasersystems.com/blog/disabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why/',
89 => 'https://chromestatus.com/feature/6196703843581952',
90 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control',
91 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130910001533/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control',
92 => 'http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/',
93 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160701195829/http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/',
94 => 'https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf',
95 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220127204429/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf',
96 => 'https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf',
97 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190611203524/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf',
98 => 'http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm',
99 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20091008214629/http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm',
100 => 'https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff',
101 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20080629073234/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff',
102 => 'https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html',
103 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190601010621/https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html',
104 => 'http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784',
105 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140705135606/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784',
106 => 'https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud',
107 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200329044228/https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud',
108 => 'https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-4449',
109 => 'https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/',
110 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232209/https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/',
111 => 'https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392',
112 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200324235853/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392',
113 => 'http://patrol.psyced.org/',
114 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190613113932/http://patrol.psyced.org/',
115 => 'https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors',
116 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060455/https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors',
117 => 'https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system',
118 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20191008214120/https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system',
119 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831',
120 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200329110424/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831',
121 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743',
122 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200329111727/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB8ODpw_om8&t=743',
123 => 'https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117',
124 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200327035436/https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/32117',
125 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs',
126 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200523012421/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wxpl8naHQCs',
127 => 'https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf',
128 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200217222223/https://people.cs.umass.edu/~amir/papers/TorGame.pdf',
129 => 'https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf',
130 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190612072343/https://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~hoppernj/rbridge_ndss13.pdf',
131 => 'https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf',
132 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160317075430/https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Sovran2008a.pdf',
133 => 'https://censorbib.nymity.ch/pdf/Douglas2016a.pdf',
134 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY',
135 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190204190605/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RO3wXRn8BfY',
136 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200626231844/https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/',
137 => 'https://community.torproject.org/gsoc/salmon-bridge-distribution/',
138 => 'https://github.com/net4people/bbs/issues/33',
139 => 'https://www.cecc.gov/resources/legal-provisions/measures-for-the-administration-of-internet-information-services-cecc',
140 => 'https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/03/what-went-wrong-chinas-weibo-social-network/584728/',
141 => 'https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/PEN-America_Forbidden-Feeds-report-6.6.18.pdf',
142 => 'https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12442',
143 => 'https://doi.org/10.1111%2Faspp.12442',
144 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159308868',
145 => 'https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2009/04/baidus-internal-monitoring-and-censorship-document-leaked/',
146 => 'https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/03/a-look-at-the-many-ways-china-suppresses-online-discourse-about-the-tiananmen-square-protests/',
147 => 'http://www.bjreview.com/print/txt/2013-01/14/content_512143.htm',
148 => 'https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244019894068',
149 => 'http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html',
150 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200609090748/http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html',
151 => 'https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/09/01/china-great-firewall-generation-405385',
152 => 'https://www.cecc.gov/freedom-of-expression-in-china-a-privilege-not-a-right',
153 => 'https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/',
154 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171121094528/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/01/28/china-owns-great-firewall-credits-censorship-with-tech-success/',
155 => 'https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66333633',
156 => 'https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding',
157 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170904154318/https://www.techinasia.com/zhihu-quora-of-china-funding',
158 => 'https://www.npr.org/transcripts/220106496',
159 => 'https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese-voice-frustration-over-great-firewall-1459973164',
160 => 'http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036',
161 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170920093321/http://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=2405036',
162 => 'https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2390756.2405036',
163 => 'https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall',
164 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200329074408/https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall',
165 => 'https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/',
166 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190904021327/https://www.reddit.com/r/TOR/comments/8cjezx/does_tor_still_work_in_china/',
167 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlZZQYLIXe8&t=1400s',
168 => 'https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf',
169 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20191028052521/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci18/foci18-paper-dunna.pdf',
170 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949',
171 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200523011126/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=949',
172 => 'https://trac.torproject.org/projects/tor/ticket/29279',
173 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6xEfNHkFKY',
174 => 'https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2064587/chinas-move-clean-vpns-and-strengthen-great-firewall',
175 => 'http://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html',
176 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200217221544/https://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html',
177 => 'https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps',
178 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200107031853/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps/',
179 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20201026013416/https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf',
180 => 'https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf',
181 => 'http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf',
182 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233123/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf',
183 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY',
184 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160707183101/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY',
185 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBp6opkcxoc&feature=youtu.be&t=361',
186 => 'https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf',
187 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190227201210/https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf',
188 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35l56KjTCb8&feature=youtu.be&t=5315',
189 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/35l56KjTCb8',
190 => 'https://www.computerworld.com/article/2755924/after-dns-problem--chinese-root-server-is-shut-down.html',
191 => 'https://www.theregister.com/2014/01/21/china_dns_poisoning_attack/',
192 => 'http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-china-internet-idUKBREA0K04T20140122',
193 => 'https://www.rferl.org/amp/iran-china-national-internet-system-censorship/30820857.html',
194 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20090303221407/http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf',
195 => 'http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_gb_md_1.pdf',
196 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/29/putin-china-internet-great-firewall-russia-cybersecurity-pact',
197 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077',
198 => 'https://www.eurozine.com/china-the-architect-of-putins-firewall/',
199 => 'https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211/https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f',
200 => 'https://www.ft.com/content/08564d74-0bbf-11e6-9456-444ab5211a2f',
201 => 'https://apnews.com/article/russia-internet-censorship-efforts-reveal-shortcomings-c2156ead73e1c33cb9357fb954f958f8',
202 => 'https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china',
203 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180331034226/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china',
204 => 'https://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/',
205 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160430114152/http://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/',
206 => 'http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/',
207 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170126092521/http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/',
208 => 'https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD',
209 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225919/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD',
210 => 'https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/',
211 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014729/https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/',
212 => 'https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/stephen-rosen-ii-transcript/',
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214 => 'http://cs.brown.edu/courses/csci1800/sources/2017_PRC_NationalIntelligenceLaw.pdf',
215 => 'https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Great+Firewall',
216 => 'https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Great+Firewall&library=0CHOOSE0'
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29 => 'https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-4449',
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67 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140219141011/http://www.chinanews.com/special/guoqing/60/2009/06-25/122.shtml',
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70 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200502184124/https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group',
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78 => 'https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit/page/n229',
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90 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003155/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/',
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103 => 'https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.02167',
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105 => 'https://arxiv.org/abs/2202.00663',
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161 => 'https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2390756.2405036',
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163 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200329074408/https://www.techinasia.com/5-ways-sneak-chinas-great-firewall',
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202 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170126092521/http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/',
203 => 'https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD',
204 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225919/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD',
205 => 'https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/',
206 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014729/https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/',
207 => 'https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/stephen-rosen-ii-transcript/',
208 => 'http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9602/china_information/index.html',
209 => 'https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66333633',
210 => 'https://hdl.handle.net/1811%2F72793',
211 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150427065800/http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/',
212 => 'http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384075.htm',
213 => 'https://blog.xeovo.com/what-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care/',
214 => 'http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/',
215 => 'https://chasersystems.com/blog/disabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why/',
216 => 'https://chromestatus.com/feature/6196703843581952'
] |
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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard" style="border-collapse:collapse; background:white; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="border-bottom: 0.2em solid #CE294E00;"><div class="adr"><a href="/info/en/?search=Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/100px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/200px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of leaders of the People's Republic of China">Leadership</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<dl><dt><a href="/info/en/?search=Generations_of_Chinese_leadership" title="Generations of Chinese leadership">Leadership generations</a></dt>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Succession_of_power_in_China" title="Succession of power in China">Succession of power</a></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hu%E2%80%93Wen_Administration" title="Hu–Wen Administration">Hu–Wen Administration</a> (2002–2012)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping%E2%80%93Li_Keqiang_Administration" title="Xi Jinping–Li Keqiang Administration">Xi–Li Administration</a> (2012–2017)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">Xi Administration</a> (since 2017)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leadership_core" title="Leadership core">4th Leadership Core</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">20th Party Politburo</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang_Government" title="Li Qiang Government">14th State Council</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Current_office_holders" title="List of leaders of the People's Republic of China">Current state leaders</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_current_Chinese_provincial_leaders" title="List of current Chinese provincial leaders">Current provincial leaders</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_national_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of national leaders of the People's Republic of China">National leaders</a></dt>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Orders_of_precedence_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of precedence in China">Orders of precedence</a></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Paramount_leader" title="Paramount leader">Paramount leader</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Lady_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="First Lady of the People's Republic of China">First lady</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Peng_Liyuan" title="Peng Liyuan">Peng Liyuan</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leader_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Leader of the Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party leader</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_state_representatives_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of state representatives of the People's Republic of China">State representative</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_premiers_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of premiers of the People's Republic of China">Head of government</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Congress Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhao_Leji" title="Zhao Leji">Zhao Leji</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Conference Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang Huning</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_Military_Command_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China">Commander-in-chief</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Longest-serving_members_of_the_Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Longest-serving members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Related systems</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Unified_power" title="Unified power">Unified power</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Organization_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Organization Department</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Civil_Service_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service of China">Civil service</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the People's Republic of China">Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the People's Republic of China">Constitution</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitutional_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitutional history of the People's Republic of China">Previous constitutions</a>
<dl><dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1954_Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China">1954</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1975_Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="1975 Constitution of the People's Republic of China">1975</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1978_Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China">1978</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></dd></dl>
<ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_democratic_dictatorship" title="People's democratic dictatorship">"People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1)</a></div></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism (Article 3)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitutional_oath_of_office_of_China" title="Constitutional oath of office of China">Constitutional oath of office (Article 27)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Protection of human rights (Article 33)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion (Article 36)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Highest_organ_of_state_power" title="Highest organ of state power">Highest state organ of power (Article 57)</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese legal system</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law tradition</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law tradition</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Laws</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Legislation_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Legislation Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>Legislation Law</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_statutes_of_China" title="List of statutes of China">List of statutes</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Principles_of_the_Civil_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="General Principles of the Civil Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>General Principles of the Civil Law</i></a> (to 2020)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Civil_Code_of_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of People's Republic of China"><i>Civil Code</i></a> (From 2021)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law"><i>Marriage Law</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese labour law">Labour law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Labour_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Labour Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>Labour Law</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Labour_Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>Labour Contract Law</i></a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_property_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese property law">Property law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Property_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Property Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>Property Law</i></a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Intellectual_property_in_China" title="Intellectual property in China">Intellectual property law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Patent_law_of_China" title="Patent law of China">Patent law</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Administrative_law_in_China" title="Administrative law in China">Administrative law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Administrative_Procedure_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Administrative Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China"><i>Administrative Procedure Law</i></a></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Criminal law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Capital_punishment_in_China" title="Capital punishment in China">Capital punishment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Capital_offences_in_China" title="Capital offences in China">Capital offences</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Death_sentence_with_reprieve" title="Death sentence with reprieve">Death sentence with reprieve</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<dl><dt><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="History of the Chinese Communist Party">History</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leader_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Leader of the Chinese Communist Party">Principal leaders</a></li></ul>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitution_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party">Constitution</a> & <a href="/info/en/?search=Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">ideology</a></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party_Admission_Oath" title="Chinese Communist Party Admission Oath">Admission Oath (Article 6)</a></li>
