Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Law authorizing the removal of Native Americans from US states}}
{{Distinguish|Indian Relocation Act of 1956}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| longtitle = An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi.
| acronym =
| enacted by = 21st
| effective date =
| public law url =
| cite public law = {{USPL|21|148}}
| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|4|411}}
| acts amended =
| title amended =
| sections created =
| sections amended =
| leghisturl =
| introducedin = Senate
| introducedbill = {{USBill|21|S.|102}}
| introduced by =
| introduced date =
| committees =
| passedbody1 = Senate
| passeddate1 = April 24, 1830
| passedvote1 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104 28–19]
| passedbody2 = House
| passeddate2 = May 26, 1830
| passedvote2 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 101–97]
| conference date =
| passedbody3 =
| passeddate3 =
| passedvote3 =
| passedbody4 =
| passeddate4 =
| passedvote4 =
| signedpresident = [[Andrew Jackson]]
| signeddate = May 28, 1830
| amendments =
| short title =
}}
{{Andrew Jackson series}}
The '''Indian Removal Act of 1830''' was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President [[Andrew Jackson]]. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the [[Mississippi River|river Mississippi]]".{{efn|The [[U.S. Senate]] passed the bill on April 24, 1830 (28–19), and the [[U.S. House]] passed it on May 26, 1830 (102–97).<ref>Prucha, Francis Paul, ''The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians'', Volume I, Lincoln: the University of Nebraska Press, 1984, p. 206.</ref>}}<ref>The [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 ''Congressional Record'']; May 26, 1830; House vote No. 149; Government Tracker online; retrieved October 2015</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=004/llsl004.db&recNum=458 |title=Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents of Americas History |publisher=Library of Congress| access-date=March 3, 2024}}</ref> During the presidency of Jackson (1829–1837) and his successor [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837–1841) more than 60,000 Native Americans<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Jackson was called 'Indian Killer' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/11/28/andrew-jackson-was-called-indian-killer-trump-honored-navajos-in-front-of-his-portrait/ |website=Washington Post, November 23, 2017 |access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref> from at least 18 tribes<ref name="Oxford Reference">{{cite book |title=Native American Removal |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199743360.001.0001/acref-9780199743360-e-0308?rskey=gnzeYs&result=30 |website=Oxford Reference | year=2012 |publisher=The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Social History | isbn=978-0-19-974336-0 |access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref> were forced to move west of the Mississippi River where they were allocated new lands. The southern tribes were resettled mostly in [[Indian Territory]] ([[Oklahoma]]). The northern tribes were resettled initially in [[Kansas]]. With a few exceptions, the United States east of the Mississippi and south of the [[Great Lakes]] was emptied of its Native American population. The movement westward of [[Tribe|indigenous tribes]] was characterized by a large number of deaths occasioned by the hardships of the journey.<ref name="Lewey2004">{{cite journal | author = Lewey, Guenter | author-link = Guenter Lewy | date = September 1, 2004 | title = Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide? | journal = Commentary | url = https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/ | access-date = March 8, 2017 | archive-date = August 15, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170815233620/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/ | url-status = dead }} Also available in reprint from the [http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7302 History News Network].</ref>
The [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] approved the Act by a narrow majority in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The Indian Removal Act was supported by President Jackson, southern and white settlers, and several state governments, especially that of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. Indigenous tribes and the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] opposed the bill, as did other groups within [[white American]] society (e.g., some [[Christian missionaries]] and clergy). Legal efforts to allow Indian tribes to remain on their land in the eastern U.S. failed. Most famously, the [[Cherokee]] (excluding the [[John Ridge#Political life|Treaty Party]]) challenged their relocation, but were unsuccessful in the courts; they were forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the [[Trail of Tears]]. Since the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state-sanctioned [[ethnic cleansing]] or [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples|genocide]] or [[settler colonialism]] or some view it as all three.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hixson |first=Walter L. |date=2016 |title=Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=439–443 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw092 |jstor=26782722 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gary Clayton |date=2016 |title=The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=407–433 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw126 |jstor=26782720 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perdue |first=Theda |date=2012 |title=The Legacy of Indian Removal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455 |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |jstor=23247455 |issn=0022-4642}}</ref>
==Background==
[[File: AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg|thumb|left|upright|President [[Andrew Jackson]] called for an American Indian Removal Act in his first (1829) State of the Union address.]]
===History of European cultural assimilation in the New World ===
Many [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] saw [[Indigenous peoples|Native Americans]] as savage people. However, euro-native relations varied, particularly between the [[French colonial empire|French]] and [[British Empire|British]] colonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esarey |first=Logan |title=The Indiana Home |pages=8}}</ref> [[New France]], which was established in the [[Great Lakes region]], generally pursued a cooperative relationship with the Native tribes, with the existence of certain traditions such as [[marriage à la façon du pays]], a marriage between tradesmen (''[[coureur des bois]]'') and Native women. This tradition was seen as a fundamental social and political institution that helped maintain relations and bond the two cultures. Many of the missionaries were also known to teach the tribes how to use iron tools, build European-style homes, and improve farming techniques; teachings the [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]], who maintained a century long friendship with [[French Canadians]], would spread on to other tribes as they relocated to the [[Maumee River|Maumee Valley]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esarey |first=Logan |title=The Indiana Home |pages=6}}</ref> Throughout the 17th and 18th century during the [[Beaver Wars|Beaver]] and [[French and Indian War]]s, the greatest number of and most powerful tribes tended to side with the French, though other tribes such as the [[Iroquois]] supported the English for various strategic reasons. For strategic economic and military purposes, the French also had a practice of building forts and trading posts within Native villages, such as that of [[Fort Miami (Indiana)|Fort Miami]] in [[Indiana]] within the [[Miami people|Miami]] village of [[Kekionga]]. However, the belief in European cultural and racial superiority was generally widespread among high ranking colonial officials and clergymen in this period.
During [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonial times]], many colonialists and particularly the [[English colonist|English]] felt their civilization to be superior: they were [[Christianity|Christians]], and they believed their notions of private property to be a superior system of land tenure. Colonial and frontier encroachers inflicted a practice of cultural assimilation, meaning that tribes such as the Cherokee were forced to adopt aspects of white civilization. This [[acculturation]] was originally proposed by [[George Washington]] and was well underway among the [[Cherokee]] and the [[Choctaw]] by the beginning of the 19th century.<ref name="perdue">{{cite book | last= Thor| first = The Mighty| title= Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South| year = 2003| publisher = The University of Georgia Press| chapter = Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"| page = 51| isbn = 978-0-8203-2731-0}}</ref> Native peoples were encouraged to adopt European customs. First, they were forced to convert to Christianity and abandon traditional religious practices. They were also required to learn to speak and read [[English language|English]], although there was interest in creating a writing and printing system for a few [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native languages]], especially [[Cherokee syllabary|Cherokee]], exemplified by [[Sequoyah|Sequoyah's]] [[Cherokee syllabary]]. The Native Americans also had to adopt settler values, such as [[Monogamy|monogamous marriage]] and abandon non-marital sex. Finally, they had to accept the concept of individual ownership of land and other property (including, in some instances, African people as slaves). Many Cherokee people adopted all, or some, of these practices, including [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)|Cherokee chief John Ross]], [[John Ridge]], and [[Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)|Elias Boudinot]], as represented by the newspaper he edited, The [[Cherokee Phoenix]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Perdue |first=Theda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/74987776 |title=The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears |date=2007 |others=Michael D. Green |isbn=978-0-670-03150-4 |location=New York |oclc=74987776}}</ref>
===The perceived failure of the policy===
Despite the adoption of white cultural values by many natives and tribes, the United States government began a systematic effort to remove Native peoples from the Southeast.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html| title = Indian Removal| date = 1999| website = PBS Africans in America: Judgment Day| publisher = WGBH Educational Foundation}}</ref> The [[Chickasaw Nation|Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw Nation|Choctaw]], [[Muscogee (Creek) Nation|Muscogee-Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee Nation (19th century)|original Cherokee]] nations{{efn|These distinct ethnic and political groups were referred to in the United States as the "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]".}} had been established as [[autonomous#Politics|autonomous]] [[nation]]s in the southeastern United States.
Andrew Jackson sought to renew a policy of political and military action for the removal of Natives from these lands and worked toward enacting a law for "Indian removal".<ref name="letterharrison1803">{{cite web | url=http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm| title=President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory| last=Jefferson| first=Thomas| year=1803| access-date=2012-07-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=Jackson| first=Andrew| title=President Andrew Jackson's Case for the Removal Act| url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm| publisher=Mount Holyoke College| access-date=May 28, 2013| archive-date=June 1, 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601183515/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dunbar-Ortiz |first=Roxanne |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534 |title=An indigenous peoples' history of the United States |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3 |location=Boston |oclc=868199534}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilio-Whitaker |first=Dina |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1044542033 |title=As long as grass grows : the indigenous fight for environmental justice, from colonization to Standing Rock |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-8070-7378-0 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |oclc=1044542033}}</ref> In his 1829 [[State of the Union|State of the Union address]], Jackson called for [[Indian removal]].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Andrew Jackson calls for Indian removal – North Carolina Digital History| url = http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350| website = www.learnnc.org| access-date = 2015-04-07| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150412211745/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350| archive-date = 2015-04-12| url-status = dead}}</ref>
The Indian Removal Act was put in place to annex Native land and then transfer that ownership to Southern states, especially [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The Act was passed in 1830, although dialogue had been ongoing since 1802 between [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] concerning the possibility of such an act. Ethan Davis states that "the federal government had promised Georgia that it would extinguish Indian title within the state's borders by purchase 'as soon as the such purchase could be made upon reasonable terms'".<ref>{{cite journal | title=An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal | last= Davis | first= Ethan | journal= The American Journal of Legal History|volume=50|issue=1 | pages= 50–55}}</ref> As time passed, Southern states began to speed up the expulsions by claiming that the deal between Georgia and the federal government was invalid and that Southern states could pass laws extinguishing Indian title themselves. In response, the federal government passed the Indian Removal Act on May 28, 1830, in which President Jackson agreed to divide the United States territory west of the [[Mississippi River]] into districts for tribes to replace the land from which they were removed.