<li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maoism" title="Maoism">Mao Zedong Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Deng_Xiaoping_Theory" title="Deng Xiaoping Theory">Deng Xiaoping Theory</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Four_Cardinal_Principles" title="Four Cardinal Principles">Four Cardinal Principles</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Three_Represents" title="Three Represents">Three Represents</a></li>
<li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Scientific_Outlook_on_Development" title="Scientific Outlook on Development">Scientific Outlook on Development</a></div>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Socialist Society</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping_Thought" title="Xi Jinping Thought">Xi Jinping Thought</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Four_Comprehensives" title="Four Comprehensives">Four Comprehensives</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Two_Establishes_and_Two_Safeguards" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Establishes and Two Safeguards">Two Establishes and Two Safeguards</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><a href="/info/en/?search=Organization_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Organization of the Chinese Communist Party">Organization</a></div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">National Party Congress</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">20th</a>)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">Central Committee</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">20th</a>)
<dl><dd><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Leader_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Leader of the Chinese Communist Party">list</a>)</span>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Central Politburo</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">20th</a>)
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">Standing Committee</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Politburo_Standing_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">20th</a>)</div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretariat_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party">Central Secretariat</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Secretariat_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="20th Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party">20th</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)">Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission">Vice Chairmen</a>:</div> <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Youxia" title="Zhang Youxia">Zhang Youxia</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=He_Weidong" title="He Weidong">He Weidong</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Security_Commission_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="National Security Commission of the Chinese Communist Party">National Security Commission</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Chairman: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Vice-Chairman:</div> <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhao_Leji" title="Zhao Leji">Zhao Leji</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Office Chief: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Comprehensively_Deepening_Reforms_Commission" title="Central Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission">Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deputy Directors:</div> <span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang Huning</a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></span></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Secretary-General: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang Huning</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Financial_and_Economic_Affairs_Commission" title="Central Financial and Economic Affairs Commission">Financial & Economic Affairs Commission</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deputy Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Office Chief: <a href="/info/en/?search=He_Lifeng" title="He Lifeng">He Lifeng</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Office_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Office of the Chinese Communist Party">General Office</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_of_the_General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Office of the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">Office of the General Secretary</a>
<dl><dd>Chief: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Guard_Bureau" title="Central Guard Bureau">Central Guard Bureau</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Guard_Regiment" title="Central Guard Regiment">Central Guard Unit</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Administration_for_the_Protection_of_State_Secrets" class="mw-redirect" title="National Administration for the Protection of State Secrets">Office of the Central Secrecy Commission</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Organization_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Organization Department</a>
<dl><dd>Head: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Ganjie" title="Li Ganjie">Li Ganjie</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">Central Commission for Discipline Inspection</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=20th_Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="20th Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">20th</a>)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Standing_Committee_of_the_Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">Standing Committee</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Standing_Committee_of_the_20th_Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="Standing Committee of the 20th Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">20th</a>)
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretary_of_the_Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">Secretary</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Xi_(politician)" title="Li Xi (politician)">Li Xi</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission">Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission</a>
<dl><dd>Secretary: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Shengmin" title="Zhang Shengmin">Zhang Shengmin</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Leading_Group_for_Inspection_Work" title="Central Leading Group for Inspection Work">Central Leading Group for Inspection Work</a>
<dl><dd>Leader: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Xi_(politician)" title="Li Xi (politician)">Li Xi</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li>Provincial committee
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party_Provincial_Standing_Committee" title="Chinese Communist Party Provincial Standing Committee">Standing committee</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party_Committee_Secretary" title="Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary">Secretary</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party_Deputy_Committee_Secretary" title="Chinese Communist Party Deputy Committee Secretary">Deputy secretaries</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Party_group" title="Party group">Party group</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=14th_National_People%27s_Congress" title="14th National People's Congress">14th</a>)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=14th_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="14th Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (page does not exist)">14th</a>)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Council_of_Chairpersons" title="Council of Chairpersons">Council of Chairpersons</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhao_Leji" title="Zhao Leji">Zhao Leji</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_Chairperson_of_the_Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Vice-Chairpersons</a>
<dl><dd>Top-ranked: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Hongzhong" title="Li Hongzhong">Li Hongzhong</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretary-General_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary-General of the National People's Congress">Secretary-General</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Qi_(politician,_born_1957)" title="Liu Qi (politician, born 1957)">Liu Qi</a></span></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Special_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Special Committee of the National People's Congress">Special Committees</a>
<ol><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ethnic_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Ethnic Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constitution_and_Law_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution and Law Committee of the National People's Congress">Constitution and Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Supervisory_and_Judicial_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Supervisory and Judicial Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Supervisory and Judicial Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Financial_and_Economic_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial and Economic Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Financial and Economic Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Education,_Science,_Culture_and_Public_Health_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Committee of the National People's Congress">Education, Science, Culture and Public Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Foreign_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Foreign Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Foreign Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Overseas_Chinese_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Overseas Chinese Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Environment_Protection_and_Resources_Conservation_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Protection and Resources Conservation Committee of the National People's Congress">Environment Protection and Resources Conservation</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture and Rural Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Agriculture and Rural Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Social_Development_Affairs_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Development Affairs Committee of the National People's Congress">Social Development Affairs</a></li></ol></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Presidium_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Presidium of the National People's Congress">Presidium</a></li></ul>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>State representative</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="President of the People's Republic of China">President</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Presidents_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the People's Republic of China">list</a>): <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_of_the_President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the President of the People's Republic of China">Presidential Office</a>
<dl><dd>Chief: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li>
<li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Vice President of the People's Republic of China">Vice President</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Han_Zheng" title="Han Zheng">Han Zheng</a></div></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Executive organ</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council (Central People's Government)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang_Government" title="Li Qiang Government">Li Qiang Cabinet</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">Premier</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_premiers_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of premiers of the People's Republic of China">list</a>): <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China">Vice-Premiers</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_vice_premiers_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of vice premiers of the People's Republic of China">list</a>)
<dl><dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ding_Xuexiang" title="Ding Xuexiang">Ding Xuexiang</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=He_Lifeng" title="He Lifeng">He Lifeng</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Guoqing" title="Zhang Guoqing">Zhang Guoqing</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Guozhong" title="Liu Guozhong">Liu Guozhong</a></span></li></ul></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=State_councillor" title="State councillor">State Councilors</a>
<dl><dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Xiaohong" title="Wang Xiaohong">Wang Xiaohong</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Wu_Zhenglong" title="Wu Zhenglong">Wu Zhenglong</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Shen_Yiqin" title="Shen Yiqin">Shen Yiqin</a></span></li></ul></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretary-General_of_the_State_Council" title="Secretary-General of the State Council">Secretary-General</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wu_Zhenglong" title="Wu Zhenglong">Wu Zhenglong</a></div></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constituent_departments_of_the_State_Council" title="Constituent departments of the State Council">Cabinet-level departments</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Development_and_Reform_Commission" title="National Development and Reform Commission">National Development & Reform Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Audit_Office_(China)" title="National Audit Office (China)">National Audit Office</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Office_of_the_State_Council" title="General Office of the State Council">General Office</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretary-General_of_the_State_Council" title="Secretary-General of the State Council">Secretary-General</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Deputy_Secretary-General_of_the_State_Council" title="Deputy Secretary-General of the State Council">Deputy Secretaries-General</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=State-owned_Assets_Supervision_and_Administration_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission">State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_government-owned_companies_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of government-owned companies of China">most Central Enterprises</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Military organ</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission (CMC)</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)">Chairman</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_Military_Command_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China">supreme commander</a>):
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_Chairman_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission">Vice Chairmen</a>:
<dl><dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Youxia" title="Zhang Youxia">Zhang Youxia</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=He_Weidong" title="He Weidong">He Weidong</a></span></li></ul></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd>Members:
<dl><dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Zhenli_(general)" title="Liu Zhenli (general)">Liu Zhenli</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Miao_Hua" title="Miao Hua">Miao Hua</a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Shengmin" title="Zhang Shengmin">Zhang Shengmin</a></span></li></ul></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd>Departments:
<ol><li><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Office_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="General Office of the Central Military Commission">General Office</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhong_Shaojun" title="Zhong Shaojun">Zhong Shaojun</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joint_Staff_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Joint Staff Department of the Central Military Commission">Joint Staff Dept.</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chief_of_staff" title="Chief of staff">Chief</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Zhenli_(general)" title="Liu Zhenli (general)">Liu Zhenli</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Political_Work_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Political Work Department of the Central Military Commission">Political Work Dept.</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Miao_Hua" title="Miao Hua">Miao Hua</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Logistic_Support_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Logistic Support Department of the Central Military Commission">Logistic Support Dept.</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Lin_(general)" title="Zhang Lin (general)">Zhang Lin</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Equipment_Development_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission">Equipment Development Dept.</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xu_Xueqiang" title="Xu Xueqiang">Xu Xueqiang</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Training_and_Administration_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Training and Administration Department of the Central Military Commission">Training and Administration Dept.</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Peng_(lieutenant_general)" title="Wang Peng (lieutenant general)">Wang Peng</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Defense_Mobilization_Department_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="National Defense Mobilization Department of the Central Military Commission">National Defense Mobilization Dept.</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Faqing" title="Liu Faqing">Liu Faqing</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission">Discipline Inspection Commission</a>
<dl><dd>Secretary: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Shengmin" title="Zhang Shengmin">Zhang Shengmin</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Political_and_Legal_Affairs_Commission_of_the_Central_Military_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Political and Legal Affairs Commission of the Central Military Commission (page does not exist)">Politics and Legal Affairs Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Science_and_Technology_Commission_of_the_Central_Military_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and Technology Commission of the Central Military Commission (page does not exist)">Science and Technology Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_for_Strategic_Planning_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Office for Strategic Planning of the Central Military Commission">Strategic Planning Office</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_for_Reform_and_Organizational_Structure_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Office for Reform and Organizational Structure of the Central Military Commission">Reform & Organizational Structure Office</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_for_International_Military_Cooperation_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Office for International Military Cooperation of the Central Military Commission">Int'l Military Cooperation Office</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Audit_Office_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Audit Office of the Central Military Commission">Audit Office</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Agency_for_Offices_Administration_of_the_Central_Military_Commission" title="Agency for Offices Administration of the Central Military Commission">Offices Administration Agency</a></li></ol></dd>
<dd>National armed forces:
<dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:China_Emblem_PLA.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emblem of the People's Liberation Army"><img alt="Emblem of the People's Liberation Army" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/China_Emblem_PLA.svg/23px-China_Emblem_PLA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/China_Emblem_PLA.svg/35px-China_Emblem_PLA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/China_Emblem_PLA.svg/46px-China_Emblem_PLA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="720" /></a></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Theater_commands_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Theater commands of the People's Liberation Army">Theater commands</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_(CAPF)_cap_insignia.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cap insignia of the Chinese People's Armed Police Force"><img alt="Cap insignia of the Chinese People's Armed Police Force" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg/21px-Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg/32px-Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg/42px-Chinese_People%27s_Armed_Police_Force_%28CAPF%29_cap_insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="775" /></a></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a>
<dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emblem of the Coast Guard"><img alt="Emblem of the Coast Guard" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg/21px-Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg/32px-Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg/42px-Emblem_of_China_Coast_Guard.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">China Coast Guard</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Defense_Mobilization_Commission" title="National Defense Mobilization Commission">National Defense Mobilization Commission</a></div>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Qiang" title="Li Qiang">Li Qiang</a></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_National_Defense_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of National Defense</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Minister_of_National_Defense_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Minister of National Defense of the People's Republic of China">Minister</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Dong_Jun" title="Dong Jun">Dong Jun</a></div></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_Veterans_Affairs_(China)" title="Ministry of Veterans Affairs (China)">Ministry of Veterans Affairs</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=State_Administration_for_Science,_Technology_and_Industry_for_National_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence">State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense</a></dd></dl></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="History of the People's Liberation Army">Military history</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_wars_involving_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of wars involving the People's Republic of China">Armed conflicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Modernization_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Modernization of the People's Liberation Army">Military modernization</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=2015_People%27s_Republic_of_China_military_reform" title="2015 People's Republic of China military reform">Military reform since 2015</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Leading_Group_for_Military_Reform" title="Central Leading Group for Military Reform">CMC Leading Group for Military Reform</a>
<dl><dd>Leader: <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Supervisory organ</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Supervisory_Commission" title="National Supervisory Commission">National Supervisory Commission</a>
<dl><dd>Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Liu_Jinguo" title="Liu Jinguo">Liu Jinguo</a></dd></dl></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption in China</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign since 2012</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_(Hong_Kong)" title="Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)">Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Commission_Against_Corruption_(Macau)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission Against Corruption (Macau)">Commission Against Corruption (Macau)</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">
<div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Judicial organs</div></div>
<ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_People%27s_Court" title="Supreme People's Court">Supreme People's Court</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_People%27s_Court#Presidents_and_Vice_Presidents_of_the_Court" title="Supreme People's Court">President</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhang_Jun_(politician)" title="Zhang Jun (politician)">Zhang Jun</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Police_(China)" title="People's Police (China)">People's Courts Judicial Police</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate" title="Supreme People's Procuratorate">Supreme People's Procuratorate</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Supreme_People%27s_Procuratorate#List_of_Prosecutors-General" title="Supreme People's Procuratorate">Prosecutor General</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Ying_Yong" title="Ying Yong">Ying Yong</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Police_(China)" title="People's Police (China)">People's Procuratorates Judicial Police</a></dd></dl></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Judiciary_of_Hong_Kong" title="Judiciary of Hong Kong">Judiciary of Hong Kong</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Court_of_Final_Appeal_(Hong_Kong)" title="Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)">Court of Final Appeal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Department_of_Justice_(Hong_Kong)" title="Department of Justice (Hong Kong)">Department of Justice</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Prosecutions_Division_(Hong_Kong)" title="Prosecutions Division (Hong Kong)">Prosecutions Division</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Law_enforcement_in_Hong_Kong" title="Law enforcement in Hong Kong">Law enforcement in Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Security_Bureau_(Hong_Kong)" title="Security Bureau (Hong Kong)">Security Bureau</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hong_Kong_Disciplined_Services" title="Hong Kong Disciplined Services">Regular Disciplined Services</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hong_Kong_Police_Force" title="Hong Kong Police Force">Hong Kong Police Force</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Judiciary_of_Macau" title="Judiciary of Macau">Judiciary of Macau</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Court_of_Final_Appeal_(Macau)" title="Court of Final Appeal (Macau)">Court of Final Appeal</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Public_Prosecutions_Office_(Macau)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Public Prosecutions Office (Macau) (page does not exist)">Public Prosecutions Office</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretariat_for_Security_(Macau)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretariat for Security (Macau)">Secretariat for Security</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macau_Security_Force" title="Macau Security Force">Macau Security Force</a>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Unitary_Police_Services&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unitary Police Services (page does not exist)">Unitary Police Services</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E7%B8%BD%E5%B1%80" class="extiw" title="zh:警察總局">zh</a>]</span>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Public_Security_Police_Force_of_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Security Police Force of Macau">Public Security Police</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Macau_Judiciary_Police&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macau Judiciary Police (page does not exist)">Judiciary Police</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%B1%80" class="extiw" title="zh:司法警察局">zh</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Committee_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">National Committee</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chairman_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Chairman</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang Huning</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Vice_Chairperson_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Vice Chairperson of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Vice-Chairpersons</a>
<dl><dd>Top-ranked: <a href="/info/en/?search=Shi_Taifeng" title="Shi Taifeng">Shi Taifeng</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Secretary-General_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Secretary-General of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Secretary-General</a>: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Dongfeng" title="Wang Dongfeng">Wang Dongfeng</a></dd></dl></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties</a>:
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">CCP (ruling)</a>
<dl><dd><a href="/info/en/?search=United_Front_Work_Department" title="United Front Work Department">United Front Work Department</a>
<dl><dd>Head: <a href="/info/en/?search=Shi_Taifeng" title="Shi Taifeng">Shi Taifeng</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Revolutionary_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Kuomintang" title="Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang">RCCK</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Democratic_League" title="China Democratic League">CDL</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_National_Democratic_Construction_Association" title="China National Democratic Construction Association">CNDCA</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Association_for_Promoting_Democracy" title="China Association for Promoting Democracy">CAPD</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Peasants%27_and_Workers%27_Democratic_Party" title="Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party">CPWDP</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Zhi_Gong_Party" title="China Zhi Gong Party">CZGP</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jiusan_Society" title="Jiusan Society">JS</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Taiwan_Democratic_Self-Government_League" title="Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League">TDSL</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></li></ul>
<dl><dd>Historical parties: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">KMT</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Democratic_Socialist_Party" title="China Democratic Socialist Party">CDSP</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Young_China_Party" title="Young China Party">YCP</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=All-China_Federation_of_Industry_and_Commerce" title="All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce">Federation of Industry and Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_organization" title="People's organization">People's organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Political_and_Legal_Affairs_Commission" title="Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission">CCP Central Politics and Law Commission</a></div>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Secretary: <a href="/info/en/?search=Chen_Wenqing" title="Chen Wenqing">Chen Wenqing</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_Public_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of Public Security (China)">Ministry of Public Security</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Minister: <a href="/info/en/?search=Wang_Xiaohong" title="Wang Xiaohong">Wang Xiaohong</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Police_(China)" title="People's Police (China)">Public Security Organs People's Police</a></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=State_Immigration_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="State Immigration Administration">State Immigration Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Public_security_bureau_(China)" title="Public security bureau (China)">Local public security bureaus</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_State_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of State Security (China)">Ministry of State Security</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Minister: <a href="/info/en/?search=Chen_Yixin" title="Chen Yixin">Chen Yixin</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Police_(China)" title="People's Police (China)">State Security Organs People's Police</a></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_Justice_(China)" title="Ministry of Justice (China)">Ministry of Justice</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Minister: <a href="/info/en/?search=He_Rong" title="He Rong">He Rong</a></div></dd>
<dd><a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Police_(China)" title="People's Police (China)">Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police</a></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Ministry_of_Justice_Bureau_of_Prison_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Justice Bureau of Prison Administration (page does not exist)">Bureau of Prison Administration</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E9%83%A8%E7%9B%91%E7%8B%B1%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%B1%80" class="extiw" title="zh:司法部监狱管理局">zh</a>]</span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Office_for_Safeguarding_National_Security" title="Office for Safeguarding National Security">Office for Safeguarding National Security</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Urban_management_and_law_enforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban management and law enforcement">Urban Management <i>(chengguan)</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-left: 0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Leading_Group_for_Propaganda,_Ideology_and_Culture" title="Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture">Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Leader: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deputy Leaders: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Shulei" title="Li Shulei">Li Shulei</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Shen_Yiqin" title="Shen Yiqin">Shen Yiqin</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Central_Guidance_Commission_on_Building_Spiritual_Civilization" title="Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization">Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cai_Qi" title="Cai Qi">Cai Qi</a></div></dd>
<dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Deputy Director: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Shulei" title="Li Shulei">Li Shulei</a></div></dd></dl></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Publicity_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Central Propaganda Department</a>
<dl><dd><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Head: <a href="/info/en/?search=Li_Shulei" title="Li Shulei">Li Shulei</a></div></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=General_Administration_of_Press_and_Publication" title="General Administration of Press and Publication">National Press and Publication Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Film_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="China Film Administration">China Film Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=State_Council_Information_Office" title="State Council Information Office">State Council Information Office</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Daily" title="China Daily">China Daily</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_Culture_and_Tourism_(China)" title="Ministry of Culture and Tourism (China)">Ministry of Culture and Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Radio_and_Television_Administration" title="National Radio and Television Administration">National Radio and Television Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Media_Group" title="China Media Group">China Media Group</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Central_Television" title="China Central Television">China Central Television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Global_Television_Network" title="China Global Television Network">China Global Television Network</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_National_Radio" title="China National Radio">China National Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Radio_International" title="China Radio International">China Radio International</a></li></ul></li>
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<p>The <b>Great Firewall</b> (<i>GFW</i>; <a href="/info/en/?search=Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">防火长城</span>; <a href="/info/en/?search=Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">防火長城</span>; <a href="/info/en/?search=Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Fánghuǒ Chángchéng</span></i>) is the combination of legislative actions and technologies enforced by the <a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> to regulate the <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> domestically.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Its role in <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">internet censorship in China</a> is to block access to selected foreign websites and to slow down cross-border internet traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> The Great Firewall operates by checking <a href="/info/en/?search=Transmission_control_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission control protocol">transmission control protocol</a> (TCP) packets for keywords or sensitive words. If the keywords or sensitive words appear in the TCP packets, access will be closed. If one link is closed, more links from the same machine will be blocked by the Great Firewall.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> The effect includes: limiting access to foreign information sources, blocking foreign internet tools (e.g. <a href="/info/en/?search=Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google Search</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> and others) and mobile apps, and requiring foreign companies to adapt to domestic regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Besides censorship, the Great Firewall has also influenced the development of China's internal internet economy by giving preference to domestic companies<sup id="cite_ref-washingtonpost.com_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-11">[11]</a></sup> and reducing the effectiveness of products from foreign internet companies.<sup id="cite_ref-WaPo2017_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaPo2017-12">[12]</a></sup> The techniques deployed by the Chinese government to maintain control of the Great Firewall can include modifying search results for terms, such as they did following <a href="/info/en/?search=Ai_Weiwei" title="Ai Weiwei">Ai Weiwei</a>’s arrest, and petitioning global conglomerates to remove content, as happened when they petitioned <a href="/info/en/?search=Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> to remove the <a href="/info/en/?search=Quartz_(publication)" title="Quartz (publication)"><i>Quartz</i></a> business news publication’s app from its Chinese App Store after reporting on the <a href="/info/en/?search=2019%E2%80%932020_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2019–2020 Hong Kong protests">2019–2020 Hong Kong protests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Great Firewall was formerly operated by the <a href="/info/en/?search=State_Internet_Information_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="State Internet Information Office">SIIO</a>, as part of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Golden_Shield_Project" title="Golden Shield Project">Golden Shield Project</a>. Since 2013, the firewall is technically operated by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cyberspace_Administration_of_China" title="Cyberspace Administration of China">Cyberspace Administration of China</a> (CAC), which is the entity in charge of translating the <a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>'s doctrine and policy into technical specifications.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>As mentioned in the "<a href="/info/en/?search=One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">one country, two systems</a>" principle, China's <a href="/info/en/?search=Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">special administrative regions</a> (SARs) such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> are not affected by the firewall, as SARs have their own governmental and legal systems and therefore enjoy a higher degree of autonomy. Nevertheless, the <a href="/info/en/?search=U.S._State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. State Department">U.S. State Department</a> has reported that the central government authorities have closely monitored Internet use in these regions,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and Hong Kong's <a href="/info/en/?search=2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" title="2020 Hong Kong national security law">National Security Law</a> has been used to block websites documenting <a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_protests_in_Hong_Kong" title="List of protests in Hong Kong">anti-government protests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>The term <i>Great Firewall of China</i> is a combination of the word <a href="/info/en/?search=Firewall_(computing)" title="Firewall (computing)">firewall</a> with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>. The phrase "Great Firewall of China" was first used in print by Australian <a href="/info/en/?search=Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">sinologist</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Geremie_Barm%C3%A9" title="Geremie Barmé">Geremie Barmé</a> in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> RedfishGroup's Stephen Guerin first described the internet filtering as a reversed "firewall" on CNN on Feb 9, 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Origins_of_Chinese_Internet_law"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Origins of Chinese Internet law</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Campaigns_and_crackdowns"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Campaigns and crackdowns</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Blocking_methods"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Blocking methods</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Active_filtering"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Active filtering</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Active_probing"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Active probing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Proxy_distribution"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Proxy distribution</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Goals,_impact_and_resistance"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Goals, impact and resistance</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Goal_of_the_Firewall"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Goal of the Firewall</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Impact_on_people_in_China"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Impact on people in China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Economic_impacts"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Economic impacts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Resistance"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Resistance</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Circumvention"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Circumvention</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Methods_for_bypassing_the_firewall"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Methods for bypassing the firewall</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Known_blocked_methods"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Known blocked methods</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Outside_China"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Outside China</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Off-target_incidents"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Off-target incidents</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Exporting_Great_Firewall_technology"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Exporting Great Firewall technology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Opposition"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Opposition</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>A favorite saying of <a href="/info/en/?search=Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>'s in the early 1980s, "If you open the window, both fresh air and flies will be blown in", is considered to be the political and ideological basis of the GFW Project.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[nb 1]</a></sup> The saying is related to a period of the economic reform of China that became known as the "<a href="/info/en/?search=Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">socialist market economy</a>". Superseding the political ideologies of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, the reform led China towards a <a href="/info/en/?search=Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> and opened up the market for foreign investors. Nonetheless, despite the economic freedom, values and political ideas of the Chinese Communist Party have had to be protected by "swatting flies" of other unwanted ideologies.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">internet in China</a> arrived in 1994,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></sup> as the inevitable consequence of and supporting tool for a "socialist market economy". Gradually, while Internet availability has been increasing, the Internet has become a common communication platform and tool for trading information.
</p><p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Ministry_of_Public_Security_(China)" title="Ministry of Public Security (China)">Ministry of Public Security</a> took initial steps to control Internet use in 1997, when it issued comprehensive regulations governing its use. The key sections, Articles 4–6, are:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Individuals are prohibited from using the Internet to: harm national security; disclose state secrets; or injure the interests of the state or society. Users are prohibited from using the Internet to create, replicate, retrieve, or transmit information that incites resistance to the <a href="/info/en/?search=PRC_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="PRC Constitution">PRC Constitution</a>, laws, or administrative regulations; promoting the overthrow of the government or socialist system; undermining national unification; distorting the truth, spreading rumors, or destroying social order; or providing sexually suggestive material or encouraging gambling, violence, or murder. Users are prohibited from engaging in activities that harm the security of computer information networks and from using networks or changing network resources without prior approval.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In 1998, the Chinese Communist Party feared that the <a href="/info/en/?search=China_Democracy_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="China Democracy Party">China Democracy Party</a> (CDP) would breed a powerful new network that the party elites might not be able to control.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> The CDP was immediately banned, followed by arrests and imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup> That same year, the GFW project was started. The first part of the project lasted eight years and was completed in 2006. The second part began in 2006 and ended in 2008.