In the 1823 case of ''[[Johnson v. McIntosh]]'', the [[United States Supreme Court]] handed down a decision stating that Indians could occupy and control lands within the United States but could not hold title to those lands.<ref name="pbsremoval">{{cite web | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html| title=Indial Removal 1814–1858| publisher=Public Broadcasting System| access-date=2009-08-11}}</ref> Jackson viewed the union as a [[Federalism|federation of highly esteemed states]], as was common before the [[American Civil War]]. He opposed Washington's policy of establishing treaties with Indian tribes as if they were sovereign foreign nations. Thus, the creation of Indian jurisdictions was a violation of state sovereignty under [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#New states|Article IV, Section 3]] of the Constitution. As Jackson saw it, either Indians comprised sovereign states (which violated the Constitution) or were subject to the laws of existing states of the Union. Jackson urged Indians to assimilate and obey state laws. Further, he believed he could only accommodate the desire for Native self-rule in federal territories, which required resettlement on Federal lands west of the Mississippi River.{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=488}}<ref>{{cite book | author-link=Woodrow Wilson | last=Wilson| first=Woodrow| title=Division and Reunion 1829–1889|year=1898| publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.| pages=[https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog/page/n57 35]–38| url=https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog| quote=Indian question. }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=August 2022}}
==Support and opposition==
[[File: Register of Debates, Senate, 21st Congress, 1st Session - "The Indians".gif|thumb|upright|Congressional debates concerning the Indian Removal Act, April 1830]]
The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South, especially in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], which was the largest state in 1802 and was involved in a jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokee. President Jackson hoped that removal would resolve the Georgia crisis.<ref name=" history channel">{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act |title=Indian Removal Act |publisher=A&E Television Networks |year=2011 |access-date=February 20, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308081936/http://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act |archive-date=March 8, 2010 }}</ref> Besides the Five Civilized Tribes, additional people affected included the [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]], the [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]], the [[Potowatomi]], the [[Shawnee]], and the [[Lenape]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline of Removal |url=https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval.php |website=Oklahoma Historical Society |access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref>
The Indian Removal Act was controversial. Many Americans during this time favored its passage, but there was also significant opposition. Many Christian [[missionary|missionaries]] protested against it, most notably missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]]. In Congress, [[New Jersey]] Senator [[Theodore Frelinghuysen]], Kentucky Senator [[Henry Clay]], and [[Tennessee]] Congressman [[Davy Crockett]] spoke out against the legislation. The Removal Act passed only after a bitter debate in Congress.<ref>[[Daniel Walker Howe|Howe]], Daniel Walker. ''[[What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848]].'' (2007) {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}} p. 348–52.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Farris|first=Scott|url=http://archive.org/details/almostpresidentm0000farr|title=Almost president: the men who lost the race but changed the nation|date=2012|publisher=Lyons Press|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-7627-6378-8|location=Guilford, CN|pages=32}}</ref> Clay extensively campaigned against it on the [[National Republican Party]] ticket in the [[1832 United States presidential election]].<ref name=":0" />
Jackson viewed the demise of Native nations as inevitable, pointing to the steady expansion of European-based lifestyles and the decimation of Native nations in the U.S.'s northeast region. He called his Northern critics hypocrites, given the [[Northern United States|North]]'s history regarding Natives nations within their claimed territory. Jackson stated that "progress requires moving forward."{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=489-498}}
<blockquote>Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and [[philanthropy]] has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress never has for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth... But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another... In the monuments and fortresses of an unknown people, spread over the extensive regions of the West, we behold the memorials of a once powerful race, which was exterminated or has disappeared to make room for the existing savage tribes… Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=490}}<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.columbia.edu/~lmg21/BC3180/removal.html| title=Statements from the Debate on Indian Removal| publisher=Columbia University| access-date=March 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Native American Voices: A History and Anthology|editor-first=Steven|editor-last=Mintz|volume=2|publisher=Brandywine Press|year=1995|pages=115–16}}</ref></blockquote>
According to historian [[H. W. Brands]], Jackson sincerely believed that his [[population transfer]] was a "wise and humane policy" that would save the Native Americans from "utter annihilation". Jackson portrayed the removal as a paternalistic act of mercy.{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=489-493}}
According to Robert M. Keeton, proponents of the bill used biblical narratives to justify the forced resettlement of Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Keeton|first=Robert M.|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.18574/9781479895731-007/html|title=5. "The Race of Pale Men Should Increase and Multiply"|date=2015-07-10|pages=125–149 |publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-1-4798-9573-1|language=en|doi=10.18574/nyu/9781479876778.003.0006}}</ref>
==Vote==
On April 24, 1830, the Senate passed the Indian Removal Act by a vote of 28 to 19.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104 |title=To Order Engrossment and Third Reading of S. 102. |publisher=[[GovTrack]] |date=2013-07-07| access-date=2013-10-21}}</ref> On May 26, 1830, the House of Representatives passed the Act by a vote of 101 to 97.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 |title=To Pass S. 102. (P. 729) |publisher=GovTrack |date=2013-07-07 | quote= The bill passed 101–97, with 11 not voting| access-date=2013-10-21}}</ref> On May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson.
==Implementation==
{{Main|Indian removal}}
The Removal Act paved the way for the forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their land into the [[Western United States|West]] in an event widely known as the "[[Trail of Tears]]," a forced [[Population transfer|resettlement]] of the Indian population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenwood|first=Robert E.|title=Outsourcing Culture: How American Culture has Changed From "We the People" Into a One World Government|publisher=Outskirts Press|year=2007|pages=97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Rajani Kannepalli Kanth|title=The Challenge of Eurocentrism|url=https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant|url-access=limited|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2009|last=Molhotra|first=Rajiv|chapter=American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the American Frontiers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant/page/n216 180], 184, 189, 199|isbn=9780230612273}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Finkelman|first1=Paul|last2=Kennon|first2=Donald R.|title=Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2008|pages=15, 141, 254}}</ref> This forced resettlement has been characterized as a genocide.<ref>{{cite book|last=BKiernan|first=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007|pages=328, 330}}</ref> The first removal treaty signed was the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] on September 27, 1830, in which [[Choctaw]]s in [[Mississippi]] ceded land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the West. The [[Treaty of New Echota]] was signed in 1835 and resulted in the removal of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.
The Seminoles and other tribes did not leave peacefully, as they resisted the removal along with [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|fugitive slaves]]. The [[Second Seminole War]] lasted from 1835 to 1842 and resulted in the government allowing them to remain in south Florida swampland. Only a small number remained, and around 3,000 were removed in the war.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eric|last=Foner|author-link=Eric Foner|date=2006|title=Give me liberty|url=https://archive.org/details/givemelibertyame00fone|url-access=registration|publisher=Norton|isbn=9780393927825}}</ref>
==Historical legacy==
In the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state sanctioned [[ethnic cleansing]] or [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples|genocide]] or [[settler colonialism]] or as all three Forms of these.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hixson |first=Walter L. |date=2016 |title=Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=439–443 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw092 |jstor=26782722 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gary Clayton |date=2016 |title=The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=407–433 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw126 |jstor=26782720 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perdue |first=Theda |date=2012 |title=The Legacy of Indian Removal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455 |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |jstor=23247455 |issn=0022-4642}}</ref> Historian [[Richard White (historian)|Richard White]] wrote that because of "claimed parallels between ethnic cleansing and Indian removal, any examination of Indian removal will inevitably involve discussions of ethnic cleansing."<ref name="White 2002">{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |date=2002 |title=How Andrew Jackson Saved the Cherokees |url=http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf |journal=Green Bag |pages=443–444 |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref> Other scholarship has focused on the historical comparisons between the United States concept of [[manifest destiny]] and [[Nazi Germany]]'s concept of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' and how American removal policy served as a model for [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial policy]] during [[Generalplan Ost|''Generalplan Ost'']].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Robert J. |title=Nazi Germany's Race Laws, the United States, and American Indians |journal=St. John's Law Review |date=2020 |volume=94 |url=https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7173&context=lawreview |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref>
==See also==
* ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]''
* [[Potawatomi Trail of Death]]
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Cited works===
*{{cite book | title=Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times| author-link=H.W. Brands| last=Brands| first=H.W.| publisher=Anchor| year=2006| isbn=978-1-4000-3072-9}}
==External links==
*[https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Indian.html Indian Removal Act and related resources], at the [[Library of Congress]]''
*[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=25&page=transcript ''1830 State of the Union on Indian Removal'']; Text at 100 Milestone Documents
{{wikisource}}
{{Indian Removal}}
{{Native American rights}}
{{Aboriginal title in the United States}}
{{Cherokee}}
{{Andrew Jackson}}
{{Portal bar|United States|Modern history|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Genocide}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1830 in American law]]
[[Category:1830 in the United States]]
[[Category:19th-century colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:American frontier]]
[[Category:Aboriginal title in the United States]]
[[Category:Presidency of Andrew Jackson]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in the United States]]
[[Category:Genocides in North America]]
[[Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples]]
[[Category:Forced migrations of Native Americans in the United States]]
[[Category:Indian Territory]]
[[Category:Legal history of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Native American history of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:United States federal Native American legislation]]
[[Category:Trail of Tears]]
[[Category:Native American history of Florida]]
[[Category:Muscogee]]
[[Category:Seminole]]
[[Category:Legal history of Florida]]
[[Category:Race legislation in the United States]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Law authorizing the removal of Native Americans from US states}}
{{Distinguish|Indian Relocation Act of 1956}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| longtitle = An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi.
| acronym =
| enacted by = 21st
| effective date =
| public law url =
| cite public law = {{USPL|21|148}}
| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|4|411}}
| acts amended =
| title amended =
| sections created =
| sections amended =
| leghisturl =
| introducedin = SIGMA MEAL SKIBIDI SLICERS
| introducedbill = {{USBill|21|S.|102}}
| introduced by =
| introduced date =
| committees =
| passedbody1 = Senate
| passeddate1 = April 24, 1830
| passedvote1 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104 28–19]
| passedbody2 = House
| passeddate2 = May 26, 1830
| passedvote2 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 101–97]
| conference date =
| passedbody3 =
| passeddate3 =
| passedvote3 =
| passedbody4 =
| passeddate4 =
| passedvote4 =
| signedpresident = [[Andrew Jackson]]
| signeddate = May 28, 1830
| amendments =
| short title =
}}
{{Andrew Jackson series}}
The '''Indian Removal Act of 1830''' was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President [[Andrew Jackson]]. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the [[Mississippi River|river Mississippi]]".{{efn|The [[U.S. Senate]] passed the bill on April 24, 1830 (28–19), and the [[U.S. House]] passed it on May 26, 1830 (102–97).<ref>Prucha, Francis Paul, ''The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians'', Volume I, Lincoln: the University of Nebraska Press, 1984, p. 206.</ref>}}<ref>The [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 ''Congressional Record'']; May 26, 1830; House vote No. 149; Government Tracker online; retrieved October 2015</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=004/llsl004.db&recNum=458 |title=Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents of Americas History |publisher=Library of Congress| access-date=March 3, 2024}}</ref> During the presidency of Jackson (1829–1837) and his successor [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837–1841) more than 60,000 Native Americans<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Jackson was called 'Indian Killer' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/11/28/andrew-jackson-was-called-indian-killer-trump-honored-navajos-in-front-of-his-portrait/ |website=Washington Post, November 23, 2017 |access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref> from at least 18 tribes<ref name="Oxford Reference">{{cite book |title=Native American Removal |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199743360.001.0001/acref-9780199743360-e-0308?rskey=gnzeYs&result=30 |website=Oxford Reference | year=2012 |publisher=The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Social History | isbn=978-0-19-974336-0 |access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref> were forced to move west of the Mississippi River where they were allocated new lands. The southern tribes were resettled mostly in [[Indian Territory]] ([[Oklahoma]]). The northern tribes were resettled initially in [[Kansas]]. With a few exceptions, the United States east of the Mississippi and south of the [[Great Lakes]] was emptied of its Native American population. The movement westward of [[Tribe|indigenous tribes]] was characterized by a large number of deaths occasioned by the hardships of the journey.<ref name="Lewey2004">{{cite journal | author = Lewey, Guenter | author-link = Guenter Lewy | date = September 1, 2004 | title = Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide? | journal = Commentary | url = https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/ | access-date = March 8, 2017 | archive-date = August 15, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170815233620/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/ | url-status = dead }} Also available in reprint from the [http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7302 History News Network].</ref>
The [[United States Congress|U.S. SIGMAS OF OHIO ]] approved the Act by a narrow majority in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The Indian Removal Act was supported by President Jackson, southern and white settlers, and several state governments, especially that of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. Indigenous tribes and the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] opposed the bill, as did other groups within [[white American]] society (e.g., some [[Christian missionaries]] and clergy). Legal efforts to allow Indian tribes to remain on their land in the eastern U.S. failed. Most famously, the [[Cherokee]] (excluding the [[John Ridge#Political life|Treaty Party]]) challenged their relocation, but were unsuccessful in the courts; they were forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the [[Trail of Tears]]. Since the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state-sanctioned [[ethnic cleansing]] or [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples|genocide]] or [[settler colonialism]] or some view it as all three.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hixson |first=Walter L. |date=2016 |title=Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=439–443 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw092 |jstor=26782722 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gary Clayton |date=2016 |title=The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=407–433 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw126 |jstor=26782720 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perdue |first=Theda |date=2012 |title=The Legacy of Indian Removal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455 |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |jstor=23247455 |issn=0022-4642}}</ref>
==Background==
[[File: AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg|thumb|left|upright|President [[Andrew Jackson]] called for an American Indian Removal Act in his first (1829) State of the Union address.]]
===History of European cultural assimilation in the New World ===
Many [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] saw [[Indigenous peoples|Native Americans]] as savage people. However, euro-native relations varied, particularly between the [[French colonial empire|French]] and [[British Empire|British]] colonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esarey |first=Logan |title=The Indiana Home |pages=8}}</ref> [[New France]], which was established in the [[Great Lakes region]], generally pursued a cooperative relationship with the Native tribes, with the existence of certain traditions such as [[marriage à la façon du pays]], a marriage between tradesmen (''[[coureur des bois]]'') and Native women. This tradition was seen as a fundamental social and political institution that helped maintain relations and bond the two cultures. Many of the missionaries were also known to teach the tribes how to use iron tools, build European-style homes, and improve farming techniques; teachings the [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]], who maintained a century long friendship with [[French Canadians]], would spread on to other tribes as they relocated to the [[Maumee River|Maumee Valley]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esarey |first=Logan |title=The Indiana Home |pages=6}}</ref> Throughout the 17th and 18th century during the [[Beaver Wars|Beaver]] and [[French and Indian War]]s, the greatest number of and most powerful tribes tended to side with the French, though other tribes such as the [[Iroquois]] supported the English for various strategic reasons. For strategic economic and military purposes, the French also had a practice of building forts and trading posts within Native villages, such as that of [[Fort Miami (Indiana)|Fort Miami]] in [[Indiana]] within the [[Miami people|Miami]] village of [[Kekionga]]. However, the belief in European cultural and racial superiority was generally widespread among high ranking colonial officials and clergymen in this period.
During [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonial times]], many colonialists and particularly the [[English colonist|English]] felt their civilization to be superior: they were [[Christianity|Christians]], and they believed their notions of private property to be a superior system of land tenure. Colonial and frontier encroachers inflicted a practice of cultural assimilation, meaning that tribes such as the Cherokee were forced to adopt aspects of white civilization. This [[acculturation]] was originally proposed by [[George Washington]] and was well underway among the [[Cherokee]] and the [[Choctaw]] by the beginning of the 19th century.<ref name="perdue">{{cite book | last= Thor| first = The Mighty| title= Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South| year = 2003| publisher = The University of Georgia Press| chapter = Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"| page = 51| isbn = 978-0-8203-2731-0}}</ref> Native peoples were encouraged to adopt European customs. First, they were forced to convert to Christianity and abandon traditional religious practices. They were also required to learn to speak and read [[English language|English]], although there was interest in creating a writing and printing system for a few [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native languages]], especially [[Cherokee syllabary|Cherokee]], exemplified by [[Sequoyah|Sequoyah's]] [[Cherokee syllabary]]. The Native Americans also had to adopt settler values, such as [[Monogamy|monogamous marriage]] and abandon non-marital sex. Finally, they had to accept the concept of individual ownership of land and other property (including, in some instances, African people as slaves). Many Cherokee people adopted all, or some, of these practices, including [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)|Cherokee chief John Ross]], [[John Ridge]], and [[Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)|Elias Boudinot]], as represented by the newspaper he edited, The [[Cherokee Phoenix]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Perdue |first=Theda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/74987776 |title=The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears |date=2007 |others=Michael D. Green |isbn=978-0-670-03150-4 |location=New York |oclc=74987776}}</ref>
===The perceived failure of the policy===
Despite the adoption of white cultural values by many natives and tribes, the United States government began a systematic effort to remove Native peoples from the Southeast.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html| title = Indian Removal| date = 1999| website = PBS Africans in America: Judgment Day| publisher = WGBH Educational Foundation}}</ref> The [[Chickasaw Nation|Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw Nation|Choctaw]], [[Muscogee (Creek) Nation|Muscogee-Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee Nation (19th century)|original Cherokee]] nations{{efn|These distinct ethnic and political groups were referred to in the United States as the "[[Five Civilized Tribes]]".}} had been established as [[autonomous#Politics|autonomous]] [[nation]]s in the southeastern United States.
Andrew Jackson sought to renew a policy of political and military action for the removal of Natives from these lands and worked toward enacting a law for "Indian removal".<ref name="letterharrison1803">{{cite web | url=http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm| title=President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory| last=Jefferson| first=Thomas| year=1803| access-date=2012-07-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=Jackson| first=Andrew| title=President Andrew Jackson's Case for the Removal Act| url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm| publisher=Mount Holyoke College| access-date=May 28, 2013| archive-date=June 1, 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601183515/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dunbar-Ortiz |first=Roxanne |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534 |title=An indigenous peoples' history of the United States |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3 |location=Boston |oclc=868199534}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilio-Whitaker |first=Dina |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1044542033 |title=As long as grass grows : the indigenous fight for environmental justice, from colonization to Standing Rock |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-8070-7378-0 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |oclc=1044542033}}</ref> In his 1829 [[State of the Union|State of the Union address]], Jackson called for [[Indian removal]].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Andrew Jackson calls for Indian removal – North Carolina Digital History| url = http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350| website = www.learnnc.org| access-date = 2015-04-07| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150412211745/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350| archive-date = 2015-04-12| url-status = dead}}</ref>
The Indian Removal Act was put in place to annex Native land and then transfer that ownership to Southern states, especially [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The Act was passed in 1830, although dialogue had been ongoing since 1802 between [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] concerning the possibility of such an act. Ethan Davis states that "the federal government had promised Georgia that it would extinguish Indian title within the state's borders by purchase 'as soon as the such purchase could be made upon reasonable terms'".<ref>{{cite journal | title=An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal | last= Davis | first= Ethan | journal= The American Journal of Legal History|volume=50|issue=1 | pages= 50–55}}</ref> As time passed, Southern states began to speed up the expulsions by claiming that the deal between Georgia and the federal government was invalid and that Southern states could pass laws extinguishing Indian title themselves. In response, the federal government passed the Indian Removal Act on May 28, 1830, in which President Jackson agreed to divide the United States territory west of the [[Mississippi River]] into districts for tribes to replace the land from which they were removed.
In the 1823 case of ''[[Johnson v. McIntosh]]'', the [[United States Supreme Court]] handed down a decision stating that Indians could occupy and control lands within the United States but could not hold title to those lands.<ref name="pbsremoval">{{cite web | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html| title=Indial Removal 1814–1858| publisher=Public Broadcasting System| access-date=2009-08-11}}</ref> Jackson viewed the union as a [[Federalism|federation of highly esteemed states]], as was common before the [[American Civil War]]. He opposed Washington's policy of establishing treaties with Indian tribes as if they were sovereign foreign nations. Thus, the creation of Indian jurisdictions was a violation of state sovereignty under [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#New states|Article IV, Section 3]] of the Constitution. As Jackson saw it, either Indians comprised sovereign states (which violated the Constitution) or were subject to the laws of existing states of the Union. Jackson urged Indians to assimilate and obey state laws. Further, he believed he could only accommodate the desire for Native self-rule in federal territories, which required resettlement on Federal lands west of the Mississippi River.{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=488}}<ref>{{cite book | author-link=Woodrow Wilson | last=Wilson| first=Woodrow| title=Division and Reunion 1829–1889|year=1898| publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.| pages=[https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog/page/n57 35]–38| url=https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog| quote=Indian question. }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=August 2022}}
==Support and opposition==
[[File: Register of Debates, Senate, 21st Congress, 1st Session - "The Indians".gif|thumb|upright|Congressional debates concerning the Indian Removal Act, April 1830]]
The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South, especially in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], which was the largest state in 1802 and was involved in a jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokee. President Jackson hoped that removal would resolve the Georgia crisis.<ref name=" history channel">{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act |title=Indian Removal Act |publisher=A&E Television Networks |year=2011 |access-date=February 20, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308081936/http://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act |archive-date=March 8, 2010 }}</ref> Besides the Five Civilized Tribes, additional people affected included the [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]], the [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]], the [[Potowatomi]], the [[Shawnee]], and the [[Lenape]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline of Removal |url=https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval.php |website=Oklahoma Historical Society |access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref>
The Indian Removal Act was controversial. Many Americans during this time favored its passage, but there was also significant opposition. Many Christian [[missionary|missionaries]] protested against it, most notably missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]]. In Congress, [[New Jersey]] Senator [[Theodore Frelinghuysen]], Kentucky Senator [[Henry Clay]], and [[Tennessee]] Congressman [[Davy Crockett]] spoke out against the legislation. The Removal Act passed only after a bitter debate in Congress.<ref>[[Daniel Walker Howe|Howe]], Daniel Walker. ''[[What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848]].'' (2007) {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}} p. 348–52.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Farris|first=Scott|url=http://archive.org/details/almostpresidentm0000farr|title=Almost president: the men who lost the race but changed the nation|date=2012|publisher=Lyons Press|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-7627-6378-8|location=Guilford, CN|pages=32}}</ref> Clay extensively campaigned against it on the [[National Republican Party]] ticket in the [[1832 United States presidential election]].<ref name=":0" />
Jackson viewed the demise of Native nations as inevitable, pointing to the steady expansion of European-based lifestyles and the decimation of Native nations in the U.S.'s northeast region. He called his Northern critics hypocrites, given the [[Northern United States|North]]'s history regarding Natives nations within their claimed territory. Jackson stated that "progress requires moving forward."{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=489-498}}
<blockquote>Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and [[philanthropy]] has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress never has for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth... But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another... In the monuments and fortresses of an unknown people, spread over the extensive regions of the West, we behold the memorials of a once powerful race, which was exterminated or has disappeared to make room for the existing savage tribes… Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=490}}<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.columbia.edu/~lmg21/BC3180/removal.html| title=Statements from the Debate on Indian Removal| publisher=Columbia University| access-date=March 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Native American Voices: A History and Anthology|editor-first=Steven|editor-last=Mintz|volume=2|publisher=Brandywine Press|year=1995|pages=115–16}}</ref></blockquote>
According to historian [[H. W. Brands]], Jackson sincerely believed that his [[population transfer]] was a "wise and humane policy" that would save the Native Americans from "utter annihilation". Jackson portrayed the removal as a paternalistic act of mercy.{{sfn|Brands|2006|p=489-493}}
According to Robert M. Keeton, proponents of the bill used biblical narratives to justify the forced resettlement of Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Keeton|first=Robert M.|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.18574/9781479895731-007/html|title=5. "The Race of Pale Men Should Increase and Multiply"|date=2015-07-10|pages=125–149 |publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-1-4798-9573-1|language=en|doi=10.18574/nyu/9781479876778.003.0006}}</ref>
==Vote==
On April 24, 1830, the Senate passed the Indian Removal Act by a vote of 28 to 19.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104 |title=To Order Engrossment and Third Reading of S. 102. |publisher=[[GovTrack]] |date=2013-07-07| access-date=2013-10-21}}</ref> On May 26, 1830, the House of Representatives passed the Act by a vote of 101 to 97.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149 |title=To Pass S. 102. (P. 729) |publisher=GovTrack |date=2013-07-07 | quote= The bill passed 101–97, with 11 not voting| access-date=2013-10-21}}</ref> On May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson.
==Implementation==
{{Main|Indian removal}}
The Removal Act paved the way for the forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their land into the [[Western United States|West]] in an event widely known as the "[[Trail of Tears]]," a forced [[Population transfer|resettlement]] of the Indian population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenwood|first=Robert E.|title=Outsourcing Culture: How American Culture has Changed From "We the People" Into a One World Government|publisher=Outskirts Press|year=2007|pages=97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Rajani Kannepalli Kanth|title=The Challenge of Eurocentrism|url=https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant|url-access=limited|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2009|last=Molhotra|first=Rajiv|chapter=American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the American Frontiers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant/page/n216 180], 184, 189, 199|isbn=9780230612273}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Finkelman|first1=Paul|last2=Kennon|first2=Donald R.|title=Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2008|pages=15, 141, 254}}</ref> This forced resettlement has been characterized as a genocide.<ref>{{cite book|last=BKiernan|first=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007|pages=328, 330}}</ref> The first removal treaty signed was the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] on September 27, 1830, in which [[Choctaw]]s in [[Mississippi]] ceded land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the West. The [[Treaty of New Echota]] was signed in 1835 and resulted in the removal of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.