On 6 December 2002, 300 people in charge of the GFW project from 31 <a href="/info/en/?search=Province_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province (China)">provinces</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">cities</a> throughout China participated in a four-day inaugural "Comprehensive Exhibition on Chinese Information System".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup> At the exhibition, many western high-tech products, including <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Video_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Video monitoring">video monitoring</a> and human <a href="/info/en/?search=Facial_recognition_system" title="Facial recognition system">face recognition</a> were purchased. It is estimated that around 30,000–50,000 police were employed in this gigantic project.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Fang_binxing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Fang_binxing.jpg/220px-Fang_binxing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Fang_binxing.jpg/330px-Fang_binxing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Fang_binxing.jpg/440px-Fang_binxing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Fang Binxing</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Fang_Binxing" title="Fang Binxing">Fang Binxing</a> is known for his substantial contribution to <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">China's Internet censorship infrastructure</a>, and has been dubbed "Father of China's Great Fire Wall".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WSJ_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSJ-30">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Origins_of_Chinese_Internet_law">Origins of Chinese Internet law</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of Chinese Internet law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>China's view of the Internet is one of "<a href="/info/en/?search=Network_sovereignty" title="Network sovereignty">Internet sovereignty</a>": the notion that the Internet inside the country is part of the country's sovereignty and should be governed by the country.<sup id="cite_ref-WaPo2017_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaPo2017-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>While the United States and several other western countries passed laws creating computer crimes beginning in the 1970s, China had no such legislation until 1997. That year, China's sole legislative body – the <a href="/info/en/?search=National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> (NPC) – passed CL97, a law that deals with cyber crimes, which it divided into two broad categories: crimes that target computer networks, and crimes carried out over computer networks. Behavior illegal under the latter category includes, among many things, the dissemination of <a href="/info/en/?search=Pornographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pornographic">pornographic</a> material, and the usurping of "<a href="/info/en/?search=Classified_information" title="Classified information">state secrets</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some Chinese judges were critical of CL97, calling it ineffective and unenforceable. However, the NPC claimed that it intentionally left the law "flexible" so that it could be open to future interpretation and development. Given the gaps in the law, the central government of China relies heavily on its administrative body, the <a href="/info/en/?search=State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a>, to determine what falls under the definitions, and their determinations are not required to go through the NPC legislative process. As a result, the Chinese Communist Party has ended up relying heavily on state regulation to carry out CL97.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>The latter definition of online activities punishable under CL97, or "crimes carried out over computer networks", is used as justification for the Great Firewall, and can be cited when the government blocks any ISP, gateway connections, or any access to anything on the internet. The definition also includes using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to national security," and using the internet to distribute information considered "harmful to public order, social stability, and Chinese morality." The central government relies heavily on its State Council regulators to determine what specific online behavior and speech fall under these definitions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The reasons behind the Internet censorship in China include:
</p>
<ul><li>Social control: the Internet is a means for freedom of speech, and dissemination of campaigns could lead to protests against the government.</li>
<li>Sensitive content: to control information about the government in China.</li>
<li>Economic protectionism: China prefers the use of local companies that are regulated by Chinese regulations, since they have more power over them, e.g. <a href="/info/en/?search=Baidu" title="Baidu">Baidu</a> over <a href="/info/en/?search=Google" title="Google">Google</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Campaigns_and_crackdowns">Campaigns and crackdowns</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Campaigns and crackdowns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>As part of the Great Firewall, beginning in 2003, China started the <a href="/info/en/?search=Golden_Shield_Project" title="Golden Shield Project">Golden Shield Project</a>, a massive surveillance and censoring system, the hardware for which was provided by mostly U.S. companies, including <a href="/info/en/?search=Cisco_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Cisco Systems">Cisco Systems</a>. The project was completed in 2006, and is now carried out in buildings with machines manned by civilians and supervised by China's national police force, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_public_security_bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese public security bureau">Public Security Bureau</a> (PSB). The main operating procedures of the gatekeepers at the Golden Shield Project include monitoring domestic websites, email, and searching for politically sensitive language and calls to protest. When damaging content is found, local PSB officials can be dispatched to investigate or make arrests. However, by late 2007, the Golden Shield Project proved to operate sporadically at best, as users had long adapted to <a href="/info/en/?search=Block_(Internet)" title="Block (Internet)">internet blocking</a> by using proxy servers, among other strategies, to make communications and circumnavigate to blocked content.<sup id="cite_ref-OliverAugust_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OliverAugust-36">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>Internet cafés, an extremely popular way of getting online in developing countries and where fewer people can afford a personal computer, are regulated by the Chinese government and by local Chinese government officials. Minors (in China, those under the age of 18) are not allowed into Internet cafés, although this law is widely ignored, and when enforced, has spurred the creation of underground "Black Web Bars" visited by those underage. As of 2008, internet cafés were required to register every customer in a log when they used the internet there. These records may be confiscated by either local government officials or the PSB. To illustrate local regulation of internet cafés, in one instance, a government official in the town of Gedong lawfully banned internet cafés from operating in the town because he believed them to be harmful to minors, who frequented them to play online games (including those considered violent) and surf the internet. However, internet cafés in this town simply went underground, and most minors were not deterred from visiting them.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>In May 2015, China indefinitely blocked access to the Chinese-language Wikipedia.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a></sup> In 2017, China discussed plans for its own version of Wikipedia.<sup id="cite_ref-Verge2017_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verge2017-39">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Indep2017_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indep2017-40">[39]</a></sup> As of May 2019, all language versions of Wikipedia have been blocked by the Chinese government.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Blocking_methods">Blocking methods</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Blocking methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Great_Firewall" title="Special:EditPage/Great Firewall">improve this article</a> by <a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Active_filtering">Active filtering</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Active filtering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>One function of the Chinese firewall is to selectively prevent content from being accessed. It is mostly made of Cisco, Huawei, and Semptian hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup> Not all sensitive content gets blocked; in 2007, scholar Jedidiah R. Crandall and others argued that the main purpose is not to block 100%, but rather to flag and to warn, in order to encourage self-censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup> An illustrative but incomplete list of tactics includes:
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Method
</th>
<th>Description
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>IP range ban using <a href="/info/en/?search=Black_hole_(networking)" title="Black hole (networking)">black holes</a>
</td>
<td>The Chinese firewall maintains a list of <a href="/info/en/?search=IP_address" title="IP address">IP ranges</a> that are automatically dropped (<a href="/info/en/?search=Black_hole_(networking)" title="Black hole (networking)">network black-holing</a>).
<p>Because of the complexity involved in maintaining a large, up-to-date banned network list with dynamic IPs (and as this method has proven incompatible with services using <a href="/info/en/?search=Content_delivery_network" title="Content delivery network">content delivery networks</a>) it is usually used as a last resort, with other blocking methods preferred (such as filtering based on <a href="/info/en/?search=Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">QoS</a>). This is real and I like big black men.
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_spoofing" title="DNS spoofing">DNS spoofing</a>, filtering and redirection
</td>
<td>One part of the Chinese firewall is made of liar DNS servers and <a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_hijacking" title="DNS hijacking">DNS hijackers</a> returning incorrect IP addresses.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup> Studies seems to point out that this censorship is keyword-based.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[45]</a></sup>
<p>Contrary to popular belief,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup> foreign DNS resolvers such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Google_Public_DNS" title="Google Public DNS">Google Public DNS</a> IP address 8.8.8.8 are reported to work correctly inside the country; however, these DNS servers are also subject to hijacking as their connections are not encrypted: DNS queries do reach the DNS server, but if the request matches a banned keyword, the firewall will inject a fake DNS reply before the legitimate DNS reply arrives. The vast majority of these fake responses contain public IP addresses of U.S. companies, including Facebook, Twitter, and Dropbox.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>Typical circumvention methods include modifying the <a href="/info/en/?search=Hosts_file" class="mw-redirect" title="Hosts file">Hosts file</a>, typing the IP address instead of the domain name in a <a href="/info/en/?search=Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browser</a> or using <a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_over_TLS" title="DNS over TLS">DNS over TLS</a>/<a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_over_HTTPS" title="DNS over HTTPS">HTTPS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/info/en/?search=Uniform_Resource_Locator" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform Resource Locator">URL</a> filtering using transparent proxies
</td>
<td>The Chinese firewall is made of <a href="/info/en/?search=Transparent_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent proxy">transparent proxies</a> filtering web traffic. These proxies scan the requested <a href="/info/en/?search=Uniform_Resource_Identifier" title="Uniform Resource Identifier">URI</a>, the "Host" Header and the content of the web page (for HTTP requests) or the <a href="/info/en/?search=Server_Name_Indication" title="Server Name Indication">Server Name Indication</a> (for HTTPS requests) for target keywords.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></sup>
<p>Like for DNS filtering, this method is keyword-based. Encrypting the Server Name Indication (Encrypted Client Hello or ECH) can be used to bypass this method of filtering. It is currently in development by the <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">IETF</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></sup> and is enabled by default for supported websites in <a href="/info/en/?search=Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Microsoft Edge</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Samsung_Internet" title="Samsung Internet">Samsung Internet</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Opera_(web_browser)" title="Opera (web browser)">Opera</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/info/en/?search=Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">Quality of service</a> filtering
</td>
<td>Since 2012, the GFW is able to "learn, filter, and block" users based on traffic behavior, using <a href="/info/en/?search=Deep_packet_inspection" title="Deep packet inspection">deep packet inspection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-guardvpn2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardvpn2-56">[55]</a></sup> This method was originally developed for blocking VPNs and has been extended to become part of the standard filtering system of the GFW. The method works by mirroring all traffic (using a <a href="/info/en/?search=Network_tap" title="Network tap">network tap</a>) to a dedicated analytics unit, that will then deliver a score for each destination IP based on how suspicious the connection is deemed to be. This score is then used to determine a <a href="/info/en/?search=Packet_loss" title="Packet loss">packet loss rate</a> to be implemented by routers of the Chinese firewall, resulting in a slowed connection on the client side. The method aims to slow down traffic to such an extent that the request times out on the client side, thus effectively having succeeded in blocking the service altogether.
<p>It is believed that the analytics system is using <a href="/info/en/?search=Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">side-channel</a> (such as the handshake headers, and packet sizes) to estimate how suspicious a connection is.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a></sup> It is able to detect traffic protocols (such as SSH tunneling, <a href="/info/en/?search=Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Tor_(anonymity_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor (anonymity network)">Tor</a> protocols), and can measure the <a href="/info/en/?search=Entropy_(information_theory)" title="Entropy (information theory)">entropy</a> of packets to detect encrypted-over-encrypted traffic (such as HTTPS over an SSL tunnel).
</p><p>This attack may be resisted by using a pluggable transport in order to mimic 'innocent' traffic, and never connect to 'suspicious' IPs by always having the circumvention software turned on, yet not proxy unblocked content, and the software itself never directly connects to a central server.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Packet forging and <a href="/info/en/?search=TCP_reset_attack" title="TCP reset attack">TCP reset attacks</a>
</td>
<td>The Chinese firewall may arbitrarily terminate TCP transmissions, using <a href="/info/en/?search=Packet_injection" title="Packet injection">packet forging</a>. The blocking is performed using a TCP reset attack. This attack does not block TCP requests nor TCP replies, but sends a malicious TCP RST packet to the sender, simulating an end-of-connection.
<p>Side channel analysis seems to indicate that TCP Resets are coming from an infrastructure co-located or shared with QoS filtering routers.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a></sup> This infrastructure seems to update the scoring system: if a previous TCP connection is blocked by the filter, future connection attempts from both sides may also be blocked for short periods of time (up to a few hours).
</p><p>An efficient circumvention method is to ignore the reset packet sent by the firewall.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a></sup> A patch for FreeBSD has been developed for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/info/en/?search=Man-in-the-middle_attack" title="Man-in-the-middle attack">Man-in-the-middle attack</a> with TLS
</td>
<td>The <a class="external text" href="https://cs.brown.edu/courses/csci1800/sources/2017_PRC_NationalIntelligenceLaw.pdf">Chinese National Intelligence Law</a> theoretically allows the Chinese government to request and use the root certificate from any Chinese certificate authority,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup> such as <a href="/info/en/?search=CNNIC" class="mw-redirect" title="CNNIC">CNNIC</a>, to make MITM attacks with valid certificates.
<p>Multiple TLS incidents have occurred within the last decade, before the creation of the law.
</p><p>On 26 January 2013, the <a href="/info/en/?search=GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a> SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 20 October 2014, the iCloud SSL certificate was replaced with a self-signed certificate in China.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></sup> It is believed that the Chinese government discovered a vulnerability on Apple devices and was exploiting it.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 20 March 2015, Google detected valid certificates for Google signed by CNNIC in Egypt. In response to this event, and after a deeper investigation, the CNNIC certificate was removed by some browsers.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a></sup> Due to the removal being based on proof and not suspicion, no other Chinese certificate authority has been removed from web browsers, and some have been added since then.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>This type of attack can be circumvented by websites implementing <a href="/info/en/?search=Certificate_Transparency" title="Certificate Transparency">Certificate Transparency</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=OCSP_stapling" title="OCSP stapling">OCSP stapling</a> or by using browser extensions.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Active_probing">Active probing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Active probing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In addition to previously discussed techniques, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cyberspace_Administration_of_China" title="Cyberspace Administration of China">CAC</a> is also using <a href="/info/en/?search=Network_mapping#Active_probing" title="Network mapping">active probing</a> in order to identify and block network services that would help escaping the firewall. Multiple services such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Tor_(anonymity_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor (anonymity network)">Tor</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=VPN" class="mw-redirect" title="VPN">VPN</a> providers reported receiving unsolicited TCP/IP connections shortly after legitimate use, for the purported purpose of <a href="/info/en/?search=Network_enumerating" class="mw-redirect" title="Network enumerating">network enumeration</a> of services, in particular <a href="/info/en/?search=Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS</a>/<a href="/info/en/?search=Secure_Sockets_Layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure Sockets Layer">SSL</a> and Tor services, with the aim of facilitating IP blocking. For example, shortly after a VPN request is issued by a legitimate Chinese VPN client and passes outbound though the Great Firewall to a hidden VPN IP, the Great Firewall may detect the activity and issue its own active probe to verify the nature of the previously unknown VPN IP and, if the probe confirms the IP is part of a blacklisted VPN, blacklist the IP.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-69">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blog.torproject.org_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blog.torproject.org-70">[69]</a></sup> This attack can be circumvented with the Obfs4 protocol, which relies on an out-of-band <a href="/info/en/?search=Shared_secret" title="Shared secret">shared secret</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-69">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blog.torproject.org_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blog.torproject.org-70">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Proxy_distribution">Proxy distribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Proxy distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The Great Firewall scrapes the IPs of Tor and VPN servers from the official distribution channels, and enumerates them.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></sup> The strategy to resist this attack is to limit the quantity of proxy IPs revealed to each user and making it very difficult for users to create more than one identity.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup> Academics have proposed solutions such as Salmon, a volunteer-based proxy network designed to combat censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></sup> Dynamic IPs are quite effective to flush out from blacklists.