The Seminoles and other tribes did not leave peacefully, as they resisted the removal along with [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|fugitive slaves]]. The [[Second Seminole War]] lasted from 1835 to 1842 and resulted in the government allowing them to remain in south Florida swampland. Only a small number remained, and around 3,000 were removed in the war.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eric|last=Foner|author-link=Eric Foner|date=2006|title=Give me liberty|url=https://archive.org/details/givemelibertyame00fone|url-access=registration|publisher=Norton|isbn=9780393927825}}</ref>
==Historical legacy==
In the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state sanctioned [[ethnic cleansing]] or [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples|genocide]] or [[settler colonialism]] or as all three Forms of these.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hixson |first=Walter L. |date=2016 |title=Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=439–443 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw092 |jstor=26782722 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gary Clayton |date=2016 |title=The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720 |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=407–433 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw126 |jstor=26782720 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perdue |first=Theda |date=2012 |title=The Legacy of Indian Removal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455 |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |jstor=23247455 |issn=0022-4642}}</ref> Historian [[Richard White (historian)|Richard White]] wrote that because of "claimed parallels between ethnic cleansing and Indian removal, any examination of Indian removal will inevitably involve discussions of ethnic cleansing."<ref name="White 2002">{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |date=2002 |title=How Andrew Jackson Saved the Cherokees |url=http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf |journal=Green Bag |pages=443–444 |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref> Other scholarship has focused on the historical comparisons between the United States concept of [[manifest destiny]] and [[Nazi Germany]]'s concept of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' and how American removal policy served as a model for [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial policy]] during [[Generalplan Ost|''Generalplan Ost'']].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Robert J. |title=Nazi Germany's Race Laws, the United States, and American Indians |journal=St. John's Law Review |date=2020 |volume=94 |url=https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7173&context=lawreview |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref>
==See also==
* ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]''
* [[Potawatomi Trail of Death]]
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Cited works===
*{{cite book | title=Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times| author-link=H.W. Brands| last=Brands| first=H.W.| publisher=Anchor| year=2006| isbn=978-1-4000-3072-9}}
==External links==
*[https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Indian.html Indian Removal Act and related resources], at the [[Library of Congress]]''
*[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=25&page=transcript ''1830 State of the Union on Indian Removal'']; Text at 100 Milestone Documents
{{wikisource}}
{{Indian Removal}}
{{Native American rights}}
{{Aboriginal title in the United States}}
{{Cherokee}}
{{Andrew Jackson}}
{{Portal bar|United States|Modern history|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Genocide}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1830 in American law]]
[[Category:1830 in the United States]]
[[Category:19th-century colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:American frontier]]
[[Category:Aboriginal title in the United States]]
[[Category:Presidency of Andrew Jackson]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in the United States]]
[[Category:Genocides in North America]]
[[Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples]]
[[Category:Forced migrations of Native Americans in the United States]]
[[Category:Indian Territory]]
[[Category:Legal history of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Native American history of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:United States federal Native American legislation]]
[[Category:Trail of Tears]]
[[Category:Native American history of Florida]]
[[Category:Muscogee]]
[[Category:Seminole]]
[[Category:Legal history of Florida]]
[[Category:Race legislation in the United States]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Law authorizing the removal of Native Americans from US states</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act of 1956</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em">Indian Removal Act</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Great Seal of the United States" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/140px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/210px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/280px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Long title</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Enacted by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">the <a href="/info/en/?search=21st_United_States_Congress" title="21st United States Congress">21st United States Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Citations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Public law</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Public_Law_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Law (United States)"><abbr title="Public Law (United States)">Pub. L.</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Public Law (United States)</span> <a class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/21/148">21–148</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em"><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large"><span class="wrap">Statutes at Large</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">4 <a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-4-411">411</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Legislative history</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><div><ul style="line-height:1.3em;text-align:left"><li><b>Introduced</b> in the SIGMA MEAL SKIBIDI SLICERS as S. 102</li><li><b>Passed the Senate</b> on April 24, 1830 (<a class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104">28–19</a>)</li><li><b>Passed the House</b> on May 26, 1830 (<a class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149">101–97</a>)</li><li><b>Signed into law</b> by President <a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> on May 28, 1830</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Andrew_Jackson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/75px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/113px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/150px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="739" /></a></span></td>
<td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson"><span style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Andrew Jackson</span></a></span></span></td>
</tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Early_life_and_education" title="Andrew Jackson">Early life</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Revolutionary_War_service" title="Andrew Jackson">Revolutionary War service</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Early_career" title="Andrew Jackson">Early career</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Personal_life" title="Andrew Jackson">Personal life</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Military career</div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seminole_Wars#First_Seminole_War" title="Seminole Wars">First Seminole War</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 election</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">Corrupt bargain</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">7th President of the United States</div>
<div><a href="/info/en/?search=Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency</a></div>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">First term</div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson_1828_presidential_campaign" title="Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign">1828 campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="First inauguration of Andrew Jackson">1st inauguration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Petticoat_affair" title="Petticoat affair">Petticoat affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maysville_Road_veto" title="Maysville Road veto">Maysville veto</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Removal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Foreign_affairs" title="Andrew Jackson">Foreign affairs</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Second term</div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 election</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson">2nd inauguration</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censure_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Censure of Andrew Jackson">Senate censure</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Payment_of_US_national_debt" title="Andrew Jackson">Payment of national debt</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Attack_and_assassination_attempt" title="Andrew Jackson">Assassination attempts</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Reaction_to_anti-slavery_tracts" title="Andrew Jackson">Reaction to anti-slavery tracts</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#U.S._exploring_expedition" title="Andrew Jackson">Exploring expedition</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">Judicial appointments</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-presidency</div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Later_life_and_death_(1837–1845)" title="Andrew Jackson">Later life and death</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Legacy</div>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson#Legacy" title="Andrew Jackson">Legacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_memorials_to_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of memorials to Andrew Jackson">Memorials</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bibliography_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Bibliography of Andrew Jackson">Bibliography</a></li></ul>
<hr />
<p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson's signature"><img alt="Andrew Jackson's signature" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg/150px-Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg/225px-Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg/300px-Andrew_Jackson_Signature-.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="87" /></a></span><br />
</p>
<span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td>
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<p>The <b>Indian Removal Act of 1830</b> was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President <a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">river Mississippi</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup> During the presidency of Jackson (1829–1837) and his successor <a href="/info/en/?search=Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (1837–1841) more than 60,000 Native Americans<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></sup> from at least 18 tribes<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Reference_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Reference-6">[5]</a></sup> were forced to move west of the Mississippi River where they were allocated new lands. The southern tribes were resettled mostly in <a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (<a href="/info/en/?search=Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>). The northern tribes were resettled initially in <a href="/info/en/?search=Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>. With a few exceptions, the United States east of the Mississippi and south of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> was emptied of its Native American population. The movement westward of <a href="/info/en/?search=Tribe" title="Tribe">indigenous tribes</a> was characterized by a large number of deaths occasioned by the hardships of the journey.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewey2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewey2004-7">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. SIGMAS OF OHIO </a> approved the Act by a narrow majority in the <a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. The Indian Removal Act was supported by President Jackson, southern and white settlers, and several state governments, especially that of <a href="/info/en/?search=Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>. Indigenous tribes and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> opposed the bill, as did other groups within <a href="/info/en/?search=White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">white American</a> society (e.g., some <a href="/info/en/?search=Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a> and clergy). Legal efforts to allow Indian tribes to remain on their land in the eastern U.S. failed. Most famously, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> (excluding the <a href="/info/en/?search=John_Ridge#Political_life" title="John Ridge">Treaty Party</a>) challenged their relocation, but were unsuccessful in the courts; they were forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>. Since the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state-sanctioned <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples">genocide</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a> or some view it as all three.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#History_of_European_cultural_assimilation_in_the_New_World"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">History of European cultural assimilation in the New World</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#The_perceived_failure_of_the_policy"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">The perceived failure of the policy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Support_and_opposition"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Support and opposition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Vote"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Vote</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Implementation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Implementation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Historical_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Historical legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Cited_works"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cited works</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg/170px-AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg/255px-AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg/340px-AndrewJacksonCongress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> called for an American Indian Removal Act in his first (1829) State of the Union address.</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_European_cultural_assimilation_in_the_New_World">History of European cultural assimilation in the New World</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of European cultural assimilation in the New World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Many <a href="/info/en/?search=European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonists</a> saw <a href="/info/en/?search=Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Native Americans</a> as savage people. However, euro-native relations varied, particularly between the <a href="/info/en/?search=French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, which was established in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes region</a>, generally pursued a cooperative relationship with the Native tribes, with the existence of certain traditions such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Marriage_%C3%A0_la_fa%C3%A7on_du_pays" title="Marriage à la façon du pays">marriage à la façon du pays</a>, a marriage between tradesmen (<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Coureur_des_bois" title="Coureur des bois">coureur des bois</a></i>) and Native women. This tradition was seen as a fundamental social and political institution that helped maintain relations and bond the two cultures. Many of the missionaries were also known to teach the tribes how to use iron tools, build European-style homes, and improve farming techniques; teachings the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a>, who maintained a century long friendship with <a href="/info/en/?search=French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French Canadians</a>, would spread on to other tribes as they relocated to the <a href="/info/en/?search=Maumee_River" title="Maumee River">Maumee Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup> Throughout the 17th and 18th century during the <a href="/info/en/?search=Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian Wars</a>, the greatest number of and most powerful tribes tended to side with the French, though other tribes such as the <a href="/info/en/?search=Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> supported the English for various strategic reasons. For strategic economic and military purposes, the French also had a practice of building forts and trading posts within Native villages, such as that of <a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Miami_(Indiana)" title="Fort Miami (Indiana)">Fort Miami</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> within the <a href="/info/en/?search=Miami_people" title="Miami people">Miami</a> village of <a href="/info/en/?search=Kekionga" title="Kekionga">Kekionga</a>. However, the belief in European cultural and racial superiority was generally widespread among high ranking colonial officials and clergymen in this period.
</p><p>During <a href="/info/en/?search=Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonial times</a>, many colonialists and particularly the <a href="/info/en/?search=English_colonist" class="mw-redirect" title="English colonist">English</a> felt their civilization to be superior: they were <a href="/info/en/?search=Christianity" title="Christianity">Christians</a>, and they believed their notions of private property to be a superior system of land tenure. Colonial and frontier encroachers inflicted a practice of cultural assimilation, meaning that tribes such as the Cherokee were forced to adopt aspects of white civilization. This <a href="/info/en/?search=Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a> was originally proposed by <a href="/info/en/?search=George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and was well underway among the <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> by the beginning of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-perdue_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-perdue-13">[12]</a></sup> Native peoples were encouraged to adopt European customs. First, they were forced to convert to Christianity and abandon traditional religious practices. They were also required to learn to speak and read <a href="/info/en/?search=English_language" title="English language">English</a>, although there was interest in creating a writing and printing system for a few <a href="/info/en/?search=Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native languages</a>, especially <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a>, exemplified by <a href="/info/en/?search=Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoyah's</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee syllabary</a>. The Native Americans also had to adopt settler values, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamous marriage</a> and abandon non-marital sex. Finally, they had to accept the concept of individual ownership of land and other property (including, in some instances, African people as slaves). Many Cherokee people adopted all, or some, of these practices, including <a href="/info/en/?search=John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">Cherokee chief John Ross</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=John_Ridge" title="John Ridge">John Ridge</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a>, as represented by the newspaper he edited, The <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Phoenix" title="Cherokee Phoenix">Cherokee Phoenix</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_perceived_failure_of_the_policy">The perceived failure of the policy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The perceived failure of the policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Despite the adoption of white cultural values by many natives and tribes, the United States government began a systematic effort to remove Native peoples from the Southeast.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Chickasaw_Nation" title="Chickasaw Nation">Chickasaw</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Choctaw_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw Nation">Choctaw</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee-Creek</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee Nation (19th century)">original Cherokee</a> nations<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[b]</a></sup> had been established as <a href="/info/en/?search=Autonomous#Politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Nation" title="Nation">nations</a> in the southeastern United States.
</p><p>Andrew Jackson sought to renew a policy of political and military action for the removal of Natives from these lands and worked toward enacting a law for "Indian removal".<sup id="cite_ref-letterharrison1803_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letterharrison1803-17">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a></sup> In his 1829 <a href="/info/en/?search=State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union address</a>, Jackson called for <a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Indian Removal Act was put in place to annex Native land and then transfer that ownership to Southern states, especially <a href="/info/en/?search=Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>. The Act was passed in 1830, although dialogue had been ongoing since 1802 between <a href="/info/en/?search=Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> concerning the possibility of such an act. Ethan Davis states that "the federal government had promised Georgia that it would extinguish Indian title within the state's borders by purchase 'as soon as the such purchase could be made upon reasonable terms'".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></sup> As time passed, Southern states began to speed up the expulsions by claiming that the deal between Georgia and the federal government was invalid and that Southern states could pass laws extinguishing Indian title themselves. In response, the federal government passed the Indian Removal Act on May 28, 1830, in which President Jackson agreed to divide the United States territory west of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> into districts for tribes to replace the land from which they were removed.
</p><p>In the 1823 case of <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> handed down a decision stating that Indians could occupy and control lands within the United States but could not hold title to those lands.<sup id="cite_ref-pbsremoval_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbsremoval-23">[21]</a></sup> Jackson viewed the union as a <a href="/info/en/?search=Federalism" title="Federalism">federation of highly esteemed states</a>, as was common before the <a href="/info/en/?search=American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. He opposed Washington's policy of establishing treaties with Indian tribes as if they were sovereign foreign nations. Thus, the creation of Indian jurisdictions was a violation of state sovereignty under <a href="/info/en/?search=Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#New_states" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article IV, Section 3</a> of the Constitution. As Jackson saw it, either Indians comprised sovereign states (which violated the Constitution) or were subject to the laws of existing states of the Union. Jackson urged Indians to assimilate and obey state laws. Further, he believed he could only accommodate the desire for Native self-rule in federal territories, which required resettlement on Federal lands west of the Mississippi River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006488_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006488-24">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Support_and_opposition">Support and opposition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Support and opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Register_of_Debates,_Senate,_21st_Congress,_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif/170px-Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif/255px-Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif/340px-Register_of_Debates%2C_Senate%2C_21st_Congress%2C_1st_Session_-_%22The_Indians%22.gif 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption>Congressional debates concerning the Indian Removal Act, April 1830</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South, especially in <a href="/info/en/?search=Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, which was the largest state in 1802 and was involved in a jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokee. President Jackson hoped that removal would resolve the Georgia crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-history_channel_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history_channel-26">[24]</a></sup> Besides the Five Civilized Tribes, additional people affected included the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Kickapoo_people" title="Kickapoo people">Kickapoo</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Potowatomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Potowatomi">Potowatomi</a>, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>, and the <a href="/info/en/?search=Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenape</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Indian Removal Act was controversial. Many Americans during this time favored its passage, but there was also significant opposition. Many Christian <a href="/info/en/?search=Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> protested against it, most notably missionary organizer <a href="/info/en/?search=Jeremiah_Evarts" title="Jeremiah Evarts">Jeremiah Evarts</a>. In Congress, <a href="/info/en/?search=New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> Senator <a href="/info/en/?search=Theodore_Frelinghuysen" title="Theodore Frelinghuysen">Theodore Frelinghuysen</a>, Kentucky Senator <a href="/info/en/?search=Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>, and <a href="/info/en/?search=Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> Congressman <a href="/info/en/?search=Davy_Crockett" title="Davy Crockett">Davy Crockett</a> spoke out against the legislation. The Removal Act passed only after a bitter debate in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[27]</a></sup> Clay extensively campaigned against it on the <a href="/info/en/?search=National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a> ticket in the <a href="/info/en/?search=1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 United States presidential election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Jackson viewed the demise of Native nations as inevitable, pointing to the steady expansion of European-based lifestyles and the decimation of Native nations in the U.S.'s northeast region. He called his Northern critics hypocrites, given the <a href="/info/en/?search=Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a>'s history regarding Natives nations within their claimed territory. Jackson stated that "progress requires moving forward."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-498_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-498-30">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and <a href="/info/en/?search=Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a> has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress never has for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth... But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another... In the monuments and fortresses of an unknown people, spread over the extensive regions of the West, we behold the memorials of a once powerful race, which was exterminated or has disappeared to make room for the existing savage tribes… Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006490_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006490-31">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>According to historian <a href="/info/en/?search=H._W._Brands" title="H. W. Brands">H. W. Brands</a>, Jackson sincerely believed that his <a href="/info/en/?search=Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a> was a "wise and humane policy" that would save the Native Americans from "utter annihilation". Jackson portrayed the removal as a paternalistic act of mercy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-493_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-493-34">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Robert M. Keeton, proponents of the bill used biblical narratives to justify the forced resettlement of Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Vote">Vote</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vote"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>On April 24, 1830, the Senate passed the Indian Removal Act by a vote of 28 to 19.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a></sup> On May 26, 1830, the House of Representatives passed the Act by a vote of 101 to 97.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup> On May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Implementation">Implementation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></div>
<p>The Removal Act paved the way for the forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their land into the <a href="/info/en/?search=Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a> in an event widely known as the "<a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>," a forced <a href="/info/en/?search=Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">resettlement</a> of the Indian population.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a></sup> This forced resettlement has been characterized as a genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a></sup> The first removal treaty signed was the <a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> on September 27, 1830, in which <a href="/info/en/?search=Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaws</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> ceded land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the West. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a> was signed in 1835 and resulted in the removal of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.
</p><p>The Seminoles and other tribes did not leave peacefully, as they resisted the removal along with <a href="/info/en/?search=Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">fugitive slaves</a>. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a> lasted from 1835 to 1842 and resulted in the government allowing them to remain in south Florida swampland. Only a small number remained, and around 3,000 were removed in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_legacy">Historical legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Historical legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>In the 21st century, scholars have cited the act and subsequent removals as an early example of state sanctioned <a href="/info/en/?search=Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples">genocide</a> or <a href="/info/en/?search=Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a> or as all three Forms of these.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/info/en/?search=Richard_White_(historian)" title="Richard White (historian)">Richard White</a> wrote that because of "claimed parallels between ethnic cleansing and Indian removal, any examination of Indian removal will inevitably involve discussions of ethnic cleansing."<sup id="cite_ref-White_2002_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_2002-46">[44]</a></sup> Other scholarship has focused on the historical comparisons between the United States concept of <a href="/info/en/?search=Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s concept of <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></i> and how American removal policy served as a model for <a href="/info/en/?search=Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">racial policy</a> during <a href="/info/en/?search=Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost"><i>Generalplan Ost</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/info/en/?search=U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a> passed the bill on April 24, 1830 (28–19), and the <a href="/info/en/?search=U.S._House" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House">U.S. House</a> passed it on May 26, 1830 (102–97).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These distinct ethnic and political groups were referred to in the United States as the "<a href="/info/en/?search=Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>".</span>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prucha, Francis Paul, <i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i>, Volume I, Lincoln: the University of Nebraska Press, 1984, p. 206.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149"><i>Congressional Record</i></a>; May 26, 1830; House vote No. 149; Government Tracker online; retrieved October 2015</span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=004/llsl004.db&recNum=458">"Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents of Americas History"</a>. Library of Congress<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+Removal+Act%3A+Primary+Documents+of+Americas+History&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmemory.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fampage%3FcollId%3Dllsl%26fileName%3D004%2Fllsl004.db%26recNum%3D458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/11/28/andrew-jackson-was-called-indian-killer-trump-honored-navajos-in-front-of-his-portrait/">"Andrew Jackson was called 'Indian Killer'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Washington Post, November 23, 2017</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post%2C+November+23%2C+2017&rft.atitle=Andrew+Jackson+was+called+%27Indian+Killer%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fretropolis%2Fwp%2F2017%2F11%2F28%2Fandrew-jackson-was-called-indian-killer-trump-honored-navajos-in-front-of-his-portrait%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Oxford_Reference-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Reference_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199743360.001.0001/acref-9780199743360-e-0308?rskey=gnzeYs&result=30"><i>Native American Removal</i></a>. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Social History. 2012. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974336-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974336-0"><bdi>978-0-19-974336-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+American+Removal&rft.pub=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+American+Social+History&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974336-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199743360.001.0001%2Facref-9780199743360-e-0308%3Frskey%3DgnzeYs%26result%3D30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/info/en/?search=Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lewey2004-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewey2004_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLewey,_Guenter2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Guenter_Lewy" title="Guenter Lewy">Lewey, Guenter</a> (September 1, 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170815233620/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/">"Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?"</a>. <i>Commentary</i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/were-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide/">the original</a> on August 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentary&rft.atitle=Were+American+Indians+the+Victims+of+Genocide%3F&rft.date=2004-09-01&rft.au=Lewey%2C+Guenter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.commentarymagazine.com%2Farticles%2Fwere-american-indians-the-victims-of-genocide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span> Also available in reprint from the <a class="external text" href="https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7302">History News Network</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHixson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Hixson, Walter L. (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722">"Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies"</a>. <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>47</b> (4): 439–443. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw092">10.1093/whq/whw092</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-3810">0043-3810</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722">26782722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Policing+the+Past%3A+Indian+Removal+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=439-443&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0043-3810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782722%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw092&rft.aulast=Hixson&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Gary Clayton (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720">"The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing?"</a>. <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>47</b> (4): 407–433. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw126">10.1093/whq/whw126</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-3810">0043-3810</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720">26782720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Native+Peoples+of+the+American+West%3A+Genocide+or+Ethnic+Cleansing%3F&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=407-433&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0043-3810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782720%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw126&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Gary+Clayton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2012" class="citation journal cs1">Perdue, Theda (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455">"The Legacy of Indian Removal"</a>. <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 3–36. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4642">0022-4642</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455">23247455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+Indian+Removal&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-36&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23247455%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0022-4642&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23247455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEsarey" class="citation book cs1">Esarey, Logan. <i>The Indiana Home</i>. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indiana+Home&rft.pages=8&rft.aulast=Esarey&rft.aufirst=Logan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEsarey" class="citation book cs1">Esarey, Logan. <i>The Indiana Home</i>. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indiana+Home&rft.pages=6&rft.aulast=Esarey&rft.aufirst=Logan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-perdue-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-perdue_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFThor2003" class="citation book cs1">Thor, The Mighty (2003). "Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South</i>. The University of Georgia Press. p. 51. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2731-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2731-0"><bdi>978-0-8203-2731-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2+%22Both+White+and+Red%22&rft.btitle=Mixed+Blood+Indians%3A+Racial+Construction+in+the+Early+South&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=The+University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-2731-0&rft.aulast=Thor&rft.aufirst=The+Mighty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2007" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (2007). <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/74987776"><i>The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears</i></a>. Michael D. Green. New York. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03150-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03150-4"><bdi>978-0-670-03150-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/74987776">74987776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Nation+and+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F74987776&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03150-4&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F74987776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/info/en/?search=Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">"Indian Removal"</a>. <i>PBS Africans in America: Judgment Day</i>. WGBH Educational Foundation. 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS+Africans+in+America%3A+Judgment+Day&rft.atitle=Indian+Removal&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2959.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-letterharrison1803-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letterharrison1803_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1803" class="citation web cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (1803). <a class="external text" href="https://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm">"President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+Thomas+Jefferson+to+William+Henry+Harrison%2C+Governor+of+Indiana+Territory&rft.date=1803&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.missouristate.edu%2Fftmiller%2FDocuments%2Fjeffindianpolicy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJackson" class="citation web cs1">Jackson, Andrew. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130601183515/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm">"President Andrew Jackson's Case for the Removal Act"</a>. Mount Holyoke College. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/andrew.htm">the original</a> on June 1, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+Andrew+Jackson%27s+Case+for+the+Removal+Act&rft.pub=Mount+Holyoke+College&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fandrew.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar-Ortiz2014" class="citation book cs1">Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534"><i>An indigenous peoples' history of the United States</i></a>. Boston. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0040-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0040-3"><bdi>978-0-8070-0040-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/868199534">868199534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+indigenous+peoples%27+history+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F868199534&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3&rft.aulast=Dunbar-Ortiz&rft.aufirst=Roxanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F868199534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/info/en/?search=Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGilio-Whitaker2019" class="citation book cs1">Gilio-Whitaker, Dina (2019). <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1044542033"><i>As long as grass grows : the indigenous fight for environmental justice, from colonization to Standing Rock</i></a>. Boston, Massachusetts. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7378-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7378-0"><bdi>978-0-8070-7378-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1044542033">1044542033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=As+long+as+grass+grows+%3A+the+indigenous+fight+for+environmental+justice%2C+from+colonization+to+Standing+Rock&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1044542033&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-7378-0&rft.aulast=Gilio-Whitaker&rft.aufirst=Dina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1044542033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/info/en/?search=Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150412211745/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350">"Andrew Jackson calls for Indian removal – North Carolina Digital History"</a>. <i>www.learnnc.org</i>. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4350">the original</a> on 2015-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.learnnc.org&rft.atitle=Andrew+Jackson+calls+for+Indian+removal+%E2%80%93+North+Carolina+Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learnnc.org%2Flp%2Feditions%2Fnchist-newnation%2F4350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDavis" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Ethan. "An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal". <i>The American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 50–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=An+Administrative+Trail+of+Tears%3A+Indian+Removal&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-55&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Ethan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pbsremoval-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pbsremoval_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">"Indial Removal 1814–1858"</a>. Public Broadcasting System<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indial+Removal+1814%E2%80%931858&rft.pub=Public+Broadcasting+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2959.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006488-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006488_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2006">Brands 2006</a>, p. 488.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1898" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson, Woodrow</a> (1898). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog"><i>Division and Reunion 1829–1889</i></a>. Longmans, Green and Co. pp. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00corwgoog/page/n57">35</a>–38. <q>Indian question.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Division+and+Reunion+1829%E2%80%931889&rft.pages=35-38&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co.&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Woodrow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdivisionandreun00corwgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-history_channel-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-history_channel_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100308081936/http://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act">"Indian Removal Act"</a>. A&E Television Networks. 2011. Archived from <a class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/indian-removal-act">the original</a> on March 8, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+Removal+Act&rft.pub=A%26E+Television+Networks&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Findian-removal-act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.okhistory.org/research/airemoval.php">"Timeline of Removal"</a>. <i>Oklahoma Historical Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oklahoma+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Timeline+of+Removal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fresearch%2Fairemoval.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Daniel_Walker_Howe" title="Daniel Walker Howe">Howe</a>, Daniel Walker. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=What_Hath_God_Wrought:_The_Transformation_of_America,_1815%E2%80%931848" title="What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848">What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848</a>.</i> (2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507894-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507894-7">978-0-19-507894-7</a> p. 348–52.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFarris2012" class="citation book cs1">Farris, Scott (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/almostpresidentm0000farr"><i>Almost president: the men who lost the race but changed the nation</i></a>. Internet Archive. Guilford, CN: Lyons Press. p. 32. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-7627-6378-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7627-6378-8"><bdi>978-0-7627-6378-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Almost+president%3A+the+men+who+lost+the+race+but+changed+the+nation&rft.place=Guilford%2C+CN&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Lyons+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7627-6378-8&rft.aulast=Farris&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falmostpresidentm0000farr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-498-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-498_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2006">Brands 2006</a>, p. 489-498.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006490-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006490_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2006">Brands 2006</a>, p. 490.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.columbia.edu/~lmg21/BC3180/removal.html">"Statements from the Debate on Indian Removal"</a>. Columbia University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 21,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statements+from+the+Debate+on+Indian+Removal&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~lmg21%2FBC3180%2Fremoval.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMintz1995" class="citation book cs1">Mintz, Steven, ed. (1995). <i>Native American Voices: A History and Anthology</i>. Vol. 2. Brandywine Press. pp. 115–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+American+Voices%3A+A+History+and+Anthology&rft.pages=115-16&rft.pub=Brandywine+Press&rft.date=1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-493-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2006489-493_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2006">Brands 2006</a>, p. 489-493.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKeeton2015" class="citation book cs1">Keeton, Robert M. (2015-07-10). <a class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.18574/9781479895731-007/html"><i>5. "The Race of Pale Men Should Increase and Multiply"</i></a>. New York University Press. pp. 125–149. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9781479876778.003.0006">10.18574/nyu/9781479876778.003.0006</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-9573-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-9573-1"><bdi>978-1-4798-9573-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=5.+%22The+Race+of+Pale+Men+Should+Increase+and+Multiply%22&rft.pages=125-149&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2015-07-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9781479876778.003.0006&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-9573-1&rft.aulast=Keeton&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.18574%2F9781479895731-007%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/s104">"To Order Engrossment and Third Reading of S. 102"</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=GovTrack" title="GovTrack">GovTrack</a>. 2013-07-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=To+Order+Engrossment+and+Third+Reading+of+S.+102.&rft.pub=GovTrack&rft.date=2013-07-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F21-1%2Fs104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/21-1/h149">"To Pass S. 102. (P. 729)"</a>. GovTrack. 2013-07-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-21</span></span>. <q>The bill passed 101–97, with 11 not voting</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=To+Pass+S.+102.+%28P.+729%29&rft.pub=GovTrack&rft.date=2013-07-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fvotes%2F21-1%2Fh149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood2007" class="citation book cs1">Greenwood, Robert E. (2007). <i>Outsourcing Culture: How American Culture has Changed From "We the People" Into a One World Government</i>. Outskirts Press. p. 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outsourcing+Culture%3A+How+American+Culture+has+Changed+From+%22We+the+People%22+Into+a+One+World+Government&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Outskirts+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMolhotra2009" class="citation book cs1">Molhotra, Rajiv (2009). "American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the American Frontiers". In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant"><i>The Challenge of Eurocentrism</i></a></span>. Palgrave MacMillan. pp. <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/challengeeurocen00kant/page/n216">180</a>, 184, 189, 199. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780230612273" title="Special:BookSources/9780230612273"><bdi>9780230612273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Exceptionalism+and+the+Myth+of+the+American+Frontiers&rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+Eurocentrism&rft.pages=180%2C+184%2C+189%2C+199&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780230612273&rft.aulast=Molhotra&rft.aufirst=Rajiv&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchallengeeurocen00kant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelmanKennon2008" class="citation book cs1">Finkelman, Paul; Kennon, Donald R. (2008). <i>Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism</i>. Ohio University Press. pp. 15, 141, 254.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+and+the+Emergence+of+Sectionalism&rft.pages=15%2C+141%2C+254&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Kennon%2C+Donald+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBKiernan2007" class="citation book cs1">BKiernan, Ben (2007). <i>Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur</i>. Yale University Press. pp. 328, 330.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Soil%3A+A+World+History+of+Genocide+and+Extermination+from+Sparta+to+Darfur&rft.pages=328%2C+330&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=BKiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/givemelibertyame00fone"><i>Give me liberty</i></a></span>. Norton. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/9780393927825" title="Special:BookSources/9780393927825"><bdi>9780393927825</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Give+me+liberty&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780393927825&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgivemelibertyame00fone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHixson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Hixson, Walter L. (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722">"Policing the Past: Indian Removal and Genocide Studies"</a>. <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>47</b> (4): 439–443. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw092">10.1093/whq/whw092</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-3810">0043-3810</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782722">26782722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Policing+the+Past%3A+Indian+Removal+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=439-443&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0043-3810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782722%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw092&rft.aulast=Hixson&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Gary Clayton (2016). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720">"The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing?"</a>. <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>47</b> (4): 407–433. <a href="/info/en/?search=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw126">10.1093/whq/whw126</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-3810">0043-3810</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26782720">26782720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Native+Peoples+of+the+American+West%3A+Genocide+or+Ethnic+Cleansing%3F&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=407-433&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0043-3810&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782720%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwhq%2Fwhw126&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Gary+Clayton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26782720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2012" class="citation journal cs1">Perdue, Theda (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455">"The Legacy of Indian Removal"</a>. <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 3–36. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4642">0022-4642</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23247455">23247455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+Indian+Removal&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-36&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23247455%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0022-4642&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23247455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-White_2002-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White_2002_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2002" class="citation journal cs1">White, Richard (2002). <a class="external text" href="https://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf">"How Andrew Jackson Saved the Cherokees"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Green Bag</i>: 443–444<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Green+Bag&rft.atitle=How+Andrew+Jackson+Saved+the+Cherokees&rft.pages=443-444&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenbag.org%2Fv5n4%2Fv5n4_reviews_white.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2020" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Robert J. (2020). <a class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7173&context=lawreview">"Nazi Germany's Race Laws, the United States, and American Indians"</a>. <i>St. John's Law Review</i>. <b>94</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=St.+John%27s+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Nazi+Germany%27s+Race+Laws%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+American+Indians&rft.volume=94&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.stjohns.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D7173%26context%3Dlawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cited_works">Cited works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cited works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=H.W._Brands" class="mw-redirect" title="H.W. Brands">Brands, H.W.</a> (2006). <i>Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times</i>. Anchor. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3072-9"><bdi>978-1-4000-3072-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.pub=Anchor&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-3072-9&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Removal+Act" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Indian_Removal_Act&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Indian.html">Indian Removal Act and related resources</a>, at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a><i></i></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=25&page=transcript"><i>1830 State of the Union on Indian Removal</i></a>; Text at 100 Milestone Documents</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a> (1813)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims massacre</a> (1813)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a> (1814)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Negro_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Negro Fort">Battle of Negro Fort</a> (1816)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Fowltown" title="Battle of Fowltown">Battle of Fowltown</a> (1817)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Scott_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Scott Massacre">Scott Massacre</a> (1817)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Hughes_(Georgia)" title="Fort Hughes (Georgia)">Attack at Fort Hughes</a> (1817)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Ocheesee" title="Battle of Ocheesee">Battle of Ocheesee</a> (1817–1818)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies and laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Removal Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Georgia_Land_Lotteries" title="Georgia Land Lotteries">Georgia Land Lotteries</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Removals (chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removals in Indiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1833)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1838)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a> (1836–1839)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a> (1838)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sandy_Lake_Tragedy" title="Sandy Lake Tragedy">Sandy Lake Tragedy</a> (1850)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nome_Cult_Trail" title="Nome Cult Trail">Nome Cult Trail</a> (1863)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a> (1864)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Burt_Lake_burn-out" title="Burt Lake burn-out">Burt Lake burn-out</a> (1900)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">American politicians<br />and military officials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=James_Gadsden" title="James Gadsden">James Gadsden</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=George_Rockingham_Gilmer" class="mw-redirect" title="George Rockingham Gilmer">George Rockingham Gilmer</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thomas_Jefferson_and_Indian_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Jefferson and Indian removal">Thomas Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Tipton" title="John Tipton">John Tipton</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=David_Wallace_(Indiana_politician)" title="David Wallace (Indiana politician)">David Wallace</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People who helped Indians<br />or documented removals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">Robert C. Ambrister</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">George Arbuthnot</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Edward_Nicolls" title="Edward Nicolls">Edward Nicolls</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Benjamin_Petit" title="Benjamin Petit">Benjamin Marie Petit</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=George_Winter_(artist)" title="George Winter (artist)">George Winter</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Land cession treaties<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix">Fort Stanwix (1st)</a> (1768)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix_(1784)" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)">Fort Stanwix (2nd)</a> (1784)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Fort_McIntosh" title="Treaty of Fort McIntosh">Fort McIntosh</a> (1785)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="First Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (1st)</a> (1788)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">New York (1st)</a> (1790)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Greenville</a> (1795)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_New_York_(1796)" title="Treaty of New York (1796)">New York (2nd)</a> (1796)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Forbes_and_Company#The_Forbes_land_grants" title="John Forbes and Company">Forbes Purchase</a> (1804–1811)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Fort Jackson</a> (1814)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_the_Creek_Agency_(1818)" title="Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818)">Creek Agency</a> (1818)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Doak%27s_Stand" title="Treaty of Doak's Stand">Doak's Stand</a> (1820)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Indian_Springs_(1821)" title="Treaty of Indian Springs (1821)">Indian Springs</a> (1821)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (1st)</a> (1825)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (2nd)</a> (1829)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Third_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Third Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (3rd)</a> (1829)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> (1830)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (4th)</a> (1831)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta</a> (1832)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing</a> (1832)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek</a> (1832)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota</a> (1835)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (2nd)</a> (1838)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (1st)</a> (1842)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Third_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Third Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (3rd)</a> (1842)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (2nd)</a> (1854)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fourth_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Fourth Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (4th)</a> (1857)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landbases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_historical_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of historical Indian reservations in the United States">Former reservations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">in Oklahoma</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_barrier_state" title="Indian barrier state">Indian barrier state (proposed)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Reserve_(1763)" title="Indian Reserve (1763)">Indian Reserve (1763)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Unassigned_Lands" title="Unassigned Lands">Unassigned Lands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">in the Thirteen Colonies</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Land claims settlements</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Reservation checkerboarding</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Reservation diminishment</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_reservation_politics" title="Native American reservation politics">Reservation politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Nicolls%27_Outpost" title="Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost">Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template" style="background:#F0E68C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background:#F0E68C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background:#F0E68C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/info/en/?search=McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/info/en/?search=State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">Colonial era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Charter_of_Freedoms_and_Exemptions" title="Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions">Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions</a> (1629 New Netherland)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/150px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/225px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/300px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834)</li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Removal Act</a> (1830)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> (1946)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Taney_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Taney Court">Taney Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1890—1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warren Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Burger Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li>