</p>
<h2><span id="Goals.2C_impact_and_resistance"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Goals,_impact_and_resistance">Goals, impact and resistance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Goals, impact and resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Goal_of_the_Firewall">Goal of the Firewall</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Goal of the Firewall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Article 15 of a September 20, 2000 document from the <a href="/info/en/?search=State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">Chinese State Council</a>, posted by the Xinhua News Agency, lists 9 categories of information which should be <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">censored</a>, blocked, or filtered from access to the citizens using the internet within China:
</p>
<ol><li>Opposing the basic principles as they are confirmed in the Constitution.</li>
<li>Jeopardizing the security of the nation, divulging state secrets, subverting state power, or jeopardizing the integrity of the nation's unity</li>
<li>Harming the honor or the interests of the nation</li>
<li>Inciting hatred against peoples, racism against peoples, or disrupting the solidarity of peoples</li>
<li>Disrupting national policies on religion, propagating evil cults and feudal superstitions</li>
<li>Spreading rumors, disturbing social order or disrupting social stability</li>
<li>Spreading obscenity, pornography, gambling, violence, murder, terror, or abetting the commission of a crime</li>
<li>Insulting or defaming third parties, infringing on the legal rights and interests of third parties</li>
<li>Containing any other content prohibited by law or administrative rules<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a></sup></li></ol>
<p>To filter this content, the Chinese government not only uses its own blocking methods, but also heavily relies on internet companies, such as ISPs, social media operators such as Weibo,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a></sup> and others to actively censor their users.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup> This results in private companies censoring their own platform for filtered content, forcing Chinese internet users to use websites not hosted in China to access this information. Much of this information is related to sensitive topics.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-85">[84]</a></sup> The Great Firewall's goal is perceived by the Communist Party as helping to protect the Chinese population by preventing users from accessing these foreign websites which, in their opinion, host content which would be 'spiritual pollution', as well as information about these sensitive topics.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[85]</a></sup> These topics include:
</p>
<ul><li>Names of government leaders, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Protest_and_dissent_in_China" title="Protest and dissent in China">Political movements and protests</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a> and other cults</li>
<li>The <a href="/info/en/?search=1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests">Tiananmen Square Massacre</a></li>
<li>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li>
<li>Discussions of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Tibetan Independence</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_websites_blocked_in_mainland_China" title="List of websites blocked in mainland China">Specific websites</a> blocked or filtered include many popular search engines, social media platforms, information-hosting sites, and video-hosting websites such as Google Search, Facebook, Wikipedia, YouTube, Twitter, and many more.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_people_in_China">Impact on people in China</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact on people in China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Cybersecurity_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China">Cybersecurity Law</a> behind the firewall is targeted at helping increase internet user privacy, increase protections on personal data, and making companies more responsible for monitoring bad actors, in hopes to make the Internet a safer place for Chinese citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></sup> Despite this, there have been growing criticisms that the actions of the Chinese government have only hurt Chinese free speech, due to increased censorship, and lack of non-sanctioned sources of information, such as Wikipedia and many English news sources.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a></sup> This has resulted in reports of some cases of legal persecution of those charged with spreading this information.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Chinese government itself does legally support free speech; <a href="/info/en/?search=Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the People's Republic of China">article 35 of the Constitutions of the People's Republic</a> states that "citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy <a href="/info/en/?search=Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Freedom_of_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of press">press</a>, of <a href="/info/en/?search=Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">assembly</a>, of association, of procession, and of demonstration."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a></sup> In recent decades, many criticisms of the Chinese government found that some of these laws are often abused. A study by <a href="/info/en/?search=PEN_America" title="PEN America">PEN America</a> claimed that "Some of the government's most rights-abusive laws are aimed at criminalizing free speech that — in the eyes of the government — encourages subversion, separatism, or rejection of the State’s authority."<sup id="cite_ref-:02_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-85">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>Censorship of sensitive topics in China has also been easier for the government because of the firewall and its filtering. Because the monitoring of social media and chat apps in China presents a possibility of punishment for a user, the discussion of these topics is now limited to the correct thought of the Communist Party, or one's home and private spaces, reducing the chance for information about these topics to spread, reducing any threat of protest against the Communist Party.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-93">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a></sup> According to Yaqiu Wang, a prominent human rights researcher, there was a time in China where the internet provided a method for Chinese citizens to learn about the sensitive topics the government had censored in the news, through access to international news reports and media coverage. She claims that, in the past 10 years, it has been increasingly difficult to access second opinions on events, meaning that students rarely have the opportunity to learn diverging viewpoints — only the "correct" thought of the Communist Party.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-93">[92]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic_impacts">Economic impacts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The Great Firewall has also allowed China to develop its own major internet services, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Tencent" title="Tencent">Tencent</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Alibaba_Group" title="Alibaba Group">Alibaba</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Baidu" title="Baidu">Baidu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-washingtonpost.com2_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com2-95">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WSJ20152_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSJ20152-96">[95]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Renren" title="Renren">Renren</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Youku" title="Youku">Youku</a>, and Weibo.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-97">[96]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup> China has its own version of many foreign web properties, for example: <a href="/info/en/?search=Bilibili" title="Bilibili">Bilibili</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Tencent_Video" title="Tencent Video">Tencent Video</a> (YouTube), <a href="/info/en/?search=Sina_Weibo" class="mw-redirect" title="Sina Weibo">Sina Weibo</a> (Twitter), <a href="/info/en/?search=Moments_(social_networking)" title="Moments (social networking)">Moments</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a></sup> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Qzone" title="Qzone">Qzone</a> (Facebook), <a href="/info/en/?search=WeChat" title="WeChat">WeChat</a> (WhatsApp), <a href="/info/en/?search=Ctrip" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctrip">Ctrip</a> (Orbitz and others), and <a href="/info/en/?search=Zhihu" title="Zhihu">Zhihu</a><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a></sup> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Quora" title="Quora">Quora</a>). With nearly one quarter of the global internet population (700 million users), the internet behind the GFW can be considered a "parallel universe" to the Internet that exists outside.<sup id="cite_ref-WaPo2017_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaPo2017-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Resistance">Resistance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>While the Great Firewall has had an impact on Chinese citizens' ability to use the internet to find information about sensitive topics about the Communist Party, it has not completely stopped them from doing so. The firewall itself has caused much frustration amongst both individuals and internationally operating companies in China, many of whom have turned to VPNs, speaking in codes,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a></sup> and other methods to retain their access to the international internet.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Circumvention">Circumvention</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Circumvention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Evasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China">Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China § Evasion</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_circumvention" title="Internet censorship circumvention">Internet censorship circumvention</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Methods_for_bypassing_the_firewall">Methods for bypassing the firewall</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Methods for bypassing the firewall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Because the Great Firewall blocks destination IP addresses and domain names and inspects the data being sent or received, a basic censorship circumvention strategy is to use proxy nodes and encrypt the data. Bypassing the firewall is known as <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">fānqiáng</i></span> (翻墙, "climb over the wall"), and most circumvention tools combine these two mechanisms:<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2013_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2013-102">[101]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Proxy_server" title="Proxy server">Proxy servers</a> outside China can be used, although using just a simple open proxy (HTTP or SOCKS) without also using an encrypted tunnel (such as HTTPS) does little to circumvent the sophisticated censors.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2013_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2013-102">[101]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Freegate" title="Freegate">Freegate</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Ultrasurf" title="Ultrasurf">Ultrasurf</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Psiphon" title="Psiphon">Psiphon</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Lantern_(software)" title="Lantern (software)">Lantern</a> are free programs designed and experienced with circumventing the China firewall using multiple <a href="/info/en/?search=Open_proxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Open proxies">open proxies</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=VPN" class="mw-redirect" title="VPN">VPNs</a> (virtual private networks) are one of the most popular tools used by Westerners for bypassing censorship technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a></sup> They use the same basic approaches, proxies, and encrypted channels used by other circumvention tools, but depend on a private host, a virtual host, or an account outside of China, rather than open, free proxies.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2013_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2013-102">[101]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tor_(anonymity_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor (anonymity network)">Tor</a> partially can be used in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2013_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2013-102">[101]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a></sup> Since 2010, almost all bridges at TorProject.org are blocked through <a href="#Proxy_distribution">proxy distribution</a>. Tor still functions in China using Snowflake,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a></sup> independently published Obfs4 bridges and meek.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=I2P" title="I2P">I2P</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Garlic_routing" title="Garlic routing">garlic routing</a> is useful when properties similar to Tor's anonymity are needed. Due to I2P being much less popular than Tor, it has faced little to no blocking attempts.</li></ul>
<p>In 2017, the Chinese government declared unauthorized VPN services illegal, requiring VPN providers to obtain state approval.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a></sup> Although China restricts VPNs, they remain widely used by private individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-:9222_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9222-111">[110]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 109">: 109 </span></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=State-owned_enterprises_of_China" title="State-owned enterprises of China">State-owned enterprises</a> or state institutions also use VPNs for official work.<sup id="cite_ref-:9222_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9222-111">[110]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 109">: 109 </span></sup> The Chinese government has authorized several official VPN providers.<sup id="cite_ref-:9222_111-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9222-111">[110]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 109">: 109 </span></sup> Those who develop or sell their own VPNs potentially face years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-:9222_111-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9222-111">[110]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 109">: 109 </span></sup>
</p><p>Non-proxy circumvention strategies include:
</p>
<ul><li>Using <a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_over_HTTPS" title="DNS over HTTPS">encrypted DNS</a> may bypass blocking of a few sites including TorProject and all of GitHub, which may be used to obtain further circumvention.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a></sup> In 2019 Firefox released an update to make it easy to enable DNS over HTTPS.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a></sup> Despite DNS over encryption, the majority of services remain blocked by IP.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a></sup></li>
<li>Ignoring TCP reset packets sent by the GFW. Distinguishing them by the TTL value (time to live), and not routing any further packets to sites that have triggered blocking behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Known_blocked_methods">Known blocked methods</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Known blocked methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>The <a href="/info/en/?search=OpenVPN" title="OpenVPN">OpenVPN</a> protocol is detected and blocked. Connections not using symmetric keys or using "tls-auth" are blocked at handshake, and connections using the new "tls-crypt" option are detected and throttled (under 56 kbit/s) by the QoS filtering system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Generic_Routing_Encapsulation" title="Generic Routing Encapsulation">GRE</a> tunnels and protocols that use GRE (e.g., <a href="/info/en/?search=PPTP" class="mw-redirect" title="PPTP">PPTP</a>) are blocked.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS</a>, the Great Firewall can identify the difference between HTTPS TLS and other implementations by inspecting the handshake parameters.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Outside_China">Outside China</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Outside China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Off-target_incidents">Off-target incidents</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Off-target incidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In 2010, a <a href="/info/en/?search=Root_name_server" title="Root name server">root name server</a> run by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Netrod&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Netrod (page does not exist)">Netrod</a> in China started returning poisoned DNS results to global users, preventing users in <a href="/info/en/?search=Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> and the U.S. from accessing sites such as Facebook. The server was shut down to stop the poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2014, two-thirds of China's DNS infrastructure began resolving unrelated domains to 65.49.2.178, an address owned by the US-based <a href="/info/en/?search=Freegate" title="Freegate">Dynamic Internet Technology, Inc.</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_anomalies_in_mainland_China_in_2014" title="Internet anomalies in mainland China in 2014">resulting in widespread internet outage in China</a>. No damage to DIT services were reported despite what amounts to an accidental <a href="/info/en/?search=DDoS" class="mw-redirect" title="DDoS">DDoS</a>. While some sources attribute this incident to GFW's DNS poisoning,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a></sup> others (mostly quoting Chinese sources) speculate this incident was somehow caused by DIT themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-122">[121]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Exporting_Great_Firewall_technology">Exporting Great Firewall technology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Exporting Great Firewall technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/info/en/?search=Reporters_Without_Borders" title="Reporters Without Borders">Reporters Without Borders</a> suspects that countries such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Cuba" title="Censorship in Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Iran</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Vietnam" title="Censorship in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Belarus" title="Censorship in Belarus">Belarus</a> have obtained surveillance technology from China, although the censorship in these countries is less stringent than in China.<sup id="cite_ref-cubaonline_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cubaonline-124">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>Since at least 2015, the Russian <a href="/info/en/?search=Federal_Service_for_Supervision_of_Communications,_Information_Technology_and_Mass_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media">Roskomnadzor</a> agency collaborates with Chinese Great Firewall security officials in implementing its data retention and filtering infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eurozine_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eurozine-126">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a></sup> During his visit to Beijing in June 2016, Vladimir Putin signed a joint communiqué with Xi Jinping on information space, followed by Russia’s National Forum for Information Security in October hosted by <a href="/info/en/?search=Fang_Binxing" title="Fang Binxing">Fang Binxing</a>, the architect of the Chinese Great Firewall.<sup id="cite_ref-eurozine_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eurozine-126">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Especially since the <a href="/info/en/?search=2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, in order to enforce the <a href="/info/en/?search=Russian_2022_war_censorship_laws" title="Russian 2022 war censorship laws">war censorship law</a>, Russian authorities were making an internet surveillance system akin to Chinese Great Firewall.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Opposition">Opposition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Critics have argued that if other large countries begin following China's approach, the whole purpose of the creation of the Internet could be put in jeopardy. If like-minded countries are successful in imposing the same restrictions on their inhabitants and globalized online companies, then the free global exchange of information could cease to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Great_Firewall_of_China_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Firewall_of_China-129">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Trade_Representative" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Trade Representative">United States Trade Representative</a>'s (USTR) "National Trade Estimate Report" in 2016 referred the China's digital Great Firewall: "China's filtering of cross-border Internet traffic has posed a significant burden to foreign suppliers."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></sup> Claude Barfield, the <a href="/info/en/?search=American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a>'s expert of International trade, suggested that the U.S. government should bring a case against the Firewall, a huge trade barrier, in the World Trade Organization in January 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a></sup> Eight of the 24 more trafficked websites in China have been blocked by the Great Firewall. This has created a burden to foreign suppliers who rely on these websites to sell their products or services. The lobby's 2016 business climate survey showed 79 percent of its members reported a negative impact on business due to internet censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/info/en/?search=Stephen_Peter_Rosen" title="Stephen Peter Rosen">Stephen Rosen</a>, the GFW is reflective of the Chinese government's fear of civil disobedience or rebellion among the Chinese population against the Chinese Communist Party's rule:
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If you want to know what people are worried about look at what they spend their money on. If you’re afraid of burglars you buy a burglar alarm. What are the Chinese spending their money on? We’re told from Chinese figures they’re spending on the <a href="/info/en/?search=People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a>, the internal security force is about as big as they’re spending on the regular military. This whole great firewall of China, this whole massive effort to control the internet, this effort to use modern information technology not to disseminate information, empowering individuals, but to make people think what you want them to think and to monitor their behavior so that you can isolate and suppress them. That’s because this is a regime which is fundamentally afraid of its own people. And it’s fundamentally hostile to them.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/42px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/56px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></span></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_websites_blocked_in_mainland_China" title="List of websites blocked in mainland China">List of websites blocked in mainland China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bamboo_Curtain" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboo Curtain">Bamboo Curtain</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia_blocked_by_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia blocked by China">Censorship of Wikipedia by China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cipher" title="Cipher">Cypher</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Cannon" title="Great Cannon">Great Cannon</a> — A <a href="/info/en/?search=Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">distributed denial-of-service</a> attack tool co-located with the Great Firewall.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=GreatFire" title="GreatFire">GreatFire</a> — An organization monitoring and providing apps, 12 websites, code, tests and tools related to the Great Firewall</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Green_Dam_Youth_Escort" title="Green Dam Youth Escort">Green Dam Youth Escort</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Wall_of_Sand" title="Great Wall of Sand">Great Wall of Sand</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=International_Freedom_of_Expression_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="International Freedom of Expression Exchange">International Freedom of Expression Exchange</a> – monitors<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_circumvention" title="Internet censorship circumvention">Internet censorship circumvention</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Media_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of China">Media of China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics of China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Splinternet" title="Splinternet">Splinternet</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Who_Controls_the_Internet%3F" title="Who Controls the Internet?">Who Controls the Internet?</a></i></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">打开窗户，新鲜空气和苍蝇就会一起进来。</span>; <a href="/info/en/?search=Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Dǎkāi chuānghù, xīnxiān kōngqì hé cāngying jiù huì yìqǐ jìnlái</span></i>.<br />There are several variants of this saying in Chinese, including "如果你打开窗户换新鲜空气，就得想到苍蝇也会飞进来。" and "打开窗户，新鲜空气进来了，苍蝇也飞进来了。". Their meanings are the same.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFClaytonMurdochWatson" class="citation journal cs1">Clayton, Richard; Murdoch, Steven J.; Watson, Robert N. M. "Ignoring the great firewall of china". <i>International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Workshop+on+Privacy+Enhancing+Technologies&rft.atitle=Ignoring+the+great+firewall+of+china&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Murdoch%2C+Steven+J.&rft.au=Watson%2C+Robert+N.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMozur2015" class="citation news cs1">Mozur, Paul (13 September 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html">"Baidu and CloudFlare Boost Users Over China's Great Firewall"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190124123846/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/business/partnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Baidu+and+CloudFlare+Boost+Users+Over+China%27s+Great+Firewall&rft.date=2015-09-13&rft.aulast=Mozur&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F09%2F14%2Fbusiness%2Fpartnership-boosts-users-over-chinas-great-firewall.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClaytonMurdochWatson2006" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Richard; Murdoch, Steven J.; Watson, Robert N. M. (2006). Danezis, George; Golle, Philippe (eds.). <a class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11957454_2"><i>Ignoring the Great Firewall of China</i></a>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4258. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 20–35. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F11957454_2">10.1007/11957454_2</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1811%2F72793">1811/72793</a></span>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68793-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68793-1"><bdi>978-3-540-68793-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ignoring+the+Great+Firewall+of+China&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&rft.pages=20-35&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1811%2F72793&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F11957454_2&rft.isbn=978-3-540-68793-1&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Murdoch%2C+Steven+J.&rft.au=Watson%2C+Robert+N.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F11957454_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/info/en/?search=Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.greatfire.org/google.com">"google.com is blocked in China | GreatFire Analyzer"</a>. <i>en.greatfire.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140805232352/https://en.greatfire.org/google.com">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.greatfire.org&rft.atitle=google.com+is+blocked+in+China+%7C+GreatFire+Analyzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.greatfire.org%2Fgoogle.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/">"How China's social media users created a new language to beat censorship on COVID-19"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a></i>. 6 March 2020. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200403023740/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/china-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amnesty+International&rft.atitle=How+China%27s+social+media+users+created+a+new+language+to+beat+censorship+on+COVID-19&rft.date=2020-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Flatest%2Fnews%2F2020%2F03%2Fchina-social-media-language-government-censorship-covid%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html">"China Blocks Access To Twitter, Facebook After Riots"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100919204716/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/07/AR2009070701162.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=China+Blocks+Access+To+Twitter%2C+Facebook+After+Riots&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F07%2F07%2FAR2009070701162.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china">"Wikipedia founder defends decision to encrypt the site in China"</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=The_Verge" title="The Verge">The Verge</a>. 4 September 2015. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141751/https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/4/9260981/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-china">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wikipedia+founder+defends+decision+to+encrypt+the+site+in+China&rft.pub=The+Verge&rft.date=2015-09-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2015%2F9%2F4%2F9260981%2Fjimmy-wales-wikipedia-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsmithWu2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Jack_Goldsmith" title="Jack Goldsmith">Goldsmith, Jack L.</a>; <a href="/info/en/?search=Tim_Wu" title="Tim Wu">Wu, Tim</a> (2006). <a href="/info/en/?search=Who_Controls_the_Internet%3F" title="Who Controls the Internet?"><i>Who Controls the Internet?: Illusions of a Borderless World</i></a>. New York: <a href="/info/en/?search=Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whocontrolsinter00gold/page/91">91</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0-19-515266-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515266-2"><bdi>0-19-515266-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Controls+the+Internet%3F%3A+Illusions+of+a+Borderless+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-515266-2&rft.aulast=Goldsmith&rft.aufirst=Jack+L.&rft.au=Wu%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWebsite" class="citation web cs1">Website, Adsale Corporate. <a class="external text" href="https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group">"Adsale Corporate Website - Adsale Group"</a>. <i>www.adsale.com.hk</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502184124/https://www.adsale.com.hk/corporate/idx/eng/adsale_group">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.adsale.com.hk&rft.atitle=Adsale+Corporate+Website+-+Adsale+Group&rft.aulast=Website&rft.aufirst=Adsale+Corporate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.adsale.com.hk%2Fcorporate%2Fidx%2Feng%2Fadsale_group&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150427065800/http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/">"What is internet censorship? - Amnesty International Australia"</a>. 27 April 2015. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/10926/">the original</a> on 27 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+internet+censorship%3F+-+Amnesty+International+Australia&rft.date=2015-04-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org.au%2Fchina%2Fcomments%2F10926%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFQiang2010" class="citation web cs1">Qiang, Xiao (20 December 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%E2%80%98father%E2%80%99-of-china%E2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=China_Digital_Times" title="China Digital Times">China Digital Times</a> (CDT)</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225145914/https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/12/%e2%80%98father%e2%80%99-of-china%e2%80%99s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Digital+Times+%28CDT%29&rft.atitle=%27Father%27+of+China%27s+Great+Firewall+Shouted+Off+Own+Microblog&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft.aulast=Qiang&rft.aufirst=Xiao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinadigitaltimes.net%2F2010%2F12%2F%25E2%2580%2598father%25E2%2580%2599-of-china%25E2%2580%2599s-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-WSJ-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WSJ_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Father' of China's Great Firewall Shouted Off Own Microblog – China Real Time Report – WSJ"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>. 20 December 2010. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171119154634/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/12/20/father-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=%27Father%27+of+China%27s+Great+Firewall+Shouted+Off+Own+Microblog+%E2%80%93+China+Real+Time+Report+%E2%80%93+WSJ&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Fchinarealtime%2F2010%2F12%2F20%2Ffather-of-chinas-great-firewall-shouted-off-own-microblog%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721182306/http://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm"><bdi lang="zh">"防火墙之父"北邮校长方滨兴微博遭网民"围攻"</bdi></a> (in Chinese). Yunnan Information Times. 23 December 2010. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://china.nfdaily.cn/content/2010-12/23/content_18691581.htm">the original</a> on 21 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22%E9%98%B2%E7%81%AB%E5%A2%99%E4%B9%8B%E7%88%B6%22%E5%8C%97%E9%82%AE%E6%A0%A1%E9%95%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%BB%A8%E5%85%B4%E5%BE%AE%E5%8D%9A%E9%81%AD%E7%BD%91%E6%B0%91%22%E5%9B%B4%E6%94%BB%22&rft.pub=Yunnan+Information+Times&rft.date=2010-12-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchina.nfdaily.cn%2Fcontent%2F2010-12%2F23%2Fcontent_18691581.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDenyer2016" class="citation news cs1">Denyer, Simon (23 May 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html">"China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181206113628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works/2016/05/23/413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=China%27s+scary+lesson+to+the+world%3A+Censoring+the+Internet+works&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft.aulast=Denyer&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fasia_pacific%2Fchinas-scary-lesson-to-the-world-censoring-the-internet-works%2F2016%2F05%2F23%2F413afe78-fff3-11e5-8bb1-f124a43f84dc_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384075.htm">"Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (1997)"</a>. <i>www.npc.gov.cn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.npc.gov.cn&rft.atitle=Criminal+Law+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281997%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npc.gov.cn%2Fzgrdw%2Fenglishnpc%2FLaw%2F2007-12%2F13%2Fcontent_1384075.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKeithLin,_Zhiqiu2006" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Ronald; Lin, Zhiqiu (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit"><i>New Crime in China</i></a></span>. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newcrimechinapub00keit/page/n229">217</a>–225. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0415314828" title="Special:BookSources/0415314828"><bdi>0415314828</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Crime+in+China&rft.pages=217-225&rft.pub=Routledge+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0415314828&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=Lin%2C+Zhiqiu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewcrimechinapub00keit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Daniel. <i>Splinternet Behind the Great Firewall of China: Once China opened its door to the world, it could not close it again</i>. Queue.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Splinternet+Behind+the+Great+Firewall+of+China%3A+Once+China+opened+its+door+to+the+world%2C+it+could+not+close+it+again.&rft.pub=Queue&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-OliverAugust-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OliverAugust_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAugust2007" class="citation magazine cs1">August, Oliver (23 October 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall">"The Great Firewall: China's Misguided — and Futile — Attempt to Control What Happens Online"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired Magazine</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093349/http://archive.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-11/ff_chinafirewall">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Great+Firewall%3A+China%27s+Misguided+%E2%80%94+and+Futile+%E2%80%94+Attempt+to+Control+What+Happens+Online&rft.date=2007-10-23&rft.aulast=August&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.wired.com%2Fpolitics%2Fsecurity%2Fmagazine%2F15-11%2Fff_chinafirewall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCody2007" class="citation web cs1">Cody, Edward (9 February 2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html">"Despite a Ban, Chinese Youth Navigate to Internet Cafés"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141220053356/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/08/AR2007020802389_pf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Despite+a+Ban%2C+Chinese+Youth+Navigate+to+Internet+Caf%C3%A9s&rft.date=2007-02-09&rft.aulast=Cody&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F02%2F08%2FAR2007020802389_pf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2015" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Charlie (18 June 2015). <a class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html">"We Had Our Arguments, But We Will Miss You Wikipedia"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150619083431/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-smith/we-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=We+Had+Our+Arguments%2C+But+We+Will+Miss+You+Wikipedia&rft.date=2015-06-18&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fcharlie-smith%2Fwe-had-our-arguments-but-_b_7610130.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Verge2017-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Verge2017_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFToor2017" class="citation news cs1">Toor, Amar (4 May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship">"China is building its own version of Wikipedia"</a>. <i>The Verge</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170904155402/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/4/15541016/china-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=China+is+building+its+own+version+of+Wikipedia&rft.date=2017-05-04&rft.aulast=Toor&rft.aufirst=Amar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2017%2F5%2F4%2F15541016%2Fchina-wikipedia-encyclopedia-online-censorship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Indep2017-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Indep2017_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2017" class="citation news cs1">Watt, Louise (4 May 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-wikipedia-chinese-version-government-no-public-authors-contributions-communist-party-line-a7717861.html">"China is launching its own Wikipedia – but only the government can contribute to it"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210224316/https://www.dw.com/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%80-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9/a-46669373">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=China+is+launching+its+own+Wikipedia+%E2%80%93+but+only+the+government+can+contribute+to+it&rft.date=2017-05-04&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fchina-wikipedia-chinese-version-government-no-public-authors-contributions-communist-party-line-a7717861.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/">"Search result not found: China bans Wikipedia in all languages"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003155/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/15/china-bans-wikipedia-all-languages/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Search+result+not+found%3A+China+bans+Wikipedia+in+all+languages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbusiness%2F2019%2F05%2F15%2Fchina-bans-wikipedia-all-languages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHerman" class="citation web cs1">Herman, Arthur. <a class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/">"Huawei's (And China's) Dangerous High-Tech Game"</a>. <i>Forbes</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190515103447/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurherman/2018/12/10/huaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Huawei%27s+%28And+China%27s%29+Dangerous+High-Tech+Game&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Farthurherman%2F2018%2F12%2F10%2Fhuaweis-and-chinas-dangerous-high-tech-game%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/">"Cisco, Huawei and Semptian: A Look Behind the Great Firewall of China"</a>. <i>C5IS</i>. 15 December 2014. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190714193154/https://c5is.com/cisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C5IS&rft.atitle=Cisco%2C+Huawei+and+Semptian%3A+A+Look+Behind+the+Great+Firewall+of+China&rft.date=2014-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fc5is.com%2Fcisco-huawei-and-semptian-a-look-behind-the-great-firewall-of-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOliver_FarnanAlexander_DarerJoss_Wright2016" class="citation book cs1">Oliver Farnan; Alexander Darer; Joss Wright (2016). "Poisoning the Well". <i>Proceedings of the 2016 ACM on Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society - WPES'16</i>. pp. 95–98. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2994620.2994636">10.1145/2994620.2994636</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781450345699" title="Special:BookSources/9781450345699"><bdi>9781450345699</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7275132">7275132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poisoning+the+Well&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2016+ACM+on+Workshop+on+Privacy+in+the+Electronic+Society+-+WPES%2716&rft.pages=95-98&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7275132%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2994620.2994636&rft.isbn=9781450345699&rft.au=Oliver+Farnan&rft.au=Alexander+Darer&rft.au=Joss+Wright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/">"how to unblock websites in China"</a>. pcwizardpro.com. 26 January 2018. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084214/http://pcwizardpro.com/how-to-unblock-websites-in-china/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=how+to+unblock+websites+in+China&rft.pub=pcwizardpro.com&rft.date=2018-01-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpcwizardpro.com%2Fhow-to-unblock-websites-in-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf">"The Great DNS Wall of China - Analysis of the DNS infrastructure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121058/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci14/foci14-anonymous.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+DNS+Wall+of+China+-+Analysis+of+the+DNS+infrastructure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usenix.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fconference%2Ffoci14%2Ffoci14-anonymous.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035">"8.8.8.8 goes pretty well in the Chinese market. (8 being a popular number.) I th... | Hacker News"</a>. <i>news.ycombinator.com</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200326175426/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=16772035">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news.ycombinator.com&rft.atitle=8.8.8.8+goes+pretty+well+in+the+Chinese+market.+%288+being+a+popular+number.%29+I+th...+%7C+Hacker+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.ycombinator.com%2Fitem%3Fid%3D16772035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoangNiakiDalekKnockel2021" class="citation arxiv cs1">Hoang, Nguyen Phong; Niaki, Arian Akhavan; Dalek, Jakub; Knockel, Jeffrey; Lin, Pellaeon; Marczak, Bill; Crete-Nishihata, Masashi; Gill, Phillipa; Polychronakis, Michalis (3 June 2021). "How Great is the Great Firewall? Measuring China's DNS Censorship". <a href="/info/en/?search=ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.02167">2106.02167</a></span> [<a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CR">cs.CR</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=How+Great+is+the+Great+Firewall%3F+Measuring+China%27s+DNS+Censorship&rft.date=2021-06-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2106.02167&rft.aulast=Hoang&rft.aufirst=Nguyen+Phong&rft.au=Niaki%2C+Arian+Akhavan&rft.au=Dalek%2C+Jakub&rft.au=Knockel%2C+Jeffrey&rft.au=Lin%2C+Pellaeon&rft.au=Marczak%2C+Bill&rft.au=Crete-Nishihata%2C+Masashi&rft.au=Gill%2C+Phillipa&rft.au=Polychronakis%2C+Michalis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHoangPolychronakisGill2022" class="citation arxiv cs1">Hoang, Nguyen Phong; Polychronakis, Michalis; Gill, Phillipa (1 February 2022). "Measuring the Accessibility of Domain Name Encryption and Its Impact on Internet Filtering". <a href="/info/en/?search=ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2202.00663">2202.00663</a></span> [<a class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.NI">cs.NI</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Accessibility+of+Domain+Name+Encryption+and+Its+Impact+on+Internet+Filtering&rft.date=2022-02-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2202.00663&rft.aulast=Hoang&rft.aufirst=Nguyen+Phong&rft.au=Polychronakis%2C+Michalis&rft.au=Gill%2C+Phillipa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blog.xeovo.com/what-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care/">"What is the Great Firewall of China and why you should care"</a>. xeovo.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+Great+Firewall+of+China+and+why+you+should+care&rft.pub=xeovo.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.xeovo.com%2Fwhat-is-the-great-firewall-of-china-and-why-you-should-care%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/">"draft-ietf-tls-esni-03 - Encrypted Server Name Indication for TLS 1.3"</a>. <i>Ietf Datatracker</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190606041824/https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-tls-esni/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ietf+Datatracker&rft.atitle=draft-ietf-tls-esni-03+-+Encrypted+Server+Name+Indication+for+TLS+1.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatatracker.ietf.org%2Fdoc%2Fdraft-ietf-tls-esni%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/">"Encrypted SNI Comes to Firefox Nightly"</a>. <i>Mozilla Security Blog</i>. 18 October 2018. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324233735/https://blog.mozilla.org/security/2018/10/18/encrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mozilla+Security+Blog&rft.atitle=Encrypted+SNI+Comes+to+Firefox+Nightly&rft.date=2018-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.mozilla.org%2Fsecurity%2F2018%2F10%2F18%2Fencrypted-sni-comes-to-firefox-nightly%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/">"Encrypt that SNI: Firefox edition"</a>. <i>The Cloudflare Blog</i>. 18 October 2018. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214223249/https://blog.cloudflare.com/encrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Cloudflare+Blog&rft.atitle=Encrypt+that+SNI%3A+Firefox+edition&rft.date=2018-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.cloudflare.com%2Fencrypt-that-sni-firefox-edition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://chasersystems.com/blog/disabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why/">"How to disable TLS Encrypted ClientHello in Google Chrome using PowerShell"</a>. Chaser Systems Ltd. 9 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+disable+TLS+Encrypted+ClientHello+in+Google+Chrome+using+PowerShell&rft.pub=Chaser+Systems+Ltd&rft.date=2023-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchasersystems.com%2Fblog%2Fdisabling-encrypted-clienthello-in-google-chrome-and-why%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://chromestatus.com/feature/6196703843581952">"Feature: TLS Encrypted Client Hello (ECH)"</a>. <i>Chrome Platform Status</i>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Google" title="Google">Google</a>. 12 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chrome+Platform+Status&rft.atitle=Feature%3A+TLS+Encrypted+Client+Hello+%28ECH%29&rft.date=2023-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchromestatus.com%2Ffeature%2F6196703843581952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-guardvpn2-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-guardvpn2_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFArthur2012" class="citation news cs1">Arthur, Charles (14 December 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control">"China tightens 'Great Firewall' internet control with new technology"</a>. <i>guardian.co.uk</i>. London: The Guardian. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130910001533/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/14/china-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=guardian.co.uk&rft.atitle=China+tightens+%27Great+Firewall%27+internet+control+with+new+technology&rft.date=2012-12-14&rft.aulast=Arthur&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2012%2Fdec%2F14%2Fchina-tightens-great-firewall-internet-control&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/">"My Experience With the Great Firewall of China"</a>. <i>blog.zorinaq.com</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160701195829/http://blog.zorinaq.com/my-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blog.zorinaq.com&rft.atitle=My+Experience+With+the+Great+Firewall+of+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.zorinaq.com%2Fmy-experience-with-the-great-firewall-of-china%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a self-published source. (October 2020)">self-published source</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf">"How the Great Firewall of China is blocking Tor"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220127204429/https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/foci12/foci12-final2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Great+Firewall+of+China+is+blocking+Tor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usenix.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fconference%2Ffoci12%2Ffoci12-final2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf">"Ignoring TCP RST send by the firewall"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190611203524/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ignoring+TCP+RST+send+by+the+firewall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cl.cam.ac.uk%2F~rnc1%2Fignoring.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm">"zdnetasia.com"</a>. zdnetasia.com. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091008214629/http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=zdnetasia.com&rft.pub=zdnetasia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnetasia.com%2Fnews%2Fsecurity%2F0%2C39044215%2C39372326%2C00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff">"FreeBSD patch - ignore TCP RST"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080629073234/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnw24/patches/20060607-tcp-ttl.diff">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FreeBSD+patch+-+ignore+TCP+RST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cl.cam.ac.uk%2F~rnw24%2Fpatches%2F20060607-tcp-ttl.diff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html">"Cyber-security Law of the People's Republic of China"</a>. <i>www.dezshira.com</i>. 11 January 2018. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190601010621/https://www.dezshira.com/library/legal/cyber-security-law-china-8013.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dezshira.com&rft.atitle=Cyber-security+Law+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.date=2018-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dezshira.com%2Flibrary%2Flegal%2Fcyber-security-law-china-8013.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784">"GitHub SSL replaced by self-signed certificate in China | Hacker News"</a>. News.ycombinator.com. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140705135606/https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=5124784">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GitHub+SSL+replaced+by+self-signed+certificate+in+China+%26%23124%3B+Hacker+News&rft.pub=News.ycombinator.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.ycombinator.com%2Fitem%3Fid%3D5124784&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud">"Chinese MITM Attack on iCloud - NETRESEC Blog"</a>. <i>Netresec</i>. 20 October 2014. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200329044228/https://www.netresec.com/?page=Blog&month=2014-10&post=Chinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Netresec&rft.atitle=Chinese+MITM+Attack+on+iCloud+-+NETRESEC+Blog&rft.date=2014-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netresec.com%2F%3Fpage%3DBlog%26month%3D2014-10%26post%3DChinese-MITM-Attack-on-iCloud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=CVE_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CVE (identifier)">CVE</a>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-4449">2014-4449</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/">"TLS certificate blunder revisited – whither China Internet Network Information Center?"</a>. nakedsecurity.sophos.com. 14 April 2015. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232209/https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2015/04/14/tls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TLS+certificate+blunder+revisited+%E2%80%93+whither+China+Internet+Network+Information+Center%3F&rft.pub=nakedsecurity.sophos.com&rft.date=2015-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnakedsecurity.sophos.com%2F2015%2F04%2F14%2Ftls-certificate-blunder-revisited-whither-china-internet-network-information-center%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392">"1128392 - Add GDCA Root Certificate"</a>. <i>bugzilla.mozilla.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324235853/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1128392">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bugzilla.mozilla.org&rft.atitle=1128392+-+Add+GDCA+Root+Certificate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbugzilla.mozilla.org%2Fshow_bug.cgi%3Fid%3D1128392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://patrol.psyced.org/">"Certificate Patrol - a psyced Firefox/Mozilla add-on"</a>. <i>patrol.psyced.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190613113932/http://patrol.psyced.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=patrol.psyced.org&rft.atitle=Certificate+Patrol+-+a+psyced+Firefox%2FMozilla+add-on&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpatrol.psyced.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilde2012" class="citation web cs1">Wilde, Tim (7 January 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors">"Knock Knock Knockin' on Bridges' Doors"</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Tor_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor Project">Tor Project</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060455/https://blog.torproject.org/blog/knock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Knock+Knock+Knockin%27+on+Bridges%27+Doors&rft.pub=Tor+Project&rft.date=2012-01-07&rft.aulast=Wilde&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.torproject.org%2Fblog%2Fknock-knock-knockin-bridges-doors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-blog.torproject.org-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blog.torproject.org_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blog.torproject.org_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system">"Learning more about the GFW's active probing system | Tor Blog"</a>. <i>blog.torproject.org</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191008214120/https://blog.torproject.org/learning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blog.torproject.org&rft.atitle=Learning+more+about+the+GFW%27s+active+probing+system+%7C+Tor+Blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.torproject.org%2Flearning-more-about-gfws-active-probing-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831">"28c3: How governments have tried to block Tor"</a>. YouTube. 28 December 2011. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200329110424/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DX46Qv_b7F4&t=831">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=28c3%3A+How+governments+have+tried+to+block+Tor&rft.pub=YouTube&rft.date=2011-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DDX46Qv_b7F4%26t%3D831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:12-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShi2023" class="citation book cs1">Shi, Song (2023). <i>China and the Internet: Using New Media for Development and Social Change</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: <a href="/info/en/?search=Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9781978834736" title="Special:BookSources/9781978834736"><bdi>9781978834736</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+Internet%3A+Using+New+Media+for+Development+and+Social+Change&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781978834736&rft.aulast=Shi&rft.aufirst=Song&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:9222-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9222_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9222_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9222_111-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9222_111-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFŠebok2023" class="citation book cs1">Šebok, Filip (2023). "Social Control and Propaganda". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). <i>Contemporary China: a New Superpower?</i>. <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-03-239508-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-03-239508-1"><bdi>978-1-03-239508-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Control+and+Propaganda&rft.btitle=Contemporary+China%3A+a+New+Superpower%3F&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-03-239508-1&rft.aulast=%C5%A0ebok&rft.aufirst=Filip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html">"How to Use DNSCrypt to Prevent DNS Spoofing in China | Tips for China"</a>. <i>www.tipsforchina.com</i>. 13 May 2019. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200217221544/https://www.tipsforchina.com/how-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tipsforchina.com&rft.atitle=How+to+Use+DNSCrypt+to+Prevent+DNS+Spoofing+in+China+%26%23124%3B+Tips+for+China&rft.date=2019-05-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tipsforchina.com%2Fhow-to-use-dnscrypt-to-bypass-dns-spoofing-poisoning-in-china.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDeckelmann2019" class="citation web cs1">Deckelmann, Selena (2 April 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps">"DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) Update – Recent Testing Results and Next Steps"</a>. <i>Future Releases</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200107031853/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/02/dns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Future+Releases&rft.atitle=DNS-over-HTTPS+%28DoH%29+Update+%E2%80%93+Recent+Testing+Results+and+Next+Steps&rft.date=2019-04-02&rft.aulast=Deckelmann&rft.aufirst=Selena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.mozilla.org%2Ffuturereleases%2F2019%2F04%2F02%2Fdns-over-https-doh-update-recent-testing-results-and-next-steps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201026013416/https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>dnsencryption.info</i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://dnsencryption.info/imc19-doe.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dnsencryption.info&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdnsencryption.info%2Fimc19-doe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/info/en/?search=Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf">"Ignoring the Great Firewall of China"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233123/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-09-09 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Richard Clayton, Steven J. Murdoch, and Robert N. M. Watson, <i>PET'06: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Privacy Enhancing Technologies</i>, Springer-Verlag (2006), pages 20–35, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/3-540-68790-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-68790-4">3-540-68790-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F11957454_2">10.1007/11957454_2</a>. Retrieved 11 October 2013.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY">"Defcon 21 - Defeating Internet Censorship with Dust, the Polymorphic Protocol Engine"</a>. YouTube. 16 November 2013. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160707183101/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z56andRyCY">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Defcon+21+-+Defeating+Internet+Censorship+with+Dust%2C+the+Polymorphic+Protocol+Engine&rft.pub=YouTube&rft.date=2013-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3z56andRyCY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBp6opkcxoc&feature=youtu.be&t=361">"32C3 - How the Great Firewall discovers hidden circumvention servers"</a>. YouTube. 24 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=32C3+-+How+the+Great+Firewall+discovers+hidden+circumvention+servers&rft.pub=YouTube&rft.date=2016-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DQBp6opkcxoc%26feature%3Dyoutu.be%26t%3D361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf">"Data"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. tlsfingerprint.io. 2019. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190227201210/https://tlsfingerprint.io/static/frolov2019.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data&rft.pub=tlsfingerprint.io&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftlsfingerprint.io%2Fstatic%2Ffrolov2019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35l56KjTCb8&feature=youtu.be&t=5315">"Anti-Censorship & Transparency - Roger Dingledine"</a>. YouTube. <a class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/35l56KjTCb8">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anti-Censorship+%26+Transparency+-+Roger+Dingledine&rft.pub=YouTube&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D35l56KjTCb8%26feature%3Dyoutu.be%26t%3D5315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillan2010" class="citation web cs1">McMillan, Robert (26 March 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://www.computerworld.com/article/2755924/after-dns-problem--chinese-root-server-is-shut-down.html">"After DNS problem, Chinese root server is shut down"</a>. <i>Computerworld</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=After+DNS+problem%2C+Chinese+root+server+is+shut+down&rft.date=2010-03-26&rft.aulast=McMillan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2755924%2Fafter-dns-problem--chinese-root-server-is-shut-down.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLeyden" class="citation web cs1">Leyden, John. <a class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.com/2014/01/21/china_dns_poisoning_attack/">"DNS poisoning slams web traffic from millions in China into the wrong hole"</a>. <i>www.theregister.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theregister.com&rft.atitle=DNS+poisoning+slams+web+traffic+from+millions+in+China+into+the+wrong+hole&rft.aulast=Leyden&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2014%2F01%2F21%2Fchina_dns_poisoning_attack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCarsten" class="citation web cs1">Carsten, Paul. <a class="external text" href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-china-internet-idUKBREA0K04T20140122">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Massive Internet mishap sparks Great Firewall scrutiny in China"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=%22Massive+Internet+mishap+sparks+Great+Firewall+scrutiny+in+China%22&rft.aulast=Carsten&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-china-internet-idUKBREA0K04T20140122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/russia-internet-censorship-efforts-reveal-shortcomings-c2156ead73e1c33cb9357fb954f958f8">"War censorship exposes Putin's leaky internet controls"</a>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a></i>. 14 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=War+censorship+exposes+Putin%27s+leaky+internet+controls&rft.date=2022-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Frussia-internet-censorship-efforts-reveal-shortcomings-c2156ead73e1c33cb9357fb954f958f8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Great_Firewall_of_China-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Great_Firewall_of_China_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china">"The Great Firewall of China"</a>. <i>Bloomberg</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180331034226/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/great-firewall-of-china">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg&rft.atitle=The+Great+Firewall+of+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fquicktake%2Fgreat-firewall-of-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBarfield2016" class="citation news cs1">Barfield, Claude (29 April 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/">"China's Internet censorship: A WTO challenge is long overdue"</a>. TechPolicyDaily.com. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160430114152/http://www.aei.org/publication/chinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=China%27s+Internet+censorship%3A+A+WTO+challenge+is+long+overdue&rft.date=2016-04-29&rft.aulast=Barfield&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aei.org%2Fpublication%2Fchinas-internet-censorship-a-wto-challenge-is-long-overdue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBarfield2017" class="citation news cs1">Barfield, Claude (25 January 2017). <a class="external text" href="https://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/">"China bans 8 of the world's top 25 websites? There's still more to the digital trade problem"</a>. American Enterprise Institute. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170126092521/http://www.aei.org/publication/china-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=China+bans+8+of+the+world%27s+top+25+websites%3F+There%27s+still+more+to+the+digital+trade+problem.&rft.date=2017-01-25&rft.aulast=Barfield&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aei.org%2Fpublication%2Fchina-bans-8-of-top-25-websites-still-more-digital-trade-problem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMartina2016" class="citation news cs1">Martina, Paul (8 April 2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD">"U.S. says China internet censorship a burden for businesses"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. Reuters. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225919/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-trade-internet/u-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=U.S.+says+China+internet+censorship+a+burden+for+businesses&rft.date=2016-04-08&rft.aulast=Martina&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-usa-china-trade-internet%2Fu-s-says-china-internet-censorship-a-burden-for-businesses-idUSKCN0X50RD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKristol2018" class="citation episode cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Kristol, Bill</a> (30 November 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/">"Stephen Rosen interview"</a>. <i>Conversations With Bill Kristol</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200325014729/https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/stephen-rosen-ii/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2020. <a class="external text" href="https://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/stephen-rosen-ii-transcript/">Transcript</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conversations+With+Bill+Kristol&rft.date=2018-11-30&rft.aulast=Kristol&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconversationswithbillkristol.org%2Fvideo%2Fstephen-rosen-ii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Firewall" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050423180620/http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147">Internet censorship in China</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Great Firewall</b> <hr /></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Great+Firewall">Resources in your library</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Great+Firewall&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li>
</ul></div></div>
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<ul><li>Griffiths, James, "The Great Firewall of China: How to Build and Control an Alternative Version of the Internet", <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Zed_Books" title="Zed Books">Zed Books</a></i> (May 2019).</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nandan_Nilekani" title="Nandan Nilekani">Nilekani, Nandan</a>, "Data to the People: India's Inclusive Internet", <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 19–26.</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Adam_Segal" title="Adam Segal">Segal, Adam</a>, "When China Rules the Web: Technology in Service of the State", <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, vol. 97, no. 5 (September / October 2018), pp. 10–14, 16–18.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Great_Firewall&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Great_Firewall" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Great Firewall">Great Firewall</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/firewall" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:firewall"><i>firewall</i></a> at Wiktionary</li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Great_Firewall" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Great Firewall">Great Firewall</a> at Wikiquote</li></ul>
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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">Burning of books and burying of scholars</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Book_censorship_in_China#List_of_censored_books" title="Book censorship in China">List of censored books</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Film_censorship_in_China" title="Film censorship in China">Film censorship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Blood_censorship_in_China" title="Blood censorship in China">Censorship of displaying blood</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_films_banned_in_China" title="List of films banned in China">List of banned films</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">Internet censorship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_of_Winnie-the-Pooh_in_China" title="Censorship of Winnie-the-Pooh in China">Censorship of Winnie-the-Pooh</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Euphemisms_for_Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Euphemisms for Internet censorship in China">Euphemisms</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Firewall</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Cannon" title="Great Cannon">Great Cannon</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Green_Dam_Youth_Escort" title="Green Dam Youth Escort">Green Dam Youth Escort</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Golden_Shield_Project" title="Golden Shield Project">Golden Shield Project</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_real-name_system_in_China" title="Internet real-name system in China">Internet real-name system</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Jingwang_Weishi" title="Jingwang Weishi">Jingwang Weishi</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_websites_blocked_in_mainland_China" title="List of websites blocked in mainland China">List of blocked websites</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Google_China" title="Google China">Google</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Dragonfly_(search_engine)" title="Dragonfly (search engine)">Dragonfly</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/info/en/?search=Illegal_flower_tribute" title="Illegal flower tribute">Illegal flower tribute</a>"</span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikimedia_censorship_in_mainland_China" title="Wikimedia censorship in mainland China">Wikimedia projects</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Public_Pledge_on_Self-Discipline_for_the_Chinese_Internet_Industry" title="Public Pledge on Self-Discipline for the Chinese Internet Industry">Public Pledge on Self-Discipline for the Chinese Internet Industry</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Restrictions_on_geographic_data_in_China" title="Restrictions on geographic data in China">Restrictions on geographic data</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Chinese_censorship_abroad" title="Chinese censorship abroad">Censorship abroad</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Music_censorship_in_China" title="Music censorship in China">Music censorship</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Radio_jamming_in_China" title="Radio jamming in China">Radio jamming</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Television_programme_censorship_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Television programme censorship in the People's Republic of China">Television programme censorship</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Internal_media_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Internal media of the Chinese Communist Party">Internal media</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=2013_Southern_Weekly_incident" title="2013 Southern Weekly incident">2013 <i>Southern Weekly</i> incident</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/info/en/?search=Band_in_China" title="Band in China">Band in China</a>"</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_in_Hong_Kong" title="Censorship in Hong Kong">Censorship in Hong Kong</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_Hong_Kong" title="Internet censorship in Hong Kong">Internet</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_defunct_media_due_to_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" class="mw-redirect" title="List of defunct media due to Hong Kong national security law">Press Censorship</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Document_Number_Nine" title="Document Number Nine">Document Number Nine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">Naming taboo</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Silenced:_China%27s_Great_Wall_of_Censorship" title="Silenced: China's Great Wall of Censorship">Silenced: China's Great Wall of Censorship</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Three_Ts" title="The Three Ts">The Three Ts</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/info/en/?search=Party_media_takes_the_party%27s_last_name" title="Party media takes the party's last name">Party media takes the party's last name</a>"</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Internet_censorship_circumvention_technologies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Internet_censorship_circumvention_technologies" title="Template:Internet censorship circumvention technologies"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Internet_censorship_circumvention_technologies" title="Template talk:Internet censorship circumvention technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Internet_censorship_circumvention_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Internet censorship circumvention technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Internet_censorship_circumvention_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_circumvention" title="Internet censorship circumvention">Internet censorship circumvention</a> technologies</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">Internet censorship in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_intranet" title="National intranet">National intranet</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Censorship and blocking technologies
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=IP_address_blocking" title="IP address blocking">IP address blocking</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=DNS_spoofing" title="DNS spoofing">DNS cache poisoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wordfilter" title="Wordfilter">Wordfilter</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Firewall of China</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Blocks on specific websites
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_of_Facebook" title="Censorship of Facebook">Facebook</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_of_GitHub" title="Censorship of GitHub">GitHub</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_of_Twitter" title="Censorship of Twitter">Twitter</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censorship_of_Wikipedia" title="Censorship of Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">With a <a href="/info/en/?search=Proxy_server" title="Proxy server">proxy server</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">P2P</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Web_proxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Web proxies">Web proxies</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Secure_Shell" title="Secure Shell">SSH</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Proxy_auto-config" title="Proxy auto-config">PAC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Without a proxy server</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=IPv6_transition_mechanism" title="IPv6 transition mechanism">IPv6 transition mechanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hosts_(file)" title="Hosts (file)">hosts</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=DNSCrypt" title="DNSCrypt">DNSCrypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Domain_fronting" title="Domain fronting">Domain fronting</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Refraction_networking" title="Refraction networking">Refraction networking</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anti-censorship software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Free_software" title="Free software">Free software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psiphon" title="Psiphon">Psiphon</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shadowsocks" title="Shadowsocks">Shadowsocks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=OnionShare" title="OnionShare">OnionShare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Outline_VPN" title="Outline VPN">Outline VPN</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=GoAgent" title="GoAgent">GoAgent</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=PirateBox" title="PirateBox">PirateBox</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=SoftEther_VPN" title="SoftEther VPN">VPN Gate</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=WireGuard" title="WireGuard">WireGuard</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprietary software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lantern_(software)" title="Lantern (software)">Lantern</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Freegate" title="Freegate">Freegate</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ultrasurf" title="Ultrasurf">Ultrasurf</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hotspot_Shield" title="Hotspot Shield">Hotspot Shield</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Telex_(anti-censorship_system)" title="Telex (anti-censorship system)">Telex</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Proxify" title="Proxify">Proxify</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Browser extensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Snowflake_(software)" title="Snowflake (software)">Snowflake</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=UProxy" title="UProxy">uProxy</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anonymity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anonymous software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tor_(network)" title="Tor (network)">Tor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Java_Anon_Proxy" title="Java Anon Proxy">JAP (JonDonym)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Flash_proxy" title="Flash proxy">Flash proxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mixmaster_anonymous_remailer" title="Mixmaster anonymous remailer">Mixmaster</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Anonymous_P2P" title="Anonymous P2P">Anonymous P2P</a> network</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Freenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Freenet">Freenet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=I2P" title="I2P">I2P</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=StealthNet" title="StealthNet">StealthNet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tribler" title="Tribler">Tribler</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=ZeroNet" title="ZeroNet">ZeroNet</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical circumvention methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sneakernet" title="Sneakernet">Sneakernet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=USB_dead_drop" title="USB dead drop">USB dead drop</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relevant organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=GreatFire" title="GreatFire">GreatFire</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=FreeWeibo" title="FreeWeibo">FreeWeibo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Turkey_Blocks" title="Turkey Blocks">Turkey Blocks</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Cannon" title="Great Cannon">Great Cannon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates that maintenance of the tool has been discontinued. <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Internet_censorship" title="Category:Internet censorship">Category</a></b> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internet_censorship" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Internet censorship">Commons</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1714569742' |