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Wilson_v._Omaha_Indian_Tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe</a></i> (1979)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a></i> (1986)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehnquist Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Indigenous_land_rights_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Indigenous land rights in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_Louisiana" title="Aboriginal title in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Maine</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Native_American_tribes_in_Michigan" title="Category:Native American tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_New_Mexico" title="Aboriginal title in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title_in_New_York" title="Aboriginal title in New York">New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Narragansett_land_claim" title="Narragansett land claim">Rhode Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=State_v._Elliott" title="State v. Elliott">Vermont</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cherokee" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Cherokee" title="Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Cherokee" title="Template talk:Cherokee"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cherokee"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cherokee" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians">United Keetoowah Band</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_society" title="Cherokee society">Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_National_Holiday" title="Cherokee National Holiday">National holiday</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_calendar" title="Cherokee calendar">Calendar</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_clans" title="Cherokee clans">Clans</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" title="List of Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Chiefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gadugi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadugi">Gadugi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ghigau" title="Ghigau">Ghigau</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Language</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_the_Cherokee_language" title="History of the Cherokee language">history</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">syllabary</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_(Unicode_block)" title="Cherokee (Unicode block)">Cherokee (Unicode block)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Supplement" title="Cherokee Supplement">Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Immersion_School" title="Cherokee Immersion School">Cherokee Immersion School</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Kituwah_Academy" title="New Kituwah Academy">New Kituwah Academy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_marbles" title="Cherokee marbles">Marbles</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Spiritual beliefs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Black_drink" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kanuchi" title="Kanuchi">Kanuchi</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stomp_dance" title="Stomp dance">Stomp dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Booger_dance" title="Booger dance">Booger dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Flag_of_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="Flag of the Cherokee Nation">Flag of the Cherokee Nation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ani_Hyuntikwalaski" title="Ani Hyuntikwalaski">Ani Hyuntikwalaski</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Deer_Woman" title="Deer Woman">Deer Woman</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Moon-eyed_people" title="Moon-eyed people">Moon-eyed people</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nun%27Yunu%27Wi" title="Nun'Yunu'Wi">Nun'Yunu'Wi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=N%C3%BB%C3%B1n%C3%AB%27h%C3%AF" title="Nûñnë'hï">Nûñnë'hï</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Raven_Mocker" title="Raven Mocker">Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">U'tlun'ta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tsul_%27Kalu" title="Tsul 'Kalu">Tsul 'Kalu</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">History</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Timeline_of_Cherokee_history" title="Timeline of Cherokee history">timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_military_history" title="Cherokee military history">military</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Treaties</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ani-kutani" title="Ani-kutani">Ani-kutani</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Skiagusta" title="Skiagusta">skiagusta (rank)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Utsidihi" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsidihi">outacite (rank)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Raven_of_Chota" title="Raven of Chota">Raven of Chota</a></li>
<li>Wars
<ul><li>Tribal Wars
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Taliwa" title="Battle of Taliwa">Battle of Taliwa</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Siege_of_Fort_Loudoun" title="Siege of Fort Loudoun">Siege of Fort Loudoun</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Echoee" title="Battle of Echoee">Battle of Echoee</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_War_of_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee War of 1776">Cherokee War of 1776</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Hightower" title="Battle of Hightower">Battle of Hightower</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Lindley%27s_Fort" title="Battle of Lindley's Fort">Battle of Lindley's Fort</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nickajack_Expedition" title="Nickajack Expedition">Nickajack Expedition</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1st_Cherokee_Mounted_Rifles" title="1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles">1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_treaties" title="Cherokee treaties">Cherokee treaties</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Turkeytown" title="Treaty of Turkeytown">Treaty of Turkeytown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Dewitt%27s_Corner" title="Treaty of Dewitt's Corner">Treaty of Dewitt's Corner</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Hard_Labour" title="Treaty of Hard Labour">Treaty of Hard Labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Lochaber" title="Treaty of Lochaber">Treaty of Lochaber</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Hopewell" title="Treaty of Hopewell">Treaty of Hopewell</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Holston" title="Treaty of Holston">Treaty of Holston</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jackson_and_McMinn_Treaty" title="Jackson and McMinn Treaty">Jackson and McMinn Treaty</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Transylvania_Colony" title="Transylvania Colony">Transylvania Purchase</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chickamauga_Cherokee" title="Chickamauga Cherokee">Chickamauga Cherokee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Overhill_Cherokee" title="Overhill Cherokee">Overhill Cherokee</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Phoenix" title="Cherokee Phoenix">Cherokee Phoenix</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Removal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Removal Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_descent" title="Cherokee descent">Cherokee descent</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jacob_Brown_Grant_Deeds" title="Jacob Brown Grant Deeds">Jacob Brown Grant Deeds</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Texas_Cherokees" title="Texas Cherokees">Texas Cherokees</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Heritage_Center" title="Cherokee Heritage Center">Heritage Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Preservation_Foundation" title="Cherokee Preservation Foundation">Cherokee Preservation Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_Warriors_Society" title="Cherokee Nation Warriors Society">Warriors Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Original_Keetoowah_Society" title="Original Keetoowah Society">Original Keetoowah Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Nighthawk Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_National_Youth_Choir" title="Cherokee National Youth Choir">Youth Choir</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_heritage_groups" title="Cherokee heritage groups">Heritage groups</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Southwest_Township_(Albuquerque,_New_Mexico)" title="Cherokee Southwest Township (Albuquerque, New Mexico)">Cherokee Southwest Township</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oconaluftee_Indian_Village" title="Oconaluftee Indian Village">Oconaluftee Indian Village</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Unto_These_Hills" title="Unto These Hills">Unto These Hills</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li>Education
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Female_Seminary" title="Cherokee Female Seminary">Female Seminary</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Male_Seminary" title="Cherokee Male Seminary">Male Seminary</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Central_Schools" title="Cherokee Central Schools">Cherokee Central Schools</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_High_School_(North_Carolina)" title="Cherokee High School (North Carolina)">Cherokee High School</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Sequoyah Schools
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sequoyah_High_School_(Cherokee_County,_Oklahoma)" title="Sequoyah High School (Cherokee County, Oklahoma)">Sequoyah High School</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics and law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Principal_Chiefs_of_the_Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee">Principal Chiefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Blood_Law" title="Blood Law">Blood Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Native_American_slave_ownership#Cherokee" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Slavery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=1842_Slave_Revolt_in_the_Cherokee_Nation" title="1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation">1842 revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">freedmen controversy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Cherokee_Tobacco" title="The Cherokee Tobacco">The Cherokee Tobacco</a> case</i> (1871)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_of_Oklahoma_v._Leavitt" title="Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma v. Leavitt">Cherokee Nation v. Leavitt</a></i> (2005)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Outlet" title="Cherokee Outlet">Cherokee Strip</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Strip_(Kansas)" title="Cherokee Strip (Kansas)">in Kansas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sequoyah_Constitutional_Convention" title="Sequoyah Constitutional Convention">Sequoyah Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Towns and<br /> villages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Historic_Cherokee_settlements" title="Historic Cherokee settlements">Cherokee Towns (pre-Removal)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Amoyeligunahita</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Brasstown,_North_Carolina" title="Brasstown, North Carolina">Brasstown</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Chatuga_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chatuga (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Chatuga</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chilhowee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chilhowee (Cherokee town)">Chilhowee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chota_(Cherokee_town)" title="Chota (Cherokee town)">Chota</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Conasauga,_Georgia" title="Conasauga, Georgia">Conasauga</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Too-Cowee" title="Too-Cowee">Cowee</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Coyotee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coyotee (page does not exist)">Coyotee</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Crowtown,_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crowtown, Alabama (page does not exist)">Crowtown</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Dirt_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dirt town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Dirt town</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ducktown,_Tennessee" title="Ducktown, Tennessee">Ducktown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rome,_Georgia" title="Rome, Georgia">Etowah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Frogtown_Creek" title="Frogtown Creek">Frogtown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Hiwassee" title="Great Hiwassee">Hiwassee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hiwassee_Island" title="Hiwassee Island">Hiwassee Island</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Island_town_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Island town (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Island town</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Isunigu" title="Isunigu">Isunigu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joara" title="Joara">Joara</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Keowee" title="Keowee">Keowee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kituwa" title="Kituwa">Kituwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sugartown" title="Sugartown">Kulsetsiyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Swamp_Site" title="Long Swamp Site">Long Swamp</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mialoquo_(Cherokee_town)" title="Mialoquo (Cherokee town)">Mialoquo</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nacoochee_Mound" title="Nacoochee Mound">Nacoochee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nantahala,_North_Carolina" title="Nantahala, North Carolina">Nantahala</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Echota" title="New Echota">New</a><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Town,_Georgia" title="New Town, Georgia">Echota</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nickajack" title="Nickajack">Nickajack</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikwasi_(Cherokee_town)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikwasi (Cherokee town)">Nikwasi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nununyi" title="Nununyi">Nununyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ocoee,_Tennessee" title="Ocoee, Tennessee">Ocoee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oconee_County,_South_Carolina" title="Oconee County, South Carolina">Oconee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oostanaula,_Georgia" title="Oostanaula, Georgia">Oostanaula</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Red_Clay,_Georgia" title="Red Clay, Georgia">Red Clay</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Citico_(Cherokee_town)" title="Citico (Cherokee town)">Settico</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spikebuck_Town_Mound_and_Village_Site" title="Spikebuck Town Mound and Village Site">Spike Bucktown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tallassee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tallassee (Cherokee town)">Talisi</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Talulah_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talulah (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Talulah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tanasi" title="Tanasi">Tanasi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Tellico" title="Great Tellico">Tellico</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Tomassee_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomassee (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Tomassee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tomotley" title="Tomotley">Tomotley</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Toqua_(Tennessee)" title="Toqua (Tennessee)">Toqua</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Toxoway_(Cherokee_town)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toxoway (Cherokee town) (page does not exist)">Toxoway</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=St._Elmo_Historic_District_(Chattanooga,_Tennessee)" title="St. Elmo Historic District (Chattanooga, Tennessee)">Tsatanugi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tuckasegee,_North_Carolina" title="Tuckasegee, North Carolina">Tuckasegee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tugaloo" title="Tugaloo">Tugaloo</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Turkeytown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Turkeytown (Cherokee town)">Turkeytown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Turtletown,_Tennessee" title="Turtletown, Tennessee">Turtletown</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tuskegee_(Cherokee_town)" title="Tuskegee (Cherokee town)">Tuskegee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Whiteside,_Tennessee" title="Whiteside, Tennessee">Running Water</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Willstown_(Cherokee_town)" title="Willstown (Cherokee town)">Titsohili</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nations</a></li>
<li>Western Cherokee Nation
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tahlequah,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlequah, Oklahoma">Tahlequah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tahlonteeskee,_Oklahoma" title="Tahlonteeskee, Oklahoma">Tahlonteeskee</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Eastern Band
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee,_North_Carolina" title="Cherokee, North Carolina">Cherokee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Qualla_Boundary" title="Qualla Boundary">Qualla Boundary</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landmarks and<br /> memorial sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_National_Capitol" title="Cherokee National Capitol">Cherokee National Capitol</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Removal_Memorial_Park" title="Cherokee Removal Memorial Park">Cherokee Removal Memorial Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chieftains_Museum" title="Chieftains Museum">Chieftains Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Cherokee_Female_Seminary_Site" title="First Cherokee Female Seminary Site">First Cherokee Female Seminary Site</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Judaculla_Rock" title="Judaculla Rock">Judaculla Rock</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Long_Island_(Tennessee)" title="Long Island (Tennessee)">Long Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Ross_House_(Rossville,_Georgia)" title="John Ross House (Rossville, Georgia)">John Ross House</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ross%27s_Landing" title="Ross's Landing">Ross's Landing</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sequoyah%27s_Cabin" title="Sequoyah's Cabin">Sequoyah's Cabin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tellico_Blockhouse" title="Tellico Blockhouse">Tellico Blockhouse</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears_State_Park" title="Trail of Tears State Park">Trail of Tears State Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Brainerd_Mission" title="Brainerd Mission">Brainerd Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rattlesnake_Springs" title="Rattlesnake Springs">Rattlesnake Springs</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Cass" title="Fort Cass">Fort Cass</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Red_Clay_State_Historic_Park" title="Red Clay State Historic Park">Red Clay State Historic Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hair_Conrad_Cabin" title="Hair Conrad Cabin">Hair Conrad Cabin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nancy_Ward_Tomb" title="Nancy Ward Tomb">Nancy Ward Tomb</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Blythe_Ferry" title="Blythe Ferry">Blythe Ferry</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bussell_Island" title="Bussell Island">Bussell Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chief_Vann_House_Historic_Site" title="Chief Vann House Historic Site">Chief Vann House Historic Site</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mantle_Rock_Archeological_District" title="Mantle Rock Archeological District">Mantle Rock</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Museum_of_the_Cherokee_People" title="Museum of the Cherokee People">Museum of the Cherokee People</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Asheville,_North_Carolina" title="Asheville, North Carolina">Untokiasdiyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Standing_Stone_State_Park" title="Standing Stone State Park">Standing</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Monterey,_Tennessee" title="Monterey, Tennessee">Stone</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ball_Ground,_Georgia" title="Ball Ground, Georgia">Stick Ball Grounds</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cullasaja_River" title="Cullasaja River">Cullasaja River</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tuckasegee_River" title="Tuckasegee River">Tuckasegee River</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oconaluftee_(Great_Smoky_Mountains)" title="Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)">Oconaluftee valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oconaluftee_River" title="Oconaluftee River">Oconaluftee River</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Abrams_Creek_(Tennessee)" title="Abrams Creek (Tennessee)">Abrams Creek</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sycamore_Shoals" title="Sycamore Shoals">Sycamore Shoals</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trading_Path" title="Trading Path">The Great Trading Path</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Great_Indian_Warpath" title="Great Indian Warpath">The Great War Path</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hiwassee_River_Heritage_Center" title="Hiwassee River Heritage Center">Hiwassee River Heritage Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chatata" title="Chatata">Chatata</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Townsend,_Tennessee" title="Townsend, Tennessee">Tuckaleechee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Smith_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Smith National Historic Site"> Fort Smith Historic Site</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Port_Royal_State_Park" title="Port Royal State Park">Port Royal State Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Five_Civilized_Tribes_Museum" title="Five Civilized Tribes Museum">Five Civilized Tribes Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Murphy,_North_Carolina" title="Murphy, North Carolina">Tlanusiyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cherokee_Path" title="Cherokee Path">Cherokee Path</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Early leaders
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Moytoy_of_Tellico" title="Moytoy of Tellico">Moytoy of Tellico</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Attakullakulla" title="Attakullakulla">Attakullakulla</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amouskositte" title="Amouskositte">Amouskositte</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Conocotocko_I" title="Conocotocko I">Old Hop</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Moytoy_of_Citico" title="Moytoy of Citico">Moytoy of Citico</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Conocotocko_II" title="Conocotocko II">Standing Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ostenaco" title="Ostenaco">Outacite of Keowee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Oconostota" title="Oconostota">Oconostota</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Savanukah" title="Savanukah">Savanukah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Old_Tassel" title="Old Tassel">Old Tassel</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Little_Turkey" title="Little Turkey">Little Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Watts_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Watts (Cherokee chief)">Kunokeski</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Doublehead" title="Doublehead">Incalatanga</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tagwadihi" title="Tagwadihi">Tagwadihi</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Cherokee Nation East (1794-1839)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Black_Fox_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Black Fox (Cherokee chief)">Enola</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pathkiller" title="Pathkiller">Pathkiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Big_Tiger" title="Big Tiger">Big Tiger</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Charles_R._Hicks" title="Charles R. Hicks">Charles R. Hicks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=William_Hicks_(Cherokee_chief)" title="William Hicks (Cherokee chief)">William Hicks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Ross_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Ross (Cherokee chief)">John Ross</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Cherokee Nation West (1810-1839)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Bowl_(Cherokee_chief)" title="The Bowl (Cherokee chief)">The Bowl</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Takatoka" title="Takatoka">Degadoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee chief)">Tahlonteeskee</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Jolly" title="John Jolly">John Jolly</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Looney_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Looney (Cherokee chief)">John Looney</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Rogers_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Rogers (Cherokee chief)">John Rogers</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (1824-present)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Yonaguska" title="Yonaguska">Yonaguska</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=William_Holland_Thomas" title="William Holland Thomas">William Holland Thomas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nimrod_Jarrett_Smith" title="Nimrod Jarrett Smith">Tsaladihi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gerard_Parker" title="Gerard Parker">Gerard Parker</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joyce_Dugan" title="Joyce Dugan">Joyce Dugan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Patrick_Lambert" title="Patrick Lambert">Patrick Lambert</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Richard_Sneed" title="Richard Sneed">Richard Sneed</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (1839–1907)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lewis_Downing" title="Lewis Downing">Lewis Downing</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Stand_Watie" title="Stand Watie">Degataga</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=William_P._Ross" title="William P. Ross">William P. Ross</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Charles_Thompson_(Cherokee_chief)" title="Charles Thompson (Cherokee chief)">Utselata</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dennis_Bushyhead" title="Dennis Bushyhead">Dennis Bushyhead</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joel_B._Mayes" title="Joel B. Mayes">Joel B. Mayes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Johnson_Harris" title="Johnson Harris">Johnson Harris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Samuel_Houston_Mayes" title="Samuel Houston Mayes">Samuel Houston Mayes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thomas_Buffington" title="Thomas Buffington">Thomas Buffington</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=William_Charles_Rogers" title="William Charles Rogers">William Charles Rogers</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Cherokee Nation (1975–present)
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=J._B._Milam" title="J. B. Milam">J. B. Milam</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=W._W._Keeler" title="W. W. Keeler">W. W. Keeler</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ross_Swimmer" title="Ross Swimmer">Ross Swimmer</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wilma_Mankiller" title="Wilma Mankiller">Wilma Mankiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joe_Byrd_(Cherokee_Nation_Principal_Chief)" title="Joe Byrd (Cherokee Nation Principal Chief)">Joe Byrd</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chad_Smith_(politician)" title="Chad Smith (politician)">Chadwick "Corntassel" Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bill_John_Baker" title="Bill John Baker">Bill John Baker</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Chuck_Hoskin,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Chuck Hoskin, Jr.">Chuck Hoskin, Jr.</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (1939–present)
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=James_L._Gordon_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James L. Gordon (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">James L. Gordon</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=John_Hair_(Cherokee_chief)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Hair (Cherokee chief) (page does not exist)">John W. Hair</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Other notable Cherokee
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nancy_Ward" title="Nancy Ward">Nancy Ward</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tsali" title="Tsali">Tsali</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tahlonteeskee_(Cherokee_warrior)" title="Tahlonteeskee (Cherokee warrior)">Tahlonteeskee (warrior)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Turtle-at-Home" title="Turtle-at-Home">Turtle-at-Home</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Junaluska" title="Junaluska">Junaluska</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Goingsnake" title="Goingsnake">Goingsnake</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elias_Boudinot_(Cherokee)" title="Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)">Elias Boudinot</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wauhatchie" title="Wauhatchie">Wauhatchie</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=James_Vann" title="James Vann">James Vann</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=David_Vann_(Cherokee_leader)" title="David Vann (Cherokee leader)">David Vann</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Joseph_Vann" title="Joseph Vann">Joseph Vann</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bob_Benge" title="Bob Benge">Bob Benge</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Whitepath" title="Whitepath">Nunnahitsunega</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ned_Christie" title="Ned Christie">Ned Christie</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Martin_(judge)" title="John Martin (judge)">John Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Markwayne_Mullin" title="Markwayne Mullin">Markwayne Mullin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Yvette_Herrell" title="Yvette Herrell">Yvette Herrell</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoya</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jenny_McIntosh" title="Jenny McIntosh">Jenny McIntosh</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sam_Sixkiller" title="Sam Sixkiller">Sam Sixkiller</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Clement_V._Rogers" title="Clement V. Rogers">Clement V. Rogers</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Redbird_Smith" title="Redbird Smith">Redbird Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Durbin_Feeling" title="Durbin Feeling">Durbin Feeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hastings_Shade" title="Hastings Shade">Hastings Shade</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kimberly_Teehee" title="Kimberly Teehee">Kimberly Teehee</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>See also: <a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="chr:">Cherokee-language Wikipedia</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Andrew_Jackson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template talk:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andrew_Jackson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">7th</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1829–1837)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_United_States_senators_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States senators from Tennessee">Senator from Tennessee</a> (1797–1798, 1823–1825)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_governors_of_Florida" title="List of governors of Florida">Federal Military Commissioner of Florida</a> (1821)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/info/en/?search=Tennessee%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's at-large congressional district">Tennessee at-large</a> (1796–1797)</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Hanging_Rock" title="Battle of Hanging Rock">Battle of Hanging Rock</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Battle of Talladega</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">Battle of Pensacola (1814)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 United States presidential election</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">United States Senate Committee on Armed Services</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">Corrupt bargain</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 United States presidential election</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson_1828_presidential_campaign" title="Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign">Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Coffin_Handbills" title="Coffin Handbills">Coffin Handbills</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Andrew_jackson_head.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Andrew_jackson_head.jpg/100px-Andrew_jackson_head.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Andrew_jackson_head.jpg/150px-Andrew_jackson_head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Andrew_jackson_head.jpg/200px-Andrew_jackson_head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="First inauguration of Andrew Jackson">First inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1820)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1820)">Tenure of Office Act (1820)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Petticoat_affair" title="Petticoat affair">Petticoat affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kitchen_Cabinet" title="Kitchen Cabinet">Kitchen Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Removal Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Censure_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Censure of Andrew Jackson">Senate censure</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Banking_in_the_Jacksonian_Era" title="Banking in the Jacksonian Era">Banking in the Jacksonian Era</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">Hard money</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1829_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1829 State of the Union Address">1829 State of the Union Address</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1830_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1830 State of the Union Address">1830 State of the Union Address</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 United States presidential election</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 Democratic National Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maysville_Road_veto" title="Maysville Road veto">Maysville Road veto</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson">Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">Tariff of 1832</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ordinance_of_Nullification" title="Ordinance of Nullification">Ordinance of Nullification</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Force_Bill" title="Force Bill">Force Bill</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tariff_of_1833" title="Tariff of 1833">Tariff of 1833</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pet_banks" title="Pet banks">Pet banks</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_memorials_to_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of memorials to Andrew Jackson">List of memorials to Andrew Jackson</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Andrew Jackson (U.S. Capitol)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (U.S. Capitol statue)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Equestrian_statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C.)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (Washington D.C. and New Orleans statues)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Black_Jack_(stamp)" title="Black Jack (stamp)">Black Jack stamp</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_President%27s_Lady" title="The President's Lady">The President's Lady</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Buccaneer_(1938_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1938 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1938)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Buccaneer_(1958_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1958 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1958)</li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Gorgeous_Hussy" title="The Gorgeous Hussy">The Gorgeous Hussy</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=The_Remarkable_Andrew" title="The Remarkable Andrew">The Remarkable Andrew</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson" title="Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson">Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Man_of_Conquest" title="Man of Conquest">Man of Conquest</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=USRC_Jackson_(1832)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC Jackson (1832)">USRC <i>Jackson</i> (1832)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=USS_Andrew_Jackson_(SSBN-619)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Andrew Jackson (SSBN-619)">USS <i>Andrew Jackson</i> (SSBN-619)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=USS_President_Jackson" title="USS President Jackson">USS <i>President Jackson</i></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rachel_Jackson" title="Rachel Jackson">Rachel Jackson</a> (wife)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andrew_Jackson_Donelson" title="Andrew Jackson Donelson">Andrew Jackson Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Daniel_Smith_Donelson" title="Daniel Smith Donelson">Daniel Smith Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lyncoya_Jackson" title="Lyncoya Jackson">Lyncoya Jackson</a> (adopted son)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Emily_Donelson" title="Emily Donelson">Emily Donelson</a> (acting First Lady)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sarah_Yorke_Jackson" title="Sarah Yorke Jackson">Sarah Yorke Jackson</a> (acting First Lady)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><b><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">← John Quincy Adams</a></b></li>
<li><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren →</a></b></li></ul>
<ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Andrew_Jackson" title="Category:Andrew Jackson">Category</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/17px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/26px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/34px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="275" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Modern_history" title="Portal:Modern history">Modern history</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/20px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/31px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/41px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /></span></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=Genocide" title="Genocide"><img alt="icon" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/15px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/22px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG/29px-GenocidePortalLogo%28ESR%292.JPG 2x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="261" /></a></span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Portal:Genocide" title="Portal:Genocide">Genocide</a></li></ul></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786008#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786008#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786008#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/178758884">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7846131-5">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007380234205171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2002110897">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |