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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Roman emperor from 193 to 211}}
{{Good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Septimius Severus
| image = Septimius Severus busto-Musei Capitolini.jpg
| image_size =
| alt = White bust of bearded man
| caption = [[Roman portraiture|Roman]] [[alabaster]] and marble bust of Septimius Severus, [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign = 9 April 193 – {{awrap|4 February 211}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kienast|first=Dietmar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYRorgEACAAJ|title=Römische Kaisertabelle Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie|publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft|year=2017|isbn=978-3-534-07532-4|edition=6th|location=Darmstadt|pages=149–159|chapter=Septimius Severus (9 Apr. 193–4 Febr. 211)|oclc=75671165|orig-year=1990}}</ref>
| predecessor = [[Didius Julianus]]
| successor = [[Caracalla]] and [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]
| regent = {{ubl|Caracalla (198–211)|Geta (209–211)}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|Co-emperors}}
|suc-type=Successors| birth_name = Lucius Septimius Severus<ref name="Cooley 2012 495">{{cite book |last=Cooley |year=2012 |first=Alison E. |title=The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=495|isbn=978-0-521-84026-2 |url={{googlebooks|VlghAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Alison E. Cooley }}</ref>
| birth_date = 11 April 145<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 1">Birley (1999), p. 1.</ref>
| birth_place = [[Leptis Magna]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]
| death_date = 4 February 211 (aged 65)<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 187">Birley (1999), p. 187.</ref>
| death_place = [[Eboracum]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]]
| burial_place =
| spouses = {{ubl|item_style={{longitem}}|[[Paccia Marciana]] {{awrap|({{abbr|m.|married}} {{circa|175}}; died {{circa|186}})}}|[[Julia Domna]] ({{abbr|m.|married}} 187)}}
| issue = {{ubl|[[Caracalla]]|[[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]}}
| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus<ref name="Cooley 2012 495">{{cite book |last=Cooley |year=2012 |first=Alison E. |title=The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=495|isbn=978-0-521-84026-2 |url={{googlebooks|VlghAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Alison E. Cooley }}</ref>
| dynasty = [[Severan dynasty|Severan]]
| father = [[Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]]
| mother = Fulvia Pia
}}
{{Severan dynasty|image=[[File:INC-1568-a Ауреус Септимий Север ок. 196-197 (аверс).png|150px]]|caption=Aureus of Septimius Severus}}
'''Lucius Septimius Severus''' ({{IPA-la|ˈluːkiʊs ˈsɛptɪmʊs sɛˈweːrʊs}}; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was a [[Roman people|Roman]] politician who served as [[Roman emperor|emperor]] from 193 to 211. He was born in [[Leptis Magna]] (present-day [[Al-Khums]], Libya) in the [[Roman province of Africa]].<ref>Anthony Richard Birley, ''Septimius Severus: the African emperor'', Yale University Press, 1988, pp2,18-32</ref><ref>Craig Simpson, "Roman emperor hailed as 'black Briton' – even though he wasn't black", ''Daily Telegraph'', 30 October 2023</ref> As a young man he advanced through [[cursus honorum|the customary succession of offices]] under the reigns of [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Commodus]]. Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor [[Pertinax]] in 193 during the [[Year of the Five Emperors]].
After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Niger was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
He proclaimed as ''[[augusti]]'' (co-emperors) his elder son [[Caracalla]] in 198 and his younger son [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]] in 209, both born of his second wife [[Julia Domna]]. Severus travelled to [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in 208, strengthening [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reoccupying the [[Antonine Wall]]. In 209 he invaded [[Caledonia]] (modern [[Scotland during the Roman Empire|Scotland]]) with an army of 50,000 men<ref>{{Cite book|last=Elliott|first=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=och2swEACAAJ|title=Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots|date=2018|publisher=Greenhill Books|isbn=978-1-78438-204-9|pages=147|language=en}}</ref> but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 at [[Eboracum]] (today [[York]], England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding the [[Severan dynasty]]. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].
== Early life ==
=== Family and education ===
Born on 11 April 145 at [[Leptis Magna]] (in present-day Libya) as the son of [[Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]] and [[Fulvia Pia]],<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 1"/> Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of [[Equites|equestrian]] rank. Severus had [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italic]] and [[Punic]] ancestry; the Roman ancestry came from his mother's side, while his Punic ancestry came from his father's side.<ref name="Birley 1999, pp. 212–213">Birley (1999), pp. 212–213.</ref> Severus was described as 'Libyan by race', by the historian [[Cassius Dio]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Anthony R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z8iEAgAAQBAJ&dq=Septimius+Severus+libyan+by+race&pg=PA50 |title=Septimius Severus: The African Emperor |date=1 June 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-70745-4 |language=en}}</ref> Due to his family background on his father's side he is considered the first provincial emperor as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.<ref>{{cite web| title=Emperor Septimius Severus dies at York| url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/emperor-septimius-severus-dies-york| work=History Today| access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] {{reign|138|161}}. His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the [[Fulvia gens|''gens'' Fulvia]], an [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italian]] [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician family]] that originated in [[Tusculum]].<ref>Adam, Alexander, ''Classical biography'',[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&q=fulvius+gens&pg=PA182 Google eBook] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610001757/https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA182&dq=classical+biography+gens+fulvia+cicero+tusculum&hl=it&ei=U0ZYTseHGsmi-gbFrJSuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=fulvius%20gens&f=false |date=10 June 2016}}, p.182: ''FULVIUS, the name of a "gens" which originally came from Tusculum (Cic. Planc. 8)''.</ref>
Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, [[Publius Septimius Geta (brother of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]]; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was the [[praetorian prefect]] and consul [[Gaius Fulvius Plautianus]].<ref name="Birley 1999, pp. 216–217">Birley (1999), pp. 216–217.</ref> Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the local [[Punic language]] fluently, but he was also educated in [[Latin]] and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to [[Cassius Dio]], the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons in [[Rhetoric|oratory]]: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 34–35.</ref>
=== Public service ===
[[File:Septimius Severus - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5479502.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|300x300px|Dynastic [[aureus]] of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits of Geta (right), [[Julia Domna]] (centre) and Caracalla (left).<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part I,'' p. 115.</ref> Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI.]]
Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>
It is likely that he served as a ''[[vigintisexviri|vigintivir]]'' in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.<ref name=birley-40/> At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (''Advocatus fisci'').<ref>Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London 1870, v. 3, p. 117.</ref> However, he omitted the [[Military tribune|military tribunate]] from the ''cursus honorum'' and had to delay his [[quaestor]]ship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.<ref name=birley-40/> To make matters worse, the [[Antonine Plague]] swept through the capital in 166.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 45">Birley (1999), p. 45.</ref>
With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 45"/> According to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for [[adultery]] during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5{{spaces}}December, he took office and was officially enrolled in the [[Roman Senate]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 46.</ref> Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The [[Antonine Plague]] had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 49.</ref>
The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa, [[Mauri]] tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of [[Sardinia]] [[Senatorial province|as compensation]]. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of [[Sardinia]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 50.</ref>
In 173, Severus' cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed [[proconsul]] of the province of [[Africa Proconsularis]] and chose Severus as one of his two ''[[legatus|legati pro praetore]]'', a senior military appointment.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 51.</ref> Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as [[tribune of the plebs]], a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the ''candidatus'' of the emperor.<ref name=birley-52>Birley (1999), p. 52.</ref>
=== Marriages ===
[[File:Carole Raddato (13543792233).jpg|thumb| The [[Severan Tondo]], {{Circa|199}}, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased ([[Antikensammlung Berlin]])]]
About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to [[Paccia Marciana]], a woman from Leptis Magna.<ref name="birley"/> He probably met her during his tenure as [[Legatus|legate]] under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable ''Historia Augusta'' claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years.<ref name=birley-52/>
Marciana died of natural causes around 186.<ref name=birley-75>Birley (1999), p. 75.</ref> Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into the horoscopes of prospective brides. The ''Historia Augusta'' relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife.<ref name="birley">Birley (1999), p. 71.</ref> This woman was an Emesene [[Roman Syria|Syrian]] named [[Julia Domna]]. Her father, [[Julius Bassianus]], descended from the Arab [[Emesene dynasty]] and served as a [[high priest]] to the local cult of the sun god [[Elagabalus (deity)|Elagabal]].<ref name=birley-72>Birley (1999), p. 72.</ref> Domna's older sister, [[Julia Maesa]], would become the grandmother of the future emperors [[Elagabalus]] and [[Alexander Severus]].<ref name="dio-history-lxxix-30">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30 LXXIX.30] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120526042142/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30 |date=26 May 2012 }}</ref>
Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in [[Lugdunum]] (modern-day [[Lyon]], France), of which Severus was the governor.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 76–77; Fishwick (2005), p. 347.</ref> The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy.<ref>Gibbon (1831), p. 74.</ref> They had two sons, [[Lucius Septimius Bassianus]] (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4{{spaces}}April 188 in Lugdunum) and [[Publius Septimius Geta]] (born 7{{spaces}}March 189 in Rome).<ref name=birley-76-77>Birley (1999), pp. 76–77.</ref>
{{Gallery
| align = center
| width = 160
| height = 200
| File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357.jpg|
| File:Julia Domna Glyptothek Munich 354.jpg|
| footer=Busts of Septimius Severus (left) and Julia Domna (right), [[Munich Glyptotek]]
}}
== Rise to power ==
[[File:0205 Altes Museum Septimius Severus anagoria.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Roman sculpture|Roman marble bust]] of Septimius Severus, early 3rd century AD, [[Altes Museum]]]]
In 191, on the advice of [[Quintus Aemilius Laetus]], [[Praetorian prefect|prefect]] of the [[Praetorian Guard]], [[Commodus|emperor Commodus]] appointed Severus as governor of [[Pannonia Superior]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Matthew|last= Bunson|location= Roma|isbn= 978-88-8289-627-0 |publisher= Newton & Compton|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&q=commodus%20septimius%20severus%20191&pg=PA300|title= Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire|year= 2002|page= 300}}</ref> At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".{{sfn|Harper|2017|p=123}} Commodus was assassinated the following year. [[Pertinax]] was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193.{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}} In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legion [[Legio XIV Gemina|''XIV Gemina'']] acclaimed him emperor at [[Carnuntum]] on 9 April.{{sfn|Birley|1999|p=97}}{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}} Nearby legions, such as [[Legio X Gemina|''X Gemina'']] at [[Vindobona]], soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy.{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}}
Pertinax's successor in Rome, [[Didius Julianus]], had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html Roman History]'', LXXIV.17.4</ref> Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the [[Praetorian Guard]], filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions.<ref name=Dio75>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html Roman History]'', LXXV.1.1–2</ref><ref name="Birley 1999, p. 113">Birley (1999), p. 113.</ref>
The legions of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] had proclaimed [[Pescennius Niger]] emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer [[Clodius Albinus]], the powerful governor of [[Britannia]], who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] (194).
<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 113"/>
While campaigning against [[Byzantium]], he ordered that the tomb of his [[Ancient Carthage|fellow-Carthaginian]] [[Hannibal]] be covered with fine marble.<ref>
Gabriel, Richard A. ''Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy'', Potomac Books, Inc., 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-59797-766-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&dq=severus+byzantium+hannibal&pg=PT265 Google books]
</ref>
He devoted the following year to suppressing [[Mesopotamia]] and other [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his son [[Caracalla]] as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19{{spaces}}February 197 at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]], with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of [[Pannonia]]n, [[Moesia]]n and [[Dacia]]n legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.<ref>
[[Spartianus]], ''Severus'' 11
</ref><ref>
{{Cite book|title= Roman Britain and the English settlements
|last= Collingwood|first=R. G.
|date= 1998|orig-year= 1936|publisher= Biblo and Tannen
|others= Myres, J. N. L. (John Nowell Linton)
|isbn= 978-0-8196-1160-4|location= New York, N.Y.
|oclc= 36750306}}</ref><ref>Birley (1999), p. 125.
</ref>
Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors).<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Tenney |first1=Frank |title=A History of Rome |date=1923 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |pages=531–532 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/FRAAHR/home.html}}
</ref>
== Emperor ==
[[File: 20130518 Septimius Severus Archeological Museum Komotini Thrace Greece.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Golden Bust of Septimius Severus]] found in 1965 at [[Didymoteicho]] in Northern [[Greece]], now at the [[Archaeological Museum of Komotini]].]]
=== War against Parthia ===
{{further|Roman–Parthian Wars}}
[[File:Severus210AD.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus, showing Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple)]]
[[File:Aureus Septimius Severus-193-leg XIIII GMV.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] minted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate [[Legio XIV Gemina|XIIII ''Gemina Martia Victrix'']], the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S.]]
In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked at [[Brundisium]] and probably landed at the port of [[History of Yumurtalık|Aegeae]] in [[Cilicia]],<ref>Hasebroek (1921), p. 111.</ref> travelling on to [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the [[Euphrates]].<ref>"Life of Septimius Severus" in ''Historia Augusta'', 16.1.</ref> [[Abgar IX]], titular King of [[Osroene]] but essentially only the ruler of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,<ref>Birley (1999), p. 115.</ref> handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 129.</ref> King [[Khosrov I of Armenia]] also sent hostages, money and gifts.<ref>Hovannisian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', p. 71</ref>
Severus travelled on to [[Nisibis]], which his general [[Julius Laetus]] had prevented from falling into [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.<ref>''Prosopographia Imperii Romani'' L 69.</ref> The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]], reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to [[Pescennius Niger]]. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of [[Battle of Ctesiphon (198)|Ctesiphon]] and he annexed the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] to the empire;<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153">Birley (1999), p. 153.</ref><ref>Birley (1999), p. 130.</ref> Severus took the title ''{{lang|la| Parthicus Maximus}}'', following the example of [[Trajan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | article = Ctesiphon | last = Kröger | first = Jens | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4 | pages = 446–448 | year = 1993 }}
</ref> However, he was unable to capture the fortress of [[Hatra]], even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'', building new fortifications in the [[Arabian Desert]] from [[Qasr Azraq|Basie]] to [[Dumat Al-Jandal|Dumatha]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 134">
Birley (1999), p. 134.
</ref>
===Relations with the Senate and People===
Severus' relations with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected the [[Arch of Septimius Severus]] in Rome.<ref>Asante, Molefi Kete and Shanza Ismail, "Rediscovering the 'Lost' Roman Caesar: Septimius Severus the African and Eurocentric Historiography." ''[[Journal of Black Studies]]'' 40, no. 4 (March 2010): 606–618</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Perkins|first1=J. B. Ward|title=The Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna|journal=Archaeology|date=December 1951|volume= 4|issue= 4|pages=226–231}}</ref>
According to Cassius Dio,<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 76, Sections 14 and 15.</ref> however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, [[Gaius Fulvius Plautianus]], who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and [[Julia Domna]], Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter [[Fulvia Plautilla]] was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and [[Caracalla]] accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 161–162.</ref> One of the two following ''praefecti'' was the famous jurist [[Papinian]]. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, [[Julia Domna]], in the administration of the empire.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 165.</ref>
===Military reforms===
[[File:Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195-211 AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (13648215765).jpg|thumb|Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD, [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]], Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS.]]
Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged the [[Praetorian Guard]],<ref name=Dio75/> which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within {{convert|160|km|0}} miles of the city on pain of death.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 103.</ref> Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.<ref name=Adkins>Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, Both Professional ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=septimius%20severus%20praetorian%20guard&pg=PA68 Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome]'', p. 68</ref>
Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III ''Parthica''.<ref>George Ronald Watson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PSEnmtuOh6K0C&dq=septimius%20severus%20number%20of%20legions&pg=PA23 The Roman Soldier]{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p. 23</ref> He garrisoned [[Legio II Parthica]] at [[Albano Laziale|Albanum]], only {{convert|20|km}} from Rome.<ref name=Adkins/> He gave his soldiers a [[donativum|donative]] of a thousand ''[[sestertius|sesterces]]'' (250 ''[[denarii]]'') each,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html|title=Septimius Severus: Legionary Denarius|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 ''denarii''.<ref>Kenneth W. Harl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&dq=septimius%20severus%20legion%20pay&pg=PA216 Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700]'', p. 216</ref>
Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.<ref>Michael Grant (1978); ''History of Rome''; p. 358; Charles Scribner's Sons; NY {{ISBN?}}</ref>
=== Reputed persecution of Christians ===
At the beginning of Severus' reign, [[Trajan]]'s policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.{{sfn|González|2010|p=97}} Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promoting [[syncretism]].{{sfn|González|2010|pp=97–98}} He possibly issued an edict<ref name=HA>''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html Historia Augusta]'', Septimius Severus, 17.1</ref> that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|pp=182–183}}
A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=182}} This is based on the decree mentioned in the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'',<ref name=HA/> an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Early church historian [[Eusebius]] described Severus as a persecutor.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', VI.1.1</ref> The [[Christian apologist]] [[Tertullian]] stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,<ref>{{in lang|la}} [[Tertullian]], ''[http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm Ad Scapulam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025174903/http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm |date=25 October 2015 }}'', IV.5–6</ref> employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the ''[[Roman Martyrology]]'' as the martyrs of [[Madauros]], [[Charalambos]] and [[Perpetua and Felicity]] in [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman-ruled Africa]]. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=185}}
== Military activity ==
=== Africa ===
In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The ''[[legatus legionis]]'' or commander of [[Legio III Augusta]], [[Quintus Anicius Faustus]], had been fighting against the [[Garamantes]] along the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' for five years. He captured several settlements such as [[Ghadames|Cydamus]], Gholaia, Garbia and their capital [[Germa|Garama]]—over {{convert|600|km}} south of [[Leptis Magna]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 153.</ref> The province of [[Numidia]] was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of [[Biskra|Vescera]], [[Messaad|Castellum Dimmidi]], [[M'Lili|Gemellae]], [[Thabudeos]] and [[Tubunae|Thubunae]]<!-- Zabi probably simply means "village" in local dialect -->.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 147.</ref> By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into the [[Sahara]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153"/>
[[File:Septimius Severus' African conquests1.jpg|thumb|center|450px|The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan).]]
=== Britain ===
{{further|Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–210)}}
[[File:Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.jpg|thumb|[[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] ring with portraits of Septimius Severus and [[Julia Domna]], a testimony to [[Indo-Roman relations]] of the period]]
In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering [[Caledonia]]. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.<ref name="Birley 1999 180">Birley, (1999) p. 180.</ref> Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.<ref>W.S. Hanson [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf "Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107022132/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>
He strengthened [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reconquered the [[Southern Uplands]] up to the [[Antonine Wall]], which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,<ref name="Scotland"/> Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]] of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as [[Carpow Roman Fort|Carpow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|title=Carpow {{!}} Canmore|website=canmore.org.uk|language=en|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015140/https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|archive-date=16 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Cassius Dio]]'s account of the invasion reads:
{{blockquote|Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html |title=Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 77 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2012-11-07}}</ref>}}
By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keys |first1=David |title=Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |access-date=6 July 2018 |agency=Independent |date=27 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707015802/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |archive-date=7 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.<ref name="Birley 1999 180"/><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Epitome of Book LXXVII.13.</ref> This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 180–82.</ref> The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the [[Maeatae]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 186.</ref> Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."<ref name="Scotland">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Laura|title=The Honest Truth: How the Romans came close but ultimately failed to conquer Scotland under Septimius Severus|url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|access-date=21 May 2018|publisher=The Sunday Post|date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521164647/https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|archive-date=21 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Dio Cassius (Xiphilinus) 'Romaika' Epitome of Book LXXVI Chapter 15.</ref>
== Death ==
Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 77, Sections 11–15.</ref><ref name=":0">Birley (1999), pp. 170–187.</ref> He withdrew to [[Eboracum]] (York) and died there in 211.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 187"/> Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall.<ref name=":0"/>
Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 77, Section 15.</ref> On his death, Severus was [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|deified]] by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]], who were advised by his wife [[Julia Domna]].<ref>"Life of Septimius Severus" in ''Historia Augusta'', Section 19.</ref> Severus was buried in the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Mausoleum of Hadrian]] in Rome.
<gallery widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Larger than life-size bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, discovered by chance in 1928 near the village of Kythrea in Cyprus, Cyprus Museum, Nicosia (22275287879).jpg|Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, [[Cyprus Museum]].
File:Jean-Baptiste Greuze - Septimius Severus and Caracalla - WGA10673.jpg|Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] (c. 1769).
</gallery>
== Assessment and legacy ==
[[File:Leptis Magna Arch of Septimius Severus.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna]]]]
By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over {{convert|2.0|mi2|0|disp=number}} million square kilometres, which scholars like [[David L. Kennedy]], Lukas De Blois, and Derrick Riley state expanded the empire to its greatest physical extent.<ref name="kennedy">[[David L. Kennedy]], Derrick Riley (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 ''Rome's Desert Frontiers'', page 13] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730070357/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |date=30 July 2017 }}, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref name="spek">[[R.J. van der Spek]], Lukas De Blois (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 ''An Introduction to the Ancient World'', page 272] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730064823/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 |date=30 July 2017 }}, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref name="JBCampbell">J. B. Campbell (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=iznJ_d6mQagC&dq=roman+empire+%22greatest+extent%22+severus&pg=PA13 ''Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome'', page 13], University of North Carolina Press</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Möller |first=Lenelotte |title=Cassius Dio: Römische Geschichte |publisher=marixverlag |year=2012 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferrary |first=Jean-Louis |title=Eutrope: Abrégé d'histoire romaine |publisher=Les belles lettres |year=2003 |isbn=978-2251014142 |language=Fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dufraigne |first=Pierre |title=Aurélius Victor: Livre des Césars |publisher=Les belles lettres |year=2003 |isbn=978-2251010182 |language=Fr}}</ref>
[[Edward Gibbon]] famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity."<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Gibbon|author-link=Edward Gibbon|location=London|publisher=Cadell|oclc=840075577|url=http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1776|page=96|access-date=25 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219010818/http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm|archive-date=19 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> His enlargement of the [[Limes Tripolitanus]] secured [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], the agricultural base of the empire where he was born.<ref>Kenneth D. Matthews, Jr., ''Cities in the Sand''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Africa/Libya/_Texts/MATCIS/Background*.html The Roman Background of Tripolitania], 1957</ref> His victory over the [[Parthian Empire]] was for a time decisive, securing [[Nisibis]] and [[Singara]] for the empire and establishing a ''status quo'' of Roman dominance in the region until 251.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Erdkamp|isbn=978-1-4443-3921-5|publisher=Blackwell |location= Malden (Massachusetts)|title=A Companion to the Roman Army|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&q=septimius%20severus%20nisibis&pg=PA251|page=251}}</ref> His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Herodianus]]: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain the new and better-paid army.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html ''Roman History''] LXXV.2.3</ref><ref>[[Herodianus]], ''[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm History of the Roman Empire]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124024755/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm |date=24 November 2009 }} III.9.2–3</ref> The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.<ref name="spek"/>
To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the [[Roman currency]]. Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the [[denarius]] from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased the denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |title=Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" |access-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |archive-date=10 February 2001 |url-status=live }}</ref> Severus' currency [[debasement]] was the largest since the reign of [[Nero]], compromising the long-term strength of the economy.<ref>Kenneth W. Harl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&pg=PA126 Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700]'', p. 126</ref>
Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the [[Arch of Septimius Severus|triumphal arch]] in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the [[Septizodium]] in Rome. He enriched his native city of [[Leptis Magna]], including commissioning [[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|a triumphal arch]] on the occasion of his visit of 203.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gregorovius|first=Ferdinand|title=History of the city of Rome in the Middle Ages|volume=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 1895|oclc=57224029|page=541}}</ref>
Due to Severus being born in North Africa, recent years have occasionally seen him mischaracterised as racially African, despite the Carthaginian and Italian antecedents of his parents. The [[Historia Augustus]] actually records him when on campaign ordering an Ethiopian soldier who attempted to bestow him a garland removed from his presence, believing the man's dark skin a bad omen.<ref>Anthony Richard Birley, ''Septimius Severus: The African emperor'', Yale University Press, 1988, p. 184</ref>
[[File:Roman Empire with provinces in 210 AD.png|thumb|center|300px|The Provinces of the Roman Empire in 210 AD]]
==Severan dynasty family tree==
{{Severan dynasty family tree}}
== See also ==
* [[Arcus Argentariorum]]—dedicated by the money changers of Rome to the Severan family
* [[Bulla Felix]]
* [[Septimia gens]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Birley |first= Anthony R. |author-link= Anthony Birley |title= Septimius Severus: The African Emperor |orig-year= 1971 |year= 1999| publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London |isbn= 978-0-415-16591-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Brian |title=The Roman Army, 31 BC - AD 337: A Sourcebook|year=1994| publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London|isbn=978-0-415-07172-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUN-TGktYLYC&q=carnuntum+septimius+severus&pg=PA142}}
* {{cite book |last= Cooley |first= Alison |author-link= Alison E. Cooley |chapter= Septimius Severus: The Augustan Emperor |editor1-first= Simon |editor1-last= Swain |editor2-first= Stephen |editor2-last= Harrison |editor3-first= Jas |editor3-last= Elsner |editor3-link= Jas Elsner |title= Severan Culture |location= Cambridge |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-0-521-85982-0 }}
* {{cite book |last= Daguet-Gagey |first= Anne |title= Septime Sévère: Rome, l'Afrique et l'Orient |location= Paris |publisher= Payot |year= 2000 |series= Biographie Payot |isbn= 978-2-228-89336-7 |language= FR }}
* {{cite book |last= Elliott |first= Simon |title= Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots |year= 2018 |location= London |publisher= Greenhill Books |isbn= 978-1-78438-204-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fishwick |first=Duncan|title=The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=2005|isbn=978-90-04-07179-7|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lGRRAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1831|location=New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CwMAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last= González |first= Justo L.|title=The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation |year=2010 |volume= 1|location=New York|publisher=HarperCollins|oclc=905489146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC&q=septimius%20severus%20persecution&pg=PP1|isbn= 978-0-06-185588-7 }}
* {{cite book |last= Grant |first= Michael |author-link= Michael Grant (author) |location= London|publisher =Weidenfeld & Nicolson |title= The Roman Emperors |year= 1985 |isbn= 978-0-7607-0091-4 }}
* {{cite book |last= Grant |first= Michael |author-link= Michael Grant (author) |title= The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire | publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London |year= 1996 |isbn= 978-0-415-12772-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Harper|first=Kyle |date=2017 |title=The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire |url= |location=Princeton; Oxford |publisher=Princeton University Press |page= |isbn=978-0-691-19206-2 |author-link= }}
* {{cite book |last= Hasebroek |first= Johannes |title= Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Septimius Severus |url= https://archive.org/details/untersuchungenzu00haseuoft |location= Heidelberg |publisher= C Winter |oclc= 4153259 |year= 1921 }}
* {{cite book |last= Hovannisian |first= R. G. |title= The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times |volume= 1: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=New York |year= 2004 |orig-year= 1997 |isbn= 978-1-4039-6421-2 }}
* {{cite book |last= Lichtenberger |first= Achim |title= Severus Pius Augustus: Studien zur sakralen Repräsentation und Rezeption der Herrschaft des Septimius Severus und seiner Familie (193–211 n. chr.) |location= Leiden; Boston |publisher= [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year= 2011 |series= Impact of Empire |volume= 14 |isbn= 978-90-04-20192-7 }}
* [[Harold Mattingly|Mattingly, Harold]] & Edward A. Sydenham (1936). ''The [[Roman Imperial Coinage]], vol. IV, part I, Pertinax to Geta'', London, Spink & Son.
* {{cite book |last= Settipani |first= Christian |title= Continuité Gentilice et Continuité Familiale dans les Familles Sénatoriales Romaines à l'Époque Impériale: Mythe et Réalité |year= 2000 |location= Oxford |publisher= Unit for Prosographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford |isbn= 978-1-900934-02-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tabbernee |first=William |title=Fake Prophecy and Polluted Sacraments: Ecclesiastical and Imperial Reactions to Montanism (Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae) |date=2007 |publisher=Brill|location= Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15819-1 }}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Septimius Severus}}
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html Life of Septimius Severus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html Books 74], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html 75], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html 76] and [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html 77] of [[Dio Cassius]], covering the rise to power and reign of Septimius Severus
* [http://www.ancientopedia.com/Septimius_Severus/ Septimius Severus on Ancient History Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm Book 3 of Herodian]
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] Online encyclopaedia of Roman emperors
* [https://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025100233/http://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html |date=25 October 2008 }}
* [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf Septimius Severus in Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611162140/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf |date=11 June 2007 }}
* [https://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html Arch of Septimius Severus in Lepcis Magna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228223148/http://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html |date=28 December 2007 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060528175255/http://www.numismatics.org/exhibits/DrachmasDoubloonsDollars/cases/case02.G.html Coins issued by Septimius Severus]
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Septimius Severus}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502235723/http://cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/Roman_People/LUCIUS-SEPTIMIUS-SEVERUS.html THE LIFE AND REIGN OF THE EMPEROR LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, in BTM Format]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Severan dynasty]]|11 April|146|4 February|211|}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Didius Julianus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title= [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|years=193–211|regent1= [[Pescennius Niger]] (rival 193–194),<br />[[Clodius Albinus]] (rival 193–197),<br />[[Caracalla]] (198–211),<br />[[Publius Septimius Geta]] (209–211)}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Caracalla]],<br /> [[Publius Septimius Geta]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Lucius Fabius Cilo]], and<br />[[Marcus Silius Messala]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of late imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|years=194|regent1= [[Clodius Albinus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Publius Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus]],<br />and [[Quintus Tineius Clemens]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Annius Fabianus]],<br />and [[Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of late imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|years=202|regent1= [[Caracalla]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Titus Murrenius Severus]],<br />and [[Gaius Cassius Regallianus]]|as=Suffect consuls}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman Emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severus, Septimius}}
[[Category:Septimius Severus| ]]
[[Category:145 births]]
[[Category:211 deaths]]
[[Category:2nd-century Punic people]]
[[Category:2nd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:3rd-century Punic people]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Ancient Libyans]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Parthian Wars]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Gallia Lugdunensis]]
[[Category:Roman pharaohs]]
[[Category:Romans from Africa]]
[[Category:Septimii]]
[[Category:Severan dynasty]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Roman emperor from 193 to 211}}
{{Good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Septimius Severus
| image = Septimius Severus busto-Musei Capitolini.jpg
| image_size =
| alt = White bust of bearded man
| caption = [[Roman portraiture|Roman]] [[alabaster]] and marble bust of Septimius Severus, [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign = 9 April 193 – {{awrap|4 February 211}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kienast|first=Dietmar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYRorgEACAAJ|title=Römische Kaisertabelle Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie|publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft|year=2017|isbn=978-3-534-07532-4|edition=6th|location=Darmstadt|pages=149–159|chapter=Septimius Severus (9 Apr. 193–4 Febr. 211)|oclc=75671165|orig-year=1990}}</ref>
| predecessor = [[Didius Julianus]]
| successor = [[Caracalla]] and [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]
| regent = {{ubl|Caracalla (198–211)|Geta (209–211)}}
| reg-type = {{nowrap|Co-emperors}}
|suc-type=Successors| birth_name = Lucius Septimius Severus<ref name="Cooley 2012 495">{{cite book |last=Cooley |year=2012 |first=Alison E. |title=The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=495|isbn=978-0-521-84026-2 |url={{googlebooks|VlghAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Alison E. Cooley }}</ref>
| birth_date = 11 April 145<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 1">Birley (1999), p. 1.</ref>
| birth_place = [[Leptis Magna]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]
| death_date = 4 February 211 (aged 65)<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 187">Birley (1999), p. 187.</ref>
| death_place = [[Eboracum]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]]
| burial_place =
| spouses = {{ubl|item_style={{longitem}}|[[Paccia Marciana]] {{awrap|({{abbr|m.|married}} {{circa|175}}; died {{circa|186}})}}|[[Julia Domna]] ({{abbr|m.|married}} 187)}}
| issue = {{ubl|[[Caracalla]]|[[Geta (emperor)|Geta]]}}
| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus<ref name="Cooley 2012 495">{{cite book |last=Cooley |year=2012 |first=Alison E. |title=The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=495|isbn=978-0-521-84026-2 |url={{googlebooks|VlghAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Alison E. Cooley }}</ref>
| dynasty = [[Severan dynasty|Severan]]
| father = [[Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]]
| mother = Fulvia Pia
}}
{{Severan dynasty|image=[[File:INC-1568-a Ауреус Септимий Север ок. 196-197 (аверс).png|150px]]|caption=Aureus of Septimius Severus}}
'''Lucius Septimius Severus''' ({{IPA-la|ˈluːkiʊs ˈsɛptɪmʊs sɛˈweːrʊs}}; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was a [[Roman people|Roman]] politician who served as [[Roman emperor|emperor]] from 193 to 211. He was born in [[Leptis Magna]] (present-day [[Al-Khums]], Libya) in the [[Roman province of Africa]].<ref>Anthony Richard Birley, ''Septimius Severus: the African emperor'', Yale University Press, 1988, pp2,18-32</ref><ref>Craig Simpson, "Roman emperor hailed as 'black Briton' – even though he wasn't black", ''Daily Telegraph'', 30 October 2023</ref> As a young man he advanced through [[cursus honorum|the customary succession of offices]] under the reigns of [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Commodus]]. Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor [[Pertinax]] in 193 during the [[Year of the Five Emperors]].
After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Your mom cjcnfj was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
He proclaimed as ''[[augusti]]'' (co-emperors) his elder son [[Caracalla]] in 198 and his younger son [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]] in 209, both born of his second wife [[Julia Domna]]. Severus travelled to [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in 208, strengthening [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reoccupying the [[Antonine Wall]]. In 209 he invaded [[Caledonia]] (modern [[Scotland during the Roman Empire|Scotland]]) with an army of 50,000 men<ref>{{Cite book|last=Elliott|first=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=och2swEACAAJ|title=Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots|date=2018|publisher=Greenhill Books|isbn=978-1-78438-204-9|pages=147|language=en}}</ref> but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 at [[Eboracum]] (today [[York]], England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding the [[Severan dynasty]]. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].
== Early life ==
=== Family and education ===
Born on 11 April 145 at [[Leptis Magna]] (in present-day Libya) as the son of [[Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]] and [[Fulvia Pia]],<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 1"/> Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of [[Equites|equestrian]] rank. Severus had [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italic]] and [[Punic]] ancestry; the Roman ancestry came from his mother's side, while his Punic ancestry came from his father's side.<ref name="Birley 1999, pp. 212–213">Birley (1999), pp. 212–213.</ref> Severus was described as 'Libyan by race', by the historian [[Cassius Dio]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Anthony R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z8iEAgAAQBAJ&dq=Septimius+Severus+libyan+by+race&pg=PA50 |title=Septimius Severus: The African Emperor |date=1 June 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-70745-4 |language=en}}</ref> Due to his family background on his father's side he is considered the first provincial emperor as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.<ref>{{cite web| title=Emperor Septimius Severus dies at York| url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/emperor-septimius-severus-dies-york| work=History Today| access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] {{reign|138|161}}. His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the [[Fulvia gens|''gens'' Fulvia]], an [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Italian]] [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician family]] that originated in [[Tusculum]].<ref>Adam, Alexander, ''Classical biography'',[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&q=fulvius+gens&pg=PA182 Google eBook] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610001757/https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA182&dq=classical+biography+gens+fulvia+cicero+tusculum&hl=it&ei=U0ZYTseHGsmi-gbFrJSuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=fulvius%20gens&f=false |date=10 June 2016}}, p.182: ''FULVIUS, the name of a "gens" which originally came from Tusculum (Cic. Planc. 8)''.</ref>
Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, [[Publius Septimius Geta (brother of Septimius Severus)|Publius Septimius Geta]]; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was the [[praetorian prefect]] and consul [[Gaius Fulvius Plautianus]].<ref name="Birley 1999, pp. 216–217">Birley (1999), pp. 216–217.</ref> Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the local [[Punic language]] fluently, but he was also educated in [[Latin]] and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to [[Cassius Dio]], the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons in [[Rhetoric|oratory]]: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 34–35.</ref>
=== Public service ===
[[File:Septimius Severus - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5479502.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|300x300px|Dynastic [[aureus]] of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits of Geta (right), [[Julia Domna]] (centre) and Caracalla (left).<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part I,'' p. 115.</ref> Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI.]]
Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of hi relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>
It is likely that he served as a ''[[vigintisexviri|vigintivir]]'' in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.<ref name=birley-40/> At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (''Advocatus fisci'').<ref>Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London 1870, v. 3, p. 117.</ref> However, he omitted the [[Military tribune|military tribunate]] from the ''cursus honorum'' and had to delay his [[quaestor]]ship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.<ref name=birley-40/> To make matters worse, the [[Antonine Plague]] swept through the capital in 166.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 45">Birley (1999), p. 45.</ref>
With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 45"/> According to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for [[adultery]] during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5{{spaces}}December, he took office and was officially enrolled in the [[Roman Senate]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 46.</ref> Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The [[Antonine Plague]] had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 49.</ref>
The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa, [[Mauri]] tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of [[Sardinia]] [[Senatorial province|as compensation]]. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of [[Sardinia]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 50.</ref>
In 173, Severus' cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed [[proconsul]] of the province of [[Africa Proconsularis]] and chose Severus as one of his two ''[[legatus|legati pro praetore]]'', a senior military appointment.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 51.</ref> Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as [[tribune of the plebs]], a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the ''candidatus'' of the emperor.<ref name=birley-52>Birley (1999), p. 52.</ref>
=== Marriages ===
[[File:Carole Raddato (13543792233).jpg|thumb| The [[Severan Tondo]], {{Circa|199}}, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased ([[Antikensammlung Berlin]])]]
About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to [[Paccia Marciana]], a woman from Leptis Magna.<ref name="birley"/> He probably met her during his tenure as [[Legatus|legate]] under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable ''Historia Augusta'' claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years.<ref name=birley-52/>
Marciana died of natural causes around 186.<ref name=birley-75>Birley (1999), p. 75.</ref> Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into the horoscopes of prospective brides. The ''Historia Augusta'' relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife.<ref name="birley">Birley (1999), p. 71.</ref> This woman was an Emesene [[Roman Syria|Syrian]] named [[Julia Domna]]. Her father, [[Julius Bassianus]], descended from the Arab [[Emesene dynasty]] and served as a [[high priest]] to the local cult of the sun god [[Elagabalus (deity)|Elagabal]].<ref name=birley-72>Birley (1999), p. 72.</ref> Domna's older sister, [[Julia Maesa]], would become the grandmother of the future emperors [[Elagabalus]] and [[Alexander Severus]].<ref name="dio-history-lxxix-30">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30 LXXIX.30] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120526042142/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30 |date=26 May 2012 }}</ref>
Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in [[Lugdunum]] (modern-day [[Lyon]], France), of which Severus was the governor.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 76–77; Fishwick (2005), p. 347.</ref> The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy.<ref>Gibbon (1831), p. 74.</ref> They had two sons, [[Lucius Septimius Bassianus]] (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4{{spaces}}April 188 in Lugdunum) and [[Publius Septimius Geta]] (born 7{{spaces}}March 189 in Rome).<ref name=birley-76-77>Birley (1999), pp. 76–77.</ref>
{{Gallery
| align = center
| width = 160
| height = 200
| File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357.jpg|
| File:Julia Domna Glyptothek Munich 354.jpg|
| footer=Busts of Septimius Severus (left) and Julia Domna (right), [[Munich Glyptotek]]
}}
== Rise to power ==
[[File:0205 Altes Museum Septimius Severus anagoria.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Roman sculpture|Roman marble bust]] of Septimius Severus, early 3rd century AD, [[Altes Museum]]]]
In 191, on the advice of [[Quintus Aemilius Laetus]], [[Praetorian prefect|prefect]] of the [[Praetorian Guard]], [[Commodus|emperor Commodus]] appointed Severus as governor of [[Pannonia Superior]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Matthew|last= Bunson|location= Roma|isbn= 978-88-8289-627-0 |publisher= Newton & Compton|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&q=commodus%20septimius%20severus%20191&pg=PA300|title= Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire|year= 2002|page= 300}}</ref> At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".{{sfn|Harper|2017|p=123}} Commodus was assassinated the following year. [[Pertinax]] was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193.{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}} In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legion [[Legio XIV Gemina|''XIV Gemina'']] acclaimed him emperor at [[Carnuntum]] on 9 April.{{sfn|Birley|1999|p=97}}{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}} Nearby legions, such as [[Legio X Gemina|''X Gemina'']] at [[Vindobona]], soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy.{{sfn|Campbell|1994|pp= 40–41}}
Pertinax's successor in Rome, [[Didius Julianus]], had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html Roman History]'', LXXIV.17.4</ref> Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the [[Praetorian Guard]], filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions.<ref name=Dio75>[[Cassius Dio]], ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html Roman History]'', LXXV.1.1–2</ref><ref name="Birley 1999, p. 113">Birley (1999), p. 113.</ref>
The legions of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] had proclaimed [[Pescennius Niger]] emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer [[Clodius Albinus]], the powerful governor of [[Britannia]], who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] (194).
<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 113"/>
While campaigning against [[Byzantium]], he ordered that the tomb of his [[Ancient Carthage|fellow-Carthaginian]] [[Hannibal]] be covered with fine marble.<ref>
Gabriel, Richard A. ''Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy'', Potomac Books, Inc., 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-59797-766-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&dq=severus+byzantium+hannibal&pg=PT265 Google books]
</ref>
He devoted the following year to suppressing [[Mesopotamia]] and other [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his son [[Caracalla]] as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19{{spaces}}February 197 at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]], with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of [[Pannonia]]n, [[Moesia]]n and [[Dacia]]n legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.<ref>
[[Spartianus]], ''Severus'' 11
</ref><ref>
{{Cite book|title= Roman Britain and the English settlements
|last= Collingwood|first=R. G.
|date= 1998|orig-year= 1936|publisher= Biblo and Tannen
|others= Myres, J. N. L. (John Nowell Linton)
|isbn= 978-0-8196-1160-4|location= New York, N.Y.
|oclc= 36750306}}</ref><ref>Birley (1999), p. 125.
</ref>
Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors).<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Tenney |first1=Frank |title=A History of Rome |date=1923 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |pages=531–532 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/FRAAHR/home.html}}
</ref>
== Emperor ==
[[File: 20130518 Septimius Severus Archeological Museum Komotini Thrace Greece.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Golden Bust of Septimius Severus]] found in 1965 at [[Didymoteicho]] in Northern [[Greece]], now at the [[Archaeological Museum of Komotini]].]]
=== War against Parthia ===
{{further|Roman–Parthian Wars}}
[[File:Severus210AD.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus, showing Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple)]]
[[File:Aureus Septimius Severus-193-leg XIIII GMV.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aureus]] minted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate [[Legio XIV Gemina|XIIII ''Gemina Martia Victrix'']], the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S.]]
In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked at [[Brundisium]] and probably landed at the port of [[History of Yumurtalık|Aegeae]] in [[Cilicia]],<ref>Hasebroek (1921), p. 111.</ref> travelling on to [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the [[Euphrates]].<ref>"Life of Septimius Severus" in ''Historia Augusta'', 16.1.</ref> [[Abgar IX]], titular King of [[Osroene]] but essentially only the ruler of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,<ref>Birley (1999), p. 115.</ref> handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 129.</ref> King [[Khosrov I of Armenia]] also sent hostages, money and gifts.<ref>Hovannisian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', p. 71</ref>
Severus travelled on to [[Nisibis]], which his general [[Julius Laetus]] had prevented from falling into [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.<ref>''Prosopographia Imperii Romani'' L 69.</ref> The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]], reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to [[Pescennius Niger]]. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of [[Battle of Ctesiphon (198)|Ctesiphon]] and he annexed the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] to the empire;<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153">Birley (1999), p. 153.</ref><ref>Birley (1999), p. 130.</ref> Severus took the title ''{{lang|la| Parthicus Maximus}}'', following the example of [[Trajan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | article = Ctesiphon | last = Kröger | first = Jens | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4 | pages = 446–448 | year = 1993 }}
</ref> However, he was unable to capture the fortress of [[Hatra]], even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'', building new fortifications in the [[Arabian Desert]] from [[Qasr Azraq|Basie]] to [[Dumat Al-Jandal|Dumatha]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 134">
Birley (1999), p. 134.
</ref>
===Relations with the Senate and People===
Severus' relations with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected the [[Arch of Septimius Severus]] in Rome.<ref>Asante, Molefi Kete and Shanza Ismail, "Rediscovering the 'Lost' Roman Caesar: Septimius Severus the African and Eurocentric Historiography." ''[[Journal of Black Studies]]'' 40, no. 4 (March 2010): 606–618</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Perkins|first1=J. B. Ward|title=The Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna|journal=Archaeology|date=December 1951|volume= 4|issue= 4|pages=226–231}}</ref>
According to Cassius Dio,<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 76, Sections 14 and 15.</ref> however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, [[Gaius Fulvius Plautianus]], who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and [[Julia Domna]], Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter [[Fulvia Plautilla]] was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and [[Caracalla]] accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 161–162.</ref> One of the two following ''praefecti'' was the famous jurist [[Papinian]]. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, [[Julia Domna]], in the administration of the empire.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 165.</ref>
===Military reforms===
[[File:Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195-211 AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (13648215765).jpg|thumb|Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD, [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]], Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS.]]
Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged the [[Praetorian Guard]],<ref name=Dio75/> which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within {{convert|160|km|0}} miles of the city on pain of death.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 103.</ref> Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.<ref name=Adkins>Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, Both Professional ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=septimius%20severus%20praetorian%20guard&pg=PA68 Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome]'', p. 68</ref>
Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III ''Parthica''.<ref>George Ronald Watson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PSEnmtuOh6K0C&dq=septimius%20severus%20number%20of%20legions&pg=PA23 The Roman Soldier]{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p. 23</ref> He garrisoned [[Legio II Parthica]] at [[Albano Laziale|Albanum]], only {{convert|20|km}} from Rome.<ref name=Adkins/> He gave his soldiers a [[donativum|donative]] of a thousand ''[[sestertius|sesterces]]'' (250 ''[[denarii]]'') each,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html|title=Septimius Severus: Legionary Denarius|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 ''denarii''.<ref>Kenneth W. Harl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&dq=septimius%20severus%20legion%20pay&pg=PA216 Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700]'', p. 216</ref>
Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.<ref>Michael Grant (1978); ''History of Rome''; p. 358; Charles Scribner's Sons; NY {{ISBN?}}</ref>
=== Reputed persecution of Christians ===
At the beginning of Severus' reign, [[Trajan]]'s policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.{{sfn|González|2010|p=97}} Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promoting [[syncretism]].{{sfn|González|2010|pp=97–98}} He possibly issued an edict<ref name=HA>''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html Historia Augusta]'', Septimius Severus, 17.1</ref> that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|pp=182–183}}
A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=182}} This is based on the decree mentioned in the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'',<ref name=HA/> an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Early church historian [[Eusebius]] described Severus as a persecutor.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', VI.1.1</ref> The [[Christian apologist]] [[Tertullian]] stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,<ref>{{in lang|la}} [[Tertullian]], ''[http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm Ad Scapulam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025174903/http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm |date=25 October 2015 }}'', IV.5–6</ref> employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=184}} Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the ''[[Roman Martyrology]]'' as the martyrs of [[Madauros]], [[Charalambos]] and [[Perpetua and Felicity]] in [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman-ruled Africa]]. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.{{sfn|Tabbernee|2007|p=185}}
== Military activity ==
=== Africa ===
In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The ''[[legatus legionis]]'' or commander of [[Legio III Augusta]], [[Quintus Anicius Faustus]], had been fighting against the [[Garamantes]] along the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' for five years. He captured several settlements such as [[Ghadames|Cydamus]], Gholaia, Garbia and their capital [[Germa|Garama]]—over {{convert|600|km}} south of [[Leptis Magna]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 153.</ref> The province of [[Numidia]] was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of [[Biskra|Vescera]], [[Messaad|Castellum Dimmidi]], [[M'Lili|Gemellae]], [[Thabudeos]] and [[Tubunae|Thubunae]]<!-- Zabi probably simply means "village" in local dialect -->.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 147.</ref> By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into the [[Sahara]].<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 153"/>
[[File:Septimius Severus' African conquests1.jpg|thumb|center|450px|The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan).]]
=== Britain ===
{{further|Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–210)}}
[[File:Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.jpg|thumb|[[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] ring with portraits of Septimius Severus and [[Julia Domna]], a testimony to [[Indo-Roman relations]] of the period]]
In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering [[Caledonia]]. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.<ref name="Birley 1999 180">Birley, (1999) p. 180.</ref> Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.<ref>W.S. Hanson [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf "Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107022132/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>
He strengthened [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reconquered the [[Southern Uplands]] up to the [[Antonine Wall]], which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,<ref name="Scotland"/> Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]] of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as [[Carpow Roman Fort|Carpow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|title=Carpow {{!}} Canmore|website=canmore.org.uk|language=en|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015140/https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow|archive-date=16 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Cassius Dio]]'s account of the invasion reads:
{{blockquote|Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html |title=Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 77 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2012-11-07}}</ref>}}
By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keys |first1=David |title=Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |access-date=6 July 2018 |agency=Independent |date=27 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707015802/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |archive-date=7 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.<ref name="Birley 1999 180"/><ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Epitome of Book LXXVII.13.</ref> This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 180–82.</ref> The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the [[Maeatae]].<ref>Birley (1999), p. 186.</ref> Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."<ref name="Scotland">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Laura|title=The Honest Truth: How the Romans came close but ultimately failed to conquer Scotland under Septimius Severus|url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|access-date=21 May 2018|publisher=The Sunday Post|date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521164647/https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/|archive-date=21 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Dio Cassius (Xiphilinus) 'Romaika' Epitome of Book LXXVI Chapter 15.</ref>
== Death ==
Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 77, Sections 11–15.</ref><ref name=":0">Birley (1999), pp. 170–187.</ref> He withdrew to [[Eboracum]] (York) and died there in 211.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 187"/> Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall.<ref name=":0"/>
Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 77, Section 15.</ref> On his death, Severus was [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|deified]] by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]], who were advised by his wife [[Julia Domna]].<ref>"Life of Septimius Severus" in ''Historia Augusta'', Section 19.</ref> Severus was buried in the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Mausoleum of Hadrian]] in Rome.
<gallery widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Larger than life-size bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, discovered by chance in 1928 near the village of Kythrea in Cyprus, Cyprus Museum, Nicosia (22275287879).jpg|Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, [[Cyprus Museum]].
File:Jean-Baptiste Greuze - Septimius Severus and Caracalla - WGA10673.jpg|Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] (c. 1769).
</gallery>
== Assessment and legacy ==
[[File:Leptis Magna Arch of Septimius Severus.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna]]]]
By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over {{convert|2.0|mi2|0|disp=number}} million square kilometres, which scholars like [[David L. Kennedy]], Lukas De Blois, and Derrick Riley state expanded the empire to its greatest physical extent.<ref name="kennedy">[[David L. Kennedy]], Derrick Riley (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 ''Rome's Desert Frontiers'', page 13] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730070357/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |date=30 July 2017 }}, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref name="spek">[[R.J. van der Spek]], Lukas De Blois (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 ''An Introduction to the Ancient World'', page 272] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730064823/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 |date=30 July 2017 }}, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref name="JBCampbell">J. B. Campbell (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=iznJ_d6mQagC&dq=roman+empire+%22greatest+extent%22+severus&pg=PA13 ''Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome'', page 13], University of North Carolina Press</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Möller |first=Lenelotte |title=Cassius Dio: Römische Geschichte |publisher=marixverlag |year=2012 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferrary |first=Jean-Louis |title=Eutrope: Abrégé d'histoire romaine |publisher=Les belles lettres |year=2003 |isbn=978-2251014142 |language=Fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dufraigne |first=Pierre |title=Aurélius Victor: Livre des Césars |publisher=Les belles lettres |year=2003 |isbn=978-2251010182 |language=Fr}}</ref>
[[Edward Gibbon]] famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity."<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Gibbon|author-link=Edward Gibbon|location=London|publisher=Cadell|oclc=840075577|url=http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1776|page=96|access-date=25 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219010818/http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm|archive-date=19 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> His enlargement of the [[Limes Tripolitanus]] secured [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], the agricultural base of the empire where he was born.<ref>Kenneth D. Matthews, Jr., ''Cities in the Sand''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Africa/Libya/_Texts/MATCIS/Background*.html The Roman Background of Tripolitania], 1957</ref> His victory over the [[Parthian Empire]] was for a time decisive, securing [[Nisibis]] and [[Singara]] for the empire and establishing a ''status quo'' of Roman dominance in the region until 251.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Erdkamp|isbn=978-1-4443-3921-5|publisher=Blackwell |location= Malden (Massachusetts)|title=A Companion to the Roman Army|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&q=septimius%20severus%20nisibis&pg=PA251|page=251}}</ref> His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Herodianus]]: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain the new and better-paid army.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html ''Roman History''] LXXV.2.3</ref><ref>[[Herodianus]], ''[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm History of the Roman Empire]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124024755/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm |date=24 November 2009 }} III.9.2–3</ref> The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.<ref name="spek"/>
To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the [[Roman currency]]. Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the [[denarius]] from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased the denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |title=Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" |access-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |archive-date=10 February 2001 |url-status=live }}</ref> Severus' currency [[debasement]] was the largest since the reign of [[Nero]], compromising the long-term strength of the economy.<ref>Kenneth W. Harl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&pg=PA126 Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700]'', p. 126</ref>
Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the [[Arch of Septimius Severus|triumphal arch]] in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the [[Septizodium]] in Rome. He enriched his native city of [[Leptis Magna]], including commissioning [[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|a triumphal arch]] on the occasion of his visit of 203.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gregorovius|first=Ferdinand|title=History of the city of Rome in the Middle Ages|volume=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 1895|oclc=57224029|page=541}}</ref>
Due to Severus being born in North Africa, recent years have occasionally seen him mischaracterised as racially African, despite the Carthaginian and Italian antecedents of his parents. The [[Historia Augustus]] actually records him when on campaign ordering an Ethiopian soldier who attempted to bestow him a garland removed from his presence, believing the man's dark skin a bad omen.<ref>Anthony Richard Birley, ''Septimius Severus: The African emperor'', Yale University Press, 1988, p. 184</ref>
[[File:Roman Empire with provinces in 210 AD.png|thumb|center|300px|The Provinces of the Roman Empire in 210 AD]]
==Severan dynasty family tree==
{{Severan dynasty family tree}}
== See also ==
* [[Arcus Argentariorum]]—dedicated by the money changers of Rome to the Severan family
* [[Bulla Felix]]
* [[Septimia gens]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Birley |first= Anthony R. |author-link= Anthony Birley |title= Septimius Severus: The African Emperor |orig-year= 1971 |year= 1999| publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London |isbn= 978-0-415-16591-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Brian |title=The Roman Army, 31 BC - AD 337: A Sourcebook|year=1994| publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London|isbn=978-0-415-07172-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUN-TGktYLYC&q=carnuntum+septimius+severus&pg=PA142}}
* {{cite book |last= Cooley |first= Alison |author-link= Alison E. Cooley |chapter= Septimius Severus: The Augustan Emperor |editor1-first= Simon |editor1-last= Swain |editor2-first= Stephen |editor2-last= Harrison |editor3-first= Jas |editor3-last= Elsner |editor3-link= Jas Elsner |title= Severan Culture |location= Cambridge |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-0-521-85982-0 }}
* {{cite book |last= Daguet-Gagey |first= Anne |title= Septime Sévère: Rome, l'Afrique et l'Orient |location= Paris |publisher= Payot |year= 2000 |series= Biographie Payot |isbn= 978-2-228-89336-7 |language= FR }}
* {{cite book |last= Elliott |first= Simon |title= Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots |year= 2018 |location= London |publisher= Greenhill Books |isbn= 978-1-78438-204-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fishwick |first=Duncan|title=The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=2005|isbn=978-90-04-07179-7|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lGRRAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1831|location=New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CwMAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last= González |first= Justo L.|title=The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation |year=2010 |volume= 1|location=New York|publisher=HarperCollins|oclc=905489146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC&q=septimius%20severus%20persecution&pg=PP1|isbn= 978-0-06-185588-7 }}
* {{cite book |last= Grant |first= Michael |author-link= Michael Grant (author) |location= London|publisher =Weidenfeld & Nicolson |title= The Roman Emperors |year= 1985 |isbn= 978-0-7607-0091-4 }}
* {{cite book |last= Grant |first= Michael |author-link= Michael Grant (author) |title= The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire | publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= London |year= 1996 |isbn= 978-0-415-12772-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Harper|first=Kyle |date=2017 |title=The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire |url= |location=Princeton; Oxford |publisher=Princeton University Press |page= |isbn=978-0-691-19206-2 |author-link= }}
* {{cite book |last= Hasebroek |first= Johannes |title= Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Septimius Severus |url= https://archive.org/details/untersuchungenzu00haseuoft |location= Heidelberg |publisher= C Winter |oclc= 4153259 |year= 1921 }}
* {{cite book |last= Hovannisian |first= R. G. |title= The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times |volume= 1: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=New York |year= 2004 |orig-year= 1997 |isbn= 978-1-4039-6421-2 }}
* {{cite book |last= Lichtenberger |first= Achim |title= Severus Pius Augustus: Studien zur sakralen Repräsentation und Rezeption der Herrschaft des Septimius Severus und seiner Familie (193–211 n. chr.) |location= Leiden; Boston |publisher= [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year= 2011 |series= Impact of Empire |volume= 14 |isbn= 978-90-04-20192-7 }}
* [[Harold Mattingly|Mattingly, Harold]] & Edward A. Sydenham (1936). ''The [[Roman Imperial Coinage]], vol. IV, part I, Pertinax to Geta'', London, Spink & Son.
* {{cite book |last= Settipani |first= Christian |title= Continuité Gentilice et Continuité Familiale dans les Familles Sénatoriales Romaines à l'Époque Impériale: Mythe et Réalité |year= 2000 |location= Oxford |publisher= Unit for Prosographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford |isbn= 978-1-900934-02-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tabbernee |first=William |title=Fake Prophecy and Polluted Sacraments: Ecclesiastical and Imperial Reactions to Montanism (Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae) |date=2007 |publisher=Brill|location= Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15819-1 }}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Septimius Severus}}
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html Life of Septimius Severus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html Books 74], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html 75], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html 76] and [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html 77] of [[Dio Cassius]], covering the rise to power and reign of Septimius Severus
* [http://www.ancientopedia.com/Septimius_Severus/ Septimius Severus on Ancient History Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm Book 3 of Herodian]
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] Online encyclopaedia of Roman emperors
* [https://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025100233/http://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html |date=25 October 2008 }}
* [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf Septimius Severus in Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611162140/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf |date=11 June 2007 }}
* [https://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html Arch of Septimius Severus in Lepcis Magna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228223148/http://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html |date=28 December 2007 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060528175255/http://www.numismatics.org/exhibits/DrachmasDoubloonsDollars/cases/case02.G.html Coins issued by Septimius Severus]
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Septimius Severus}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502235723/http://cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/Roman_People/LUCIUS-SEPTIMIUS-SEVERUS.html THE LIFE AND REIGN OF THE EMPEROR LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, in BTM Format]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Severan dynasty]]|11 April|146|4 February|211|}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Didius Julianus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title= [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|years=193–211|regent1= [[Pescennius Niger]] (rival 193–194),<br />[[Clodius Albinus]] (rival 193–197),<br />[[Caracalla]] (198–211),<br />[[Publius Septimius Geta]] (209–211)}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Caracalla]],<br /> [[Publius Septimius Geta]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Lucius Fabius Cilo]], and<br />[[Marcus Silius Messala]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of late imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|years=194|regent1= [[Clodius Albinus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Publius Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus]],<br />and [[Quintus Tineius Clemens]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Annius Fabianus]],<br />and [[Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of late imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|years=202|regent1= [[Caracalla]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Titus Murrenius Severus]],<br />and [[Gaius Cassius Regallianus]]|as=Suffect consuls}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman Emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Severus, Septimius}}
[[Category:Septimius Severus| ]]
[[Category:145 births]]
[[Category:211 deaths]]
[[Category:2nd-century Punic people]]
[[Category:2nd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:3rd-century Punic people]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Ancient Libyans]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Parthian Wars]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Gallia Lugdunensis]]
[[Category:Roman pharaohs]]
[[Category:Romans from Africa]]
[[Category:Septimii]]
[[Category:Severan dynasty]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -31,5 +31,5 @@
'''Lucius Septimius Severus''' ({{IPA-la|ˈluːkiʊs ˈsɛptɪmʊs sɛˈweːrʊs}}; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was a [[Roman people|Roman]] politician who served as [[Roman emperor|emperor]] from 193 to 211. He was born in [[Leptis Magna]] (present-day [[Al-Khums]], Libya) in the [[Roman province of Africa]].<ref>Anthony Richard Birley, ''Septimius Severus: the African emperor'', Yale University Press, 1988, pp2,18-32</ref><ref>Craig Simpson, "Roman emperor hailed as 'black Briton' – even though he wasn't black", ''Daily Telegraph'', 30 October 2023</ref> As a young man he advanced through [[cursus honorum|the customary succession of offices]] under the reigns of [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Commodus]]. Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor [[Pertinax]] in 193 during the [[Year of the Five Emperors]].
-After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Niger was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
+After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Your mom cjcnfj was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
He proclaimed as ''[[augusti]]'' (co-emperors) his elder son [[Caracalla]] in 198 and his younger son [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]] in 209, both born of his second wife [[Julia Domna]]. Severus travelled to [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in 208, strengthening [[Hadrian's Wall]] and reoccupying the [[Antonine Wall]]. In 209 he invaded [[Caledonia]] (modern [[Scotland during the Roman Empire|Scotland]]) with an army of 50,000 men<ref>{{Cite book|last=Elliott|first=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=och2swEACAAJ|title=Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots|date=2018|publisher=Greenhill Books|isbn=978-1-78438-204-9|pages=147|language=en}}</ref> but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 at [[Eboracum]] (today [[York]], England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding the [[Severan dynasty]]. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].
@@ -45,5 +45,5 @@
=== Public service ===
[[File:Septimius Severus - Münzkabinett, Berlin - 5479502.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|300x300px|Dynastic [[aureus]] of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits of Geta (right), [[Julia Domna]] (centre) and Caracalla (left).<ref>Mattingly & Sydenham, ''Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part I,'' p. 115.</ref> Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI.]]
-Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>
+Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of hi relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>
It is likely that he served as a ''[[vigintisexviri|vigintivir]]'' in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.<ref name=birley-40/> At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (''Advocatus fisci'').<ref>Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London 1870, v. 3, p. 117.</ref> However, he omitted the [[Military tribune|military tribunate]] from the ''cursus honorum'' and had to delay his [[quaestor]]ship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.<ref name=birley-40/> To make matters worse, the [[Antonine Plague]] swept through the capital in 166.<ref name="Birley 1999, p. 45">Birley (1999), p. 45.</ref>
' |
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0 => 'After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Your mom cjcnfj was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.',
1 => 'Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of hi relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => 'After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor [[Didius Julianus]], Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals [[Pescennius Niger]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. Niger was defeated in 194 at the [[Battle of Issus (194)|Battle of Issus]] in [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]]. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the [[Osroene|Kingdom of Osroene]] as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the [[Battle of Lugdunum]] in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the [[Parthian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the [[Tigris]]. He then enlarged and fortified the ''[[Limes Arabicus]]'' in [[Arabia Petraea]]. In 202, he campaigned in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Mauretania]] against the [[Garamantes]], capturing their capital [[Germa|Garama]] and expanding the ''[[Limes Tripolitanus]]'' along the southern desert frontier of the empire.',
1 => 'Severus sought a public career in [[Rome]] in around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180}}) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 39.</ref> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<ref name="birley-40">Birley (1999), p. 40.</ref>'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Roman emperor from 193 to 211</div>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; font-size: 125%">Septimius Severus</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White bust of bearded man" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg/220px-Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg/330px-Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg/440px-Septimius_Severus_busto-Musei_Capitolini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a> and marble bust of Septimius Severus, <a href="/info/en/?search=Musei_Capitolini" class="mw-redirect" title="Musei Capitolini">Musei Capitolini</a>, Rome</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">9 April 193 – <span class="avoidwrap" style="display:inline-block;">4 February 211</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/info/en/?search=Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Co-emperors</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Caracalla (198–211)</li><li>Geta (209–211)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">Lucius Septimius Severus<sup id="cite_ref-Cooley_2012_495_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooley_2012_495-2">[2]</a></sup><br />11 April 145<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._1-3">[3]</a></sup><br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">4 February 211 (aged 65)<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._187_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._187-4">[4]</a></sup><br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Paccia_Marciana" title="Paccia Marciana">Paccia Marciana</a> <span class="avoidwrap" style="display:inline-block;">(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175</span>; died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 186</span>)</span></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a> (<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 187)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/info/en/?search=Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1218072481"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/info/en/?search=Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">Regnal name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus<sup id="cite_ref-Cooley_2012_495_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooley_2012_495-2">[2]</a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/info/en/?search=Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta_(father_of_Septimius_Severus)" title="Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)">Publius Septimius Geta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data">Fulvia Pia</td></tr></tbody></table>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045330069">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="color:#ffffff; background:#b80049;text-align:center;">Roman imperial dynasties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/150px-INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/225px-INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/300px-INC-1568-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%BA._196-197_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="512" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Aureus of Septimius Severus</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">
<b><a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="color:#000000; background:#E5E4E2; font-size: 110%;text-align:center;">
Chronology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Septimius Severus</a></b></div> <div style="float:right;">193–211</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap">with <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></span></div> <div style="float:right;">198–211</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap">with <a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></span></div> <div style="float:right;">209–211</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></b></span></div> <div style="float:right;">211–217</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap"><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></b></span></div> <div style="float:right;">211</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Macrinus" title="Macrinus"><b>Macrinus</b></a>' usurpation</div> <div style="float:right;">217–218</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap">with <a href="/info/en/?search=Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a></span></div> <div style="float:right;">218</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></b></div> <div style="float:right;">218–222</div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<div style="float:left;"><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></b></div> <div style="float:right;">222–235</div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="color:#000000; background:#E5E4E2; font-size: 110%;text-align:center;">
Dynasty</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_dynasty_family_tree" title="Severan dynasty family tree">Severan dynasty family tree</a></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<a href="/info/en/?search=Category:Severan_dynasty" title="Category:Severan dynasty">All biographies</a><br /></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="color:#000000; background:#E5E4E2; font-size: 110%;text-align:center;">
Succession</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size: 95%;text-align:center;">
<table style="width:100%"><tbody><tr>
<td style="width:50%;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;"><i>Preceded by</i><br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five<br />Emperors</a></td>
<td style="width:50%;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;"><i>Followed by</i><br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third<br />Century</a></td>
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<p><b>Lucius Septimius Severus</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Latin pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="la-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[ˈluːkiʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈsɛptɪmʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>sɛˈweːrʊs]</a></span>; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was a <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman</a> politician who served as <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> from 193 to 211. He was born in <a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a> (present-day <a href="/info/en/?search=Al-Khums" title="Al-Khums">Al-Khums</a>, Libya) in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_province_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Africa">Roman province of Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> As a young man he advanced through <a href="/info/en/?search=Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">the customary succession of offices</a> under the reigns of <a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>. Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor <a href="/info/en/?search=Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> in 193 during the <a href="/info/en/?search=Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a>.
</p><p>After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor <a href="/info/en/?search=Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a>, Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals <a href="/info/en/?search=Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a>. Your mom cjcnfj was defeated in 194 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Issus_(194)" title="Battle of Issus (194)">Battle of Issus</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a>. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the <a href="/info/en/?search=Osroene" title="Osroene">Kingdom of Osroene</a> as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Lugdunum" title="Battle of Lugdunum">Battle of Lugdunum</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the <a href="/info/en/?search=Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>, sacking their capital <a href="/info/en/?search=Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the <a href="/info/en/?search=Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>. He then enlarged and fortified the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a></i> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>. In 202, he campaigned in <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a> against the <a href="/info/en/?search=Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a>, capturing their capital <a href="/info/en/?search=Germa" title="Germa">Garama</a> and expanding the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></i> along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
</p><p>He proclaimed as <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Augusti" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusti">augusti</a></i> (co-emperors) his elder son <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in 198 and his younger son <a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a> in 209, both born of his second wife <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>. Severus travelled to <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a> in 208, strengthening <a href="/info/en/?search=Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> and reoccupying the <a href="/info/en/?search=Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>. In 209 he invaded <a href="/info/en/?search=Caledonia" title="Caledonia">Caledonia</a> (modern <a href="/info/en/?search=Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland</a>) with an army of 50,000 men<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 at <a href="/info/en/?search=Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> (today <a href="/info/en/?search=York" title="York">York</a>, England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding the <a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the <a href="/info/en/?search=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Family_and_education"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Family and education</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Public_service"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Public service</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Marriages"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Marriages</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Rise_to_power"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Rise to power</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Emperor"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Emperor</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#War_against_Parthia"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">War against Parthia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Relations_with_the_Senate_and_People"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Relations with the Senate and People</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Military_reforms"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Military reforms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Reputed_persecution_of_Christians"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Reputed persecution of Christians</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Military_activity"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Military activity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Africa"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Africa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Britain"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Britain</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Death"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Assessment_and_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Assessment and legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Severan_dynasty_family_tree"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Severan dynasty family tree</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Family_and_education">Family and education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Born on 11 April 145 at <a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a> (in present-day Libya) as the son of <a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta_(father_of_Septimius_Severus)" title="Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)">Publius Septimius Geta</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Fulvia_Pia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulvia Pia">Fulvia Pia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._1-3">[3]</a></sup> Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of <a href="/info/en/?search=Equites" title="Equites">equestrian</a> rank. Severus had <a href="/info/en/?search=Italia_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman Empire)">Italic</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Punic" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic">Punic</a> ancestry; the Roman ancestry came from his mother's side, while his Punic ancestry came from his father's side.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_pp._212–213_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_pp._212–213-8">[8]</a></sup> Severus was described as 'Libyan by race', by the historian <a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Due to his family background on his father's side he is considered the first provincial emperor as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperor <a href="/info/en/?search=Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 138–161</span>. His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the <a href="/info/en/?search=Fulvia_gens" title="Fulvia gens"><i>gens</i> Fulvia</a>, an <a href="/info/en/?search=Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italian</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician family</a> that originated in <a href="/info/en/?search=Tusculum" title="Tusculum">Tusculum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, <a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta_(brother_of_Septimius_Severus)" title="Publius Septimius Geta (brother of Septimius Severus)">Publius Septimius Geta</a>; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was the <a href="/info/en/?search=Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> and consul <a href="/info/en/?search=Gaius_Fulvius_Plautianus" title="Gaius Fulvius Plautianus">Gaius Fulvius Plautianus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_pp._216–217_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_pp._216–217-12">[12]</a></sup> Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the local <a href="/info/en/?search=Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a> fluently, but he was also educated in <a href="/info/en/?search=Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to <a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons in <a href="/info/en/?search=Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">oratory</a>: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_service">Public service</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Public service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett,_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg/300px-Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg/450px-Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg/600px-Septimius_Severus_-_M%C3%BCnzkabinett%2C_Berlin_-_5479502.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption>Dynastic <a href="/info/en/?search=Aureus" title="Aureus">aureus</a> of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits of Geta (right), <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a> (centre) and Caracalla (left).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Severus sought a public career in <a href="/info/en/?search=Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in around 162. At the recommendation of hi relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor <a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 161–180</span>) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i> and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-40_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-40-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is likely that he served as a <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">vigintivir</a></i> in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-40_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-40-16">[16]</a></sup> At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (<i>Advocatus fisci</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> However, he omitted the <a href="/info/en/?search=Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">military tribunate</a> from the <i>cursus honorum</i> and had to delay his <a href="/info/en/?search=Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestorship</a> until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-40_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-40-16">[16]</a></sup> To make matters worse, the <a href="/info/en/?search=Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> swept through the capital in 166.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._45_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._45-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._45_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._45-18">[18]</a></sup> According to the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a></i>, a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for <a href="/info/en/?search=Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a> during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5<span class="nowrap"> </span>December, he took office and was officially enrolled in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa, <a href="/info/en/?search=Mauri" title="Mauri">Mauri</a> tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of <a href="/info/en/?search=Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Senatorial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial province">as compensation</a>. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of <a href="/info/en/?search=Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 173, Severus' cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed <a href="/info/en/?search=Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> of the province of <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_Proconsularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Proconsularis">Africa Proconsularis</a> and chose Severus as one of his two <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Legatus" title="Legatus">legati pro praetore</a></i>, a senior military appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as <a href="/info/en/?search=Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">tribune of the plebs</a>, a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the <i>candidatus</i> of the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-52_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-52-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Marriages">Marriages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marriages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Carole_Raddato_(13543792233).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg/220px-Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg/330px-Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg/440px-Carole_Raddato_%2813543792233%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3960" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_Tondo" title="Severan Tondo">Severan Tondo</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 199</span>, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased (<a href="/info/en/?search=Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a>)</figcaption></figure>
<p>About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to <a href="/info/en/?search=Paccia_Marciana" title="Paccia Marciana">Paccia Marciana</a>, a woman from Leptis Magna.<sup id="cite_ref-birley_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-24">[24]</a></sup> He probably met her during his tenure as <a href="/info/en/?search=Legatus" title="Legatus">legate</a> under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable <i>Historia Augusta</i> claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-52_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-52-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Marciana died of natural causes around 186.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-75_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-75-25">[25]</a></sup> Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into the horoscopes of prospective brides. The <i>Historia Augusta</i> relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife.<sup id="cite_ref-birley_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-24">[24]</a></sup> This woman was an Emesene <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syrian</a> named <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>. Her father, <a href="/info/en/?search=Julius_Bassianus" title="Julius Bassianus">Julius Bassianus</a>, descended from the Arab <a href="/info/en/?search=Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene dynasty</a> and served as a <a href="/info/en/?search=High_priest" title="High priest">high priest</a> to the local cult of the sun god <a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus_(deity)" title="Elagabalus (deity)">Elagabal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-birley-72_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-72-26">[26]</a></sup> Domna's older sister, <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Maesa" title="Julia Maesa">Julia Maesa</a>, would become the grandmother of the future emperors <a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dio-history-lxxix-30_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dio-history-lxxix-30-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in <a href="/info/en/?search=Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a> (modern-day <a href="/info/en/?search=Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, France), of which Severus was the governor.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> They had two sons, <a href="/info/en/?search=Lucius_Septimius_Bassianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Septimius Bassianus">Lucius Septimius Bassianus</a> (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4<span class="nowrap"> </span>April 188 in Lugdunum) and <a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Publius Septimius Geta</a> (born 7<span class="nowrap"> </span>March 189 in Rome).<sup id="cite_ref-birley-76-77_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birley-76-77-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1021810730">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0 0.6em 1.6em;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0 0.6em 1.6em;text-align:right;font-size:80%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid #eaecf0 1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:#fff!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg/151px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg/227px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg/302px-Septimius_Severus_Glyptothek_Munich_357.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="2409" /></a></span></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg/146px-Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg/219px-Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg/292px-Julia_Domna_Glyptothek_Munich_354.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2205" /></a></span></div>
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</ul></div></div><div class="footer"><div>Busts of Septimius Severus (left) and Julia Domna (right), <a href="/info/en/?search=Munich_Glyptotek" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Glyptotek">Munich Glyptotek</a></div></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rise to power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG/170px-0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG/255px-0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG/340px-0205_Altes_Museum_Septimius_Severus_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman marble bust</a> of Septimius Severus, early 3rd century AD, <a href="/info/en/?search=Altes_Museum" title="Altes Museum">Altes Museum</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In 191, on the advice of <a href="/info/en/?search=Quintus_Aemilius_Laetus" title="Quintus Aemilius Laetus">Quintus Aemilius Laetus</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">prefect</a> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Commodus" title="Commodus">emperor Commodus</a> appointed Severus as governor of <a href="/info/en/?search=Pannonia_Superior" title="Pannonia Superior">Pannonia Superior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2017123_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2017123-32">[32]</a></sup> Commodus was assassinated the following year. <a href="/info/en/?search=Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41-33">[33]</a></sup> In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legion <a href="/info/en/?search=Legio_XIV_Gemina" title="Legio XIV Gemina"><i>XIV Gemina</i></a> acclaimed him emperor at <a href="/info/en/?search=Carnuntum" title="Carnuntum">Carnuntum</a> on 9 April.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirley199997_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley199997-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41-33">[33]</a></sup> Nearby legions, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Legio_X_Gemina" title="Legio X Gemina"><i>X Gemina</i></a> at <a href="/info/en/?search=Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a>, soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>Pertinax's successor in Rome, <a href="/info/en/?search=Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a>, had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions.<sup id="cite_ref-Dio75_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dio75-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._113_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._113-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>The legions of <a href="/info/en/?search=Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> had proclaimed <a href="/info/en/?search=Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer <a href="/info/en/?search=Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a>, the powerful governor of <a href="/info/en/?search=Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a>, who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank of <a href="/info/en/?search=Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a>, which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Issus_(194)" title="Battle of Issus (194)">Battle of Issus</a> (194).
<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._113_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._113-37">[37]</a></sup>
While campaigning against <a href="/info/en/?search=Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, he ordered that the tomb of his <a href="/info/en/?search=Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">fellow-Carthaginian</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> be covered with fine marble.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>He devoted the following year to suppressing <a href="/info/en/?search=Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and other <a href="/info/en/?search=Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his son <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19<span class="nowrap"> </span>February 197 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Lugdunum" title="Battle of Lugdunum">Battle of Lugdunum</a>, with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of <a href="/info/en/?search=Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonian</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesian</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacian</a> legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Emperor">Emperor</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Emperor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg/170px-20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg/255px-20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg/340px-20130518_Septimius_Severus_Archeological_Museum_Komotini_Thrace_Greece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2668" data-file-height="4010" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Golden_Bust_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Golden Bust of Septimius Severus">Golden Bust of Septimius Severus</a> found in 1965 at <a href="/info/en/?search=Didymoteicho" title="Didymoteicho">Didymoteicho</a> in Northern <a href="/info/en/?search=Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, now at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Archaeological_Museum_of_Komotini" title="Archaeological Museum of Komotini">Archaeological Museum of Komotini</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="War_against_Parthia">War against Parthia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: War against Parthia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Severus210AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Severus210AD.png/260px-Severus210AD.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Severus210AD.png/390px-Severus210AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Severus210AD.png/520px-Severus210AD.png 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus, showing Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple)</figcaption></figure>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg/300px-Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg/450px-Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Aureus_Septimius_Severus-193-leg_XIIII_GMV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a> minted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate <a href="/info/en/?search=Legio_XIV_Gemina" title="Legio XIV Gemina">XIIII <i>Gemina Martia Victrix</i></a>, the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked at <a href="/info/en/?search=Brundisium" class="mw-redirect" title="Brundisium">Brundisium</a> and probably landed at the port of <a href="/info/en/?search=History_of_Yumurtal%C4%B1k" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Yumurtalık">Aegeae</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> travelling on to <a href="/info/en/?search=Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the <a href="/info/en/?search=Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> <a href="/info/en/?search=Abgar_IX" title="Abgar IX">Abgar IX</a>, titular King of <a href="/info/en/?search=Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> but essentially only the ruler of <a href="/info/en/?search=Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> King <a href="/info/en/?search=Khosrov_I_of_Armenia" title="Khosrov I of Armenia">Khosrov I of Armenia</a> also sent hostages, money and gifts.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>Severus travelled on to <a href="/info/en/?search=Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, which his general <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Julius_Laetus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julius Laetus (page does not exist)">Julius Laetus</a> had prevented from falling into <a href="/info/en/?search=Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the <a href="/info/en/?search=Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>, reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to <a href="/info/en/?search=Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a>. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of <a href="/info/en/?search=Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(198)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (198)">Ctesiphon</a> and he annexed the northern half of <a href="/info/en/?search=Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> to the empire;<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._153_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._153-49">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Severus took the title <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Parthicus Maximus</i></span></i>, following the example of <a href="/info/en/?search=Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> However, he was unable to capture the fortress of <a href="/info/en/?search=Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a></i>, building new fortifications in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian Desert</a> from <a href="/info/en/?search=Qasr_Azraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr Azraq">Basie</a> to <a href="/info/en/?search=Dumat_Al-Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumat Al-Jandal">Dumatha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._134_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._134-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Relations_with_the_Senate_and_People">Relations with the Senate and People</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relations with the Senate and People"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Severus' relations with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or <a href="/info/en/?search=Conspiracy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (political)">conspiracy</a> against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected the <a href="/info/en/?search=Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a> in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Cassius Dio,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, <a href="/info/en/?search=Gaius_Fulvius_Plautianus" title="Gaius Fulvius Plautianus">Gaius Fulvius Plautianus</a>, who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter <a href="/info/en/?search=Fulvia_Plautilla" title="Fulvia Plautilla">Fulvia Plautilla</a> was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> One of the two following <i>praefecti</i> was the famous jurist <a href="/info/en/?search=Papinian" title="Papinian">Papinian</a>. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, in the administration of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Military_reforms">Military reforms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Military reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus,_from_Asia_Minor,_c._195-211_AD,_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek,_Copenhagen_(13648215765).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg/220px-Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg/330px-Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg/440px-Bronze_head_of_Septimius_Severus%2C_from_Asia_Minor%2C_c._195-211_AD%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2813648215765%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3034" data-file-height="4750" /></a><figcaption>Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD, <a href="/info/en/?search=Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a>, Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged the <a href="/info/en/?search=Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dio75_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dio75-36">[36]</a></sup> which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99 mi) miles of the city on pain of death.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.<sup id="cite_ref-Adkins_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adkins-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III <i>Parthica</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> He garrisoned <a href="/info/en/?search=Legio_II_Parthica" title="Legio II Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a> at <a href="/info/en/?search=Albano_Laziale" title="Albano Laziale">Albanum</a>, only 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-Adkins_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adkins-59">[59]</a></sup> He gave his soldiers a <a href="/info/en/?search=Donativum" title="Donativum">donative</a> of a thousand <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sesterces</a></i> (250 <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Denarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Denarii">denarii</a></i>) each,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 <i>denarii</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reputed_persecution_of_Christians">Reputed persecution of Christians</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reputed persecution of Christians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>At the beginning of Severus' reign, <a href="/info/en/?search=Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>'s policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097-64">[64]</a></sup> Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promoting <a href="/info/en/?search=Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097–98_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097–98-65">[65]</a></sup> He possibly issued an edict<sup id="cite_ref-HA_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HA-66">[66]</a></sup> that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182–183_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182–183-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182-68">[68]</a></sup> This is based on the decree mentioned in the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-HA_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HA-66">[66]</a></sup> an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184-69">[69]</a></sup> Early church historian <a href="/info/en/?search=Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> described Severus as a persecutor.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> The <a href="/info/en/?search=Christian_apologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian apologist">Christian apologist</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184-69">[69]</a></sup> Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Martyrology" title="Roman Martyrology">Roman Martyrology</a></i> as the martyrs of <a href="/info/en/?search=Madauros" title="Madauros">Madauros</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Charalambos" title="Charalambos">Charalambos</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Perpetua_and_Felicity" title="Perpetua and Felicity">Perpetua and Felicity</a> in <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman-ruled Africa</a>. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007185_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007185-72">[72]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Military_activity">Military activity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Africa">Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Legatus_legionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus legionis">legatus legionis</a></i> or commander of <a href="/info/en/?search=Legio_III_Augusta" title="Legio III Augusta">Legio III Augusta</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Quintus_Anicius_Faustus" title="Quintus Anicius Faustus">Quintus Anicius Faustus</a>, had been fighting against the <a href="/info/en/?search=Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a> along the <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></i> for five years. He captured several settlements such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Ghadames" title="Ghadames">Cydamus</a>, Gholaia, Garbia and their capital <a href="/info/en/?search=Germa" title="Germa">Garama</a>—over 600 kilometres (370 mi) south of <a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> The province of <a href="/info/en/?search=Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a> was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of <a href="/info/en/?search=Biskra" title="Biskra">Vescera</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Messaad" class="mw-redirect" title="Messaad">Castellum Dimmidi</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=M%27Lili" title="M'Lili">Gemellae</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Thabudeos" class="mw-redirect" title="Thabudeos">Thabudeos</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Tubunae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubunae">Thubunae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into the <a href="/info/en/?search=Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._153_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._153-49">[49]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg/450px-Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg/675px-Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg/900px-Septimius_Severus%27_African_conquests1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1698" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan).</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Britain">Britain</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_invasion_of_Caledonia_(208%E2%80%93210)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–210)">Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–210)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/220px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/330px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/440px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption><a href="/info/en/?search=Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> ring with portraits of Septimius Severus and <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, a testimony to <a href="/info/en/?search=Indo-Roman_relations" title="Indo-Roman relations">Indo-Roman relations</a> of the period</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering <a href="/info/en/?search=Caledonia" title="Caledonia">Caledonia</a>. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999_180_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999_180-75">[75]</a></sup> Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>He strengthened <a href="/info/en/?search=Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> and reconquered the <a href="/info/en/?search=Southern_Uplands" title="Southern Uplands">Southern Uplands</a> up to the <a href="/info/en/?search=Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>, which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,<sup id="cite_ref-Scotland_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotland-77">[77]</a></sup> Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of <a href="/info/en/?search=Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Agricola</a> of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as <a href="/info/en/?search=Carpow_Roman_Fort" title="Carpow Roman Fort">Carpow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>'s account of the invasion reads:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999_180_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999_180-75">[75]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the <a href="/info/en/?search=Maeatae" title="Maeatae">Maeatae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."<sup id="cite_ref-Scotland_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotland-77">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Death">Death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86">[86]</a></sup> He withdrew to <a href="/info/en/?search=Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> (York) and died there in 211.<sup id="cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._187_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._187-4">[4]</a></sup> Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> On his death, Severus was <a href="/info/en/?search=Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">deified</a> by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Geta</a>, who were advised by his wife <a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> Severus was buried in the <a href="/info/en/?search=Castel_Sant%27Angelo" title="Castel Sant'Angelo">Mausoleum of Hadrian</a> in Rome.
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<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Larger_than_life-size_bronze_statue_of_Septimius_Severus_depicted_in_heroic_nudity,_discovered_by_chance_in_1928_near_the_village_of_Kythrea_in_Cyprus,_Cyprus_Museum,_Nicosia_(22275287879).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, Cyprus Museum."><img alt="Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, Cyprus Museum." src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Larger_than_life-size_bronze_statue_of_Septimius_Severus_depicted_in_heroic_nudity%2C_discovered_by_chance_in_1928_near_the_village_of_Kythrea_in_Cyprus%2C_Cyprus_Museum%2C_Nicosia_%2822275287879%29.jpg/200px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Larger_than_life-size_bronze_statue_of_Septimius_Severus_depicted_in_heroic_nudity%2C_discovered_by_chance_in_1928_near_the_village_of_Kythrea_in_Cyprus%2C_Cyprus_Museum%2C_Nicosia_%2822275287879%29.jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Larger_than_life-size_bronze_statue_of_Septimius_Severus_depicted_in_heroic_nudity%2C_discovered_by_chance_in_1928_near_the_village_of_Kythrea_in_Cyprus%2C_Cyprus_Museum%2C_Nicosia_%2822275287879%29.jpg/400px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity, <a href="/info/en/?search=Cyprus_Museum" title="Cyprus Museum">Cyprus Museum</a>.</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla by Jean-Baptiste Greuze (c. 1769)."><img alt="Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla by Jean-Baptiste Greuze (c. 1769)." src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg/200px-Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg/300px-Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg/400px-Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_-_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla_-_WGA10673.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1065" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla by <a href="/info/en/?search=Jean-Baptiste_Greuze" title="Jean-Baptiste Greuze">Jean-Baptiste Greuze</a> (c. 1769).</div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Assessment_and_legacy">Assessment and legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Assessment and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg/170px-Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg/255px-Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg/340px-Leptis_Magna_Arch_of_Septimius_Severus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_(Leptis_Magna)" title="Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)">Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over 5 million square kilometres, which scholars like <a href="/info/en/?search=David_L._Kennedy" title="David L. Kennedy">David L. Kennedy</a>, Lukas De Blois, and Derrick Riley state expanded the empire to its greatest physical extent.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-89">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spek_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spek-90">[90]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JBCampbell_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JBCampbell-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/info/en/?search=Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> His enlargement of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a> secured <a href="/info/en/?search=Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, the agricultural base of the empire where he was born.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> His victory over the <a href="/info/en/?search=Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> was for a time decisive, securing <a href="/info/en/?search=Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a> for the empire and establishing a <i>status quo</i> of Roman dominance in the region until 251.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries <a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Herodianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodianus">Herodianus</a>: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain the new and better-paid army.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-spek_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spek-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman currency</a>. Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a> from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased the denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> Severus' currency <a href="/info/en/?search=Debasement" title="Debasement">debasement</a> was the largest since the reign of <a href="/info/en/?search=Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, compromising the long-term strength of the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from the <a href="/info/en/?search=Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">triumphal arch</a> in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built the <a href="/info/en/?search=Septizodium" title="Septizodium">Septizodium</a> in Rome. He enriched his native city of <a href="/info/en/?search=Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a>, including commissioning <a href="/info/en/?search=Arch_of_Septimius_Severus_(Leptis_Magna)" title="Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)">a triumphal arch</a> on the occasion of his visit of 203.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to Severus being born in North Africa, recent years have occasionally seen him mischaracterised as racially African, despite the Carthaginian and Italian antecedents of his parents. The <a href="/info/en/?search=Historia_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Augustus">Historia Augustus</a> actually records him when on campaign ordering an Ethiopian soldier who attempted to bestow him a garland removed from his presence, believing the man's dark skin a bad omen.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/info/en/?search=File:Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png/300px-Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png/450px-Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png/600px-Roman_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2052" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>The Provinces of the Roman Empire in 210 AD</figcaption></figure>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Severan_dynasty_family_tree">Severan dynasty family tree</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Severan dynasty family tree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Septimius Macer</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Fulvius Pius</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Lucius Septimius Severus</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Publius Septimius Aper</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Gaius Septimius Aper</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Fulvia Pia</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta_(father_of_Septimius_Severus)" title="Publius Septimius Geta (father of Septimius Severus)">Publius Septimius Geta</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Septimia Polla</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julius_Bassianus" title="Julius Bassianus">Julius Bassianus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Septimius</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta_(brother_of_Septimius_Severus)" title="Publius Septimius Geta (brother of Septimius Severus)">Publius Septimius Geta</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Septimia Octavilla</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Paccia_Marciana" title="Paccia Marciana">Paccia Marciana</a> (1)</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em;background-color: #03C03C;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Septimius Severus</a><br />(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 193–211</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[i]</a></sup></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a> (2)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Maesa" title="Julia Maesa">Julia Maesa</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Gaius_Julius_Avitus_Alexianus" title="Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus">Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Gaius_Septimius_Severus_Aper" title="Gaius Septimius Severus Aper">Gaius Septimius Severus Aper</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Fulvia_Plautilla" title="Fulvia Plautilla">Fulvia Plautilla</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em;background-color: #03C03C;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a><br />(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 197–217</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[ii]</a></sup></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em;background-color: #03C03C;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a><br />(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 209–211</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[iii]</a></sup></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Soaemias" title="Julia Soaemias">Julia Soaemias</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sextus_Varius_Marcellus" title="Sextus Varius Marcellus">Sextus Varius Marcellus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Avita_Mamaea" title="Julia Avita Mamaea">Julia Avita Mamaea</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em">Unknown<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[iv]</a></sup> (2)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid black;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid black;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px dashed black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px dashed black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid black;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Julia_Cornelia_Paula" title="Julia Cornelia Paula">Julia Cornelia Paula</a> (1)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Aquilia_Severa" title="Aquilia Severa">Aquilia Severa</a> (2 and 4)</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em;background-color: #03C03C;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a><br />(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 218–222</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-gibbon_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbon-108">[v]</a></sup></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Annia_Faustina" title="Annia Faustina">Annia Faustina</a> (3)</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sallustia_Orbiana" title="Sallustia Orbiana">Sallustia Orbiana</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed black;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:2px solid black;padding:0.2em;background-color: #03C03C;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a><br />(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 222–235</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-gibbon_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbon-108">[v]</a></sup></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
<hr />
<ul><li>(1) = 1st spouse</li>
<li>(2) = 2nd spouse</li>
<li>(3) = 3rd spouse</li>
<li>(4) = 4th spouse</li>
<li>Dark green indicates an <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> of the Severan dynasty</li></ul>
<p><b>Notes:</b><br />
</p>
<dl><dd>Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree.</dd></dl>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBirley1999" class="citation book cs1">Birley, Anthony R. (1999). <i>Septimius Severus: The African Emperor</i>. London: Routledge. p. i.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+The+African+Emperor&rft.pages=i&rft.pub=London%3A+Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBurrell2004" class="citation book cs1">Burrell, Barbara (2004). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AaaClrSUtHsC&lpg=PA247&ots=xEYHulfkdQ&dq=caracalla%20rule%20with%20father&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors</i></a>. p. 216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neokoroi%3A+Greek+Cities+and+Roman+Emperors&rft.pages=216&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Burrell&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAaaClrSUtHsC%26lpg%3DPA247%26ots%3DxEYHulfkdQ%26dq%3Dcaracalla%2520rule%2520with%2520father%26pg%3DPA216%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBurrell2004" class="citation book cs1">Burrell, Barbara (2004). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AaaClrSUtHsC&lpg=PA247&ots=xEYHulfkdQ&dq=caracalla%20rule%20with%20father&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors</i></a>. p. 247.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neokoroi%3A+Greek+Cities+and+Roman+Emperors&rft.pages=247&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Burrell&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAaaClrSUtHsC%26lpg%3DPA247%26ots%3DxEYHulfkdQ%26dq%3Dcaracalla%2520rule%2520with%2520father%26pg%3DPA247%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1">Icks, Martijn (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_g-MDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor</i></a>. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 57–58. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-362-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-362-1"><bdi>978-1-84885-362-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crimes+of+Elagabalus%3A+The+Life+and+Legacy+of+Rome%27s+Decadent+Boy+Emperor&rft.place=London&rft.pages=57-58&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris+%26+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-362-1&rft.aulast=Icks&rft.aufirst=Martijn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_g-MDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-gibbon-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonSmith1889" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pXMtAQAAMAAJ&lpg=PA45&ots=Pntnp4PHLM&dq=elagabalus%20218%20to%20222%20edward%20gibbon&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. pp. 45–47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Student%27s+Gibbon%3A+The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=45-47&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Smith%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpXMtAQAAMAAJ%26lpg%3DPA45%26ots%3DPntnp4PHLM%26dq%3Delagabalus%2520218%2520to%2520222%2520edward%2520gibbon%26pg%3DPA45%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<p><b>Bibliography:</b>
</p>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1">Birley, Anthony R. (1999). <i>Septimius Severus: The African Emperor</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/0415165911" title="Special:BookSources/0415165911"><bdi>0415165911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+The+African+Emperor&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0415165911&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pXMtAQAAMAAJ&lpg=PA45&ots=Pntnp4PHLM&dq=elagabalus%20218%20to%20222%20edward%20gibbon&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. London: Murray. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/993285639">993285639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Student%27s+Gibbon%3A+The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Murray&rft.date=1889&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F993285639&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Smith%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpXMtAQAAMAAJ%26lpg%3DPA45%26ots%3DPntnp4PHLM%26dq%3Delagabalus%2520218%2520to%2520222%2520edward%2520gibbon%26pg%3DPP1%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arcus_Argentariorum" title="Arcus Argentariorum">Arcus Argentariorum</a>—dedicated by the money changers of Rome to the Severan family</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bulla_Felix" title="Bulla Felix">Bulla Felix</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Septimia_gens" title="Septimia gens">Septimia gens</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKienast2017" class="citation book cs1">Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Septimius Severus (9 Apr. 193–4 Febr. 211)". <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rYRorgEACAAJ"><i>Römische Kaisertabelle Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie</i></a> (6th ed.). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. pp. 149–159. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-3-534-07532-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-534-07532-4"><bdi>978-3-534-07532-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/75671165">75671165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Septimius+Severus+%289+Apr.+193%E2%80%934+Febr.+211%29&rft.btitle=R%C3%B6mische+Kaisertabelle+Grundz%C3%BCge+einer+r%C3%B6mischen+Kaiserchronologie&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pages=149-159&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F75671165&rft.isbn=978-3-534-07532-4&rft.aulast=Kienast&rft.aufirst=Dietmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrYRorgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cooley_2012_495-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooley_2012_495_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooley_2012_495_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCooley2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Alison_E._Cooley" title="Alison E. Cooley">Cooley, Alison E.</a> (2012). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VlghAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 495. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84026-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84026-2"><bdi>978-0-521-84026-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Manual+of+Latin+Epigraphy&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84026-2&rft.aulast=Cooley&rft.aufirst=Alison+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVlghAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._187-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._187_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._187_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Richard Birley, <i>Septimius Severus: the African emperor</i>, Yale University Press, 1988, pp2,18-32</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig Simpson, "Roman emperor hailed as 'black Briton' – even though he wasn't black", <i>Daily Telegraph</i>, 30 October 2023</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2018" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Simon (2018). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=och2swEACAAJ"><i>Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots</i></a>. Greenhill Books. p. 147. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-78438-204-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78438-204-9"><bdi>978-1-78438-204-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus+in+Scotland%3A+The+Northern+Campaigns+of+the+First+Hammer+of+the+Scots&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78438-204-9&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doch2swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_pp._212–213-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_pp._212–213_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 212–213.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBirley2002" class="citation book cs1">Birley, Anthony R. (1 June 2002). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z8iEAgAAQBAJ&dq=Septimius+Severus+libyan+by+race&pg=PA50"><i>Septimius Severus: The African Emperor</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-134-70745-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-70745-4"><bdi>978-1-134-70745-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+The+African+Emperor&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-06-01&rft.isbn=978-1-134-70745-4&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz8iEAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DSeptimius%2BSeverus%2Blibyan%2Bby%2Brace%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/emperor-septimius-severus-dies-york">"Emperor Septimius Severus dies at York"</a>. <i>History Today</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Emperor+Septimius+Severus+dies+at+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Femperor-septimius-severus-dies-york&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam, Alexander, <i>Classical biography</i>,<a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&q=fulvius+gens&pg=PA182">Google eBook</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610001757/https://books.google.com/books?id=x2UBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA182&dq=classical+biography+gens+fulvia+cicero+tusculum&hl=it&ei=U0ZYTseHGsmi-gbFrJSuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=fulvius%20gens&f=false">Archived</a> 10 June 2016 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p.182: <i>FULVIUS, the name of a "gens" which originally came from Tusculum (Cic. Planc. 8)</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_pp._216–217-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_pp._216–217_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 216–217.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 34–35.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mattingly & Sydenham, <i>Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. IV, part I,</i> p. 115.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 39.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-40-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-birley-40_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birley-40_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birley-40_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 40.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</i>, London 1870, v. 3, p. 117.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._45-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._45_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._45_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 46.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 49.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 50.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 51.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-52-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-birley-52_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birley-52_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-birley_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-birley_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-75-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-birley-75_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-72-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-birley-72_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dio-history-lxxix-30-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dio-history-lxxix-30_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i> <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30">LXXIX.30</a> <a class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120526042142/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/79*.html#78-30">Archived</a> 26 May 2012 at <a href="/info/en/?search=Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 76–77; Fishwick (2005), p. 347.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon (1831), p. 74.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-birley-76-77-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-birley-76-77_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 76–77.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBunson2002" class="citation book cs1">Bunson, Matthew (2002). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&q=commodus%20septimius%20severus%20191&pg=PA300"><i>Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire</i></a>. Roma: Newton & Compton. p. 300. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-627-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-627-0"><bdi>978-88-8289-627-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Roma&rft.pages=300&rft.pub=Newton+%26+Compton&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-8289-627-0&rft.aulast=Bunson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5tic2VunRoC%26q%3Dcommodus%2520septimius%2520severus%2520191%26pg%3DPA300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2017123-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2017123_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarper2017">Harper 2017</a>, p. 123.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell199440–41_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell1994">Campbell 1994</a>, pp. 40–41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirley199997-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirley199997_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBirley1999">Birley 1999</a>, p. 97.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <i><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html">Roman History</a></i>, LXXIV.17.4</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Dio75-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dio75_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dio75_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <i><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html">Roman History</a></i>, LXXV.1.1–2</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._113-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._113_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._113_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 113.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
Gabriel, Richard A. <i>Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome's Greatest Enemy</i>, Potomac Books, Inc., 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-766-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-766-1">978-1-59797-766-1</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&dq=severus+byzantium+hannibal&pg=PT265">Google books</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<a href="/info/en/?search=Spartianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartianus">Spartianus</a>, <i>Severus</i> 11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCollingwood1998" class="citation book cs1">Collingwood, R. G. (1998) [1936]. <i>Roman Britain and the English settlements</i>. Myres, J. N. L. (John Nowell Linton). New York, N.Y.: Biblo and Tannen. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-8196-1160-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8196-1160-4"><bdi>978-0-8196-1160-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36750306">36750306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain+and+the+English+settlements&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Biblo+and+Tannen&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36750306&rft.isbn=978-0-8196-1160-4&rft.aulast=Collingwood&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 125.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTenney1923" class="citation book cs1">Tenney, Frank (1923). <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/FRAAHR/home.html"><i>A History of Rome</i></a>. Henry Holt and Company. pp. 531–532.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Rome&rft.pages=531-532&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Tenney&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FFRAAHR%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hasebroek (1921), p. 111.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Life of Septimius Severus" in <i>Historia Augusta</i>, 16.1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 115.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 129.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hovannisian, <i>The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century</i>, p. 71</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Prosopographia Imperii Romani</i> L 69.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._153-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._153_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._153_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 153.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 130.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKröger1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kröger, Jens (1993). "Ctesiphon". <a class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4</i></a>. pp. 446–448.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ctesiphon&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+IV%2C+Fasc.+4&rft.pages=446-448&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Kr%C3%B6ger&rft.aufirst=Jens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fctesiphon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999,_p._134-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999,_p._134_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
Birley (1999), p. 134.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asante, Molefi Kete and Shanza Ismail, "Rediscovering the 'Lost' Roman Caesar: Septimius Severus the African and Eurocentric Historiography." <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Journal_of_Black_Studies" title="Journal of Black Studies">Journal of Black Studies</a></i> 40, no. 4 (March 2010): 606–618</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins1951" class="citation journal cs1">Perkins, J. B. Ward (December 1951). "The Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna". <i>Archaeology</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 226–231.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Arch+of+Septimius+Severus+at+Lepcis+Magna&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=226-231&rft.date=1951-12&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=J.+B.+Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, Book 76, Sections 14 and 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 161–162.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 165.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 103.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Adkins-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adkins_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adkins_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, Both Professional <i><a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=septimius%20severus%20praetorian%20guard&pg=PA68">Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</a></i>, p. 68</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Ronald Watson, <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PSEnmtuOh6K0C&dq=septimius%20severus%20number%20of%20legions&pg=PA23">The Roman Soldier</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup>, p. 23</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html">"Septimius Severus: Legionary Denarius"</a>. <i>penelope.uchicago.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+Legionary+Denarius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2F~grout%2Fencyclopaedia_romana%2Fmiscellanea%2Fnumismatics%2Fseverus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth W. Harl, <i><a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&dq=septimius%20severus%20legion%20pay&pg=PA216">Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700</a></i>, p. 216</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Grant (1978); <i>History of Rome</i>; p. 358; Charles Scribner's Sons; NY <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGonzález2010">González 2010</a>, p. 97.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097–98-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097–98_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGonzález2010">González 2010</a>, pp. 97–98.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-HA-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HA_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HA_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html">Historia Augusta</a></i>, Septimius Severus, 17.1</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182–183-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182–183_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTabbernee2007">Tabbernee 2007</a>, pp. 182–183.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007182_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTabbernee2007">Tabbernee 2007</a>, p. 182.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007184_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTabbernee2007">Tabbernee 2007</a>, p. 184.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i>, VI.1.1</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span> <a href="/info/en/?search=Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, <i><a class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm">Ad Scapulam</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151025174903/http://www.tertullian.org/latin/ad_scapulam.htm">Archived</a> 25 October 2015 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, IV.5–6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007185-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabbernee2007185_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTabbernee2007">Tabbernee 2007</a>, p. 185.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 153.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 147.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Birley_1999_180-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999_180_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Birley_1999_180_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley, (1999) p. 180.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W.S. Hanson <a class="external text" href="https://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf">"Roman campaigns north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus: the evidence of the temporary camps"</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121107022132/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_109/109_140_150.pdf">Archived</a> 7 November 2012 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Scotland-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scotland_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scotland_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2018" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Laura (16 May 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/">"The Honest Truth: How the Romans came close but ultimately failed to conquer Scotland under Septimius Severus"</a>. The Sunday Post. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180521164647/https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Honest+Truth%3A+How+the+Romans+came+close+but+ultimately+failed+to+conquer+Scotland+under+Septimius+Severus&rft.date=2018-05-16&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sundaypost.com%2Ffp%2Fthe-honest-truth-how-the-romans-came-close-but-ultimately-failed-to-conquer-scotland-under-septimius-severus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow">"Carpow | Canmore"</a>. <i>canmore.org.uk</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180516015140/https://canmore.org.uk/site/30081/carpow">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=canmore.org.uk&rft.atitle=Carpow+%7C+Canmore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcanmore.org.uk%2Fsite%2F30081%2Fcarpow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html">"Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 77"</a>. Penelope.uchicago.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cassius+Dio+%E2%80%93+Epitome+of+Book+77&rft.pub=Penelope.uchicago.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCassius_Dio%2F77%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKeys2018" class="citation news cs1">Keys, David (27 June 2018). <a class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html">"Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK"</a>. Independent. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180707015802/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ancient+Roman+%27hand+of+god%27+discovered+near+Hadrian%27s+Wall+sheds+light+on+biggest+combat+operation+ever+in+UK&rft.date=2018-06-27&rft.aulast=Keys&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fhome-news%2Fhand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, Epitome of Book LXXVII.13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 180–82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), p. 186.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dio Cassius (Xiphilinus) 'Romaika' Epitome of Book LXXVI Chapter 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, Book 77, Sections 11–15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Birley (1999), pp. 170–187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, Book 77, Section 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Life of Septimius Severus" in <i>Historia Augusta</i>, Section 19.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-kennedy-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=David_L._Kennedy" title="David L. Kennedy">David L. Kennedy</a>, Derrick Riley (2012), <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13"><i>Rome's Desert Frontiers</i>, page 13</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730070357/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">Archived</a> 30 July 2017 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-spek-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spek_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spek_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=R.J._van_der_Spek" class="mw-redirect" title="R.J. van der Spek">R.J. van der Spek</a>, Lukas De Blois (2008), <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272"><i>An Introduction to the Ancient World</i>, page 272</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730064823/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272">Archived</a> 30 July 2017 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JBCampbell-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JBCampbell_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. B. Campbell (2012), <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iznJ_d6mQagC&dq=roman+empire+%22greatest+extent%22+severus&pg=PA13"><i>Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome</i>, page 13</a>, University of North Carolina Press</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMöller2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Möller, Lenelotte (2012). <i>Cassius Dio: Römische Geschichte</i> (in German). marixverlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cassius+Dio%3A+R%C3%B6mische+Geschichte&rft.pub=marixverlag&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=M%C3%B6ller&rft.aufirst=Lenelotte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFerrary2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ferrary, Jean-Louis (2003). <i>Eutrope: Abrégé d'histoire romaine</i> (in French). Les belles lettres. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-2251014142" title="Special:BookSources/978-2251014142"><bdi>978-2251014142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eutrope%3A+Abr%C3%A9g%C3%A9+d%27histoire+romaine&rft.pub=Les+belles+lettres&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2251014142&rft.aulast=Ferrary&rft.aufirst=Jean-Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDufraigne2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dufraigne, Pierre (2003). <i>Aurélius Victor: Livre des Césars</i> (in French). Les belles lettres. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-2251010182" title="Special:BookSources/978-2251010182"><bdi>978-2251010182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aur%C3%A9lius+Victor%3A+Livre+des+C%C3%A9sars&rft.pub=Les+belles+lettres&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2251010182&rft.aulast=Dufraigne&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1776" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon, Edward</a> (1776). <a class="external text" href="https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm"><i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. London: Cadell. p. 96. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840075577">840075577</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219010818/http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap5.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Cadell&rft.date=1776&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F840075577&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fg%2Fgibbon%2Fdecline%2Fvolume1%2Fchap5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth D. Matthews, Jr., <i>Cities in the Sand</i>. <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Africa/Libya/_Texts/MATCIS/Background*.html">The Roman Background of Tripolitania</a>, 1957</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFErdkamp2011" class="citation book cs1">Erdkamp, Paul (2011). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC&q=septimius%20severus%20nisibis&pg=PA251"><i>A Companion to the Roman Army</i></a>. Malden (Massachusetts): Blackwell. p. 251. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3921-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3921-5"><bdi>978-1-4443-3921-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.place=Malden+%28Massachusetts%29&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3921-5&rft.aulast=Erdkamp&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1D612o_X2VYC%26q%3Dseptimius%2520severus%2520nisibis%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html"><i>Roman History</i></a> LXXV.2.3</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/info/en/?search=Herodianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodianus">Herodianus</a>, <i><a class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm">History of the Roman Empire</a></i> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124024755/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm">Archived</a> 24 November 2009 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> III.9.2–3</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm">"Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tulane+University+%22Roman+Currency+of+the+Principate%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulane.edu%2F~august%2Fhandouts%2F601cprin.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth W. Harl, <i><a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&pg=PA126">Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700</a></i>, p. 126</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGregorovius1895" class="citation book cs1">Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1895). <i>History of the city of Rome in the Middle Ages</i>. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 541. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57224029">57224029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+city+of+Rome+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=541&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1895&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57224029&rft.aulast=Gregorovius&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Richard Birley, <i>Septimius Severus: The African emperor</i>, Yale University Press, 1988, p. 184</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBirley1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Anthony_Birley" title="Anthony Birley">Birley, Anthony R.</a> (1999) [1971]. <i>Septimius Severus: The African Emperor</i>. London: <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16591-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16591-4"><bdi>978-0-415-16591-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+The+African+Emperor&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16591-4&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1994" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Brian (1994). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUN-TGktYLYC&q=carnuntum+septimius+severus&pg=PA142"><i>The Roman Army, 31 BC - AD 337: A Sourcebook</i></a>. London: <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07172-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07172-7"><bdi>978-0-415-07172-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Army%2C+31+BC+-+AD+337%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-07172-7&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRUN-TGktYLYC%26q%3Dcarnuntum%2Bseptimius%2Bseverus%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCooley2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Alison_E._Cooley" title="Alison E. Cooley">Cooley, Alison</a> (2007). "Septimius Severus: The Augustan Emperor". In Swain, Simon; Harrison, Stephen; <a href="/info/en/?search=Jas_Elsner" class="mw-redirect" title="Jas Elsner">Elsner, Jas</a> (eds.). <i>Severan Culture</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/info/en/?search=Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85982-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85982-0"><bdi>978-0-521-85982-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Septimius+Severus%3A+The+Augustan+Emperor&rft.btitle=Severan+Culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85982-0&rft.aulast=Cooley&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDaguet-Gagey2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Daguet-Gagey, Anne (2000). <i>Septime Sévère: Rome, l'Afrique et l'Orient</i>. Biographie Payot (in French). Paris: Payot. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89336-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89336-7"><bdi>978-2-228-89336-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septime+S%C3%A9v%C3%A8re%3A+Rome%2C+l%27Afrique+et+l%27Orient&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Biographie+Payot&rft.pub=Payot&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2-228-89336-7&rft.aulast=Daguet-Gagey&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2018" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Simon (2018). <i>Septimius Severus in Scotland: The Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots</i>. London: Greenhill Books. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-78438-204-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78438-204-9"><bdi>978-1-78438-204-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus+in+Scotland%3A+The+Northern+Campaigns+of+the+First+Hammer+of+the+Scots&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78438-204-9&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFishwick2005" class="citation book cs1">Fishwick, Duncan (2005). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGRRAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire</i></a>. E.J. Brill. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07179-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07179-7"><bdi>978-90-04-07179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Cult+in+the+Latin+West%3A+Studies+in+the+Ruler+Cult+of+the+Western+Provinces+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07179-7&rft.aulast=Fishwick&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGRRAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1831" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1831). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9CwMAAAAYAAJ"><i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9CwMAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2010" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (2010). <a class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC&q=septimius%20severus%20persecution&pg=PP1"><i>The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation</i></a>. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185588-7"><bdi>978-0-06-185588-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/905489146">905489146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity%3A+The+Early+Church+to+the+Dawn+of+the+Reformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905489146&rft.isbn=978-0-06-185588-7&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQW0ACdLn6kC%26q%3Dseptimius%2520severus%2520persecution%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Grant, Michael</a> (1985). <i>The Roman Emperors</i>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-0091-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-0091-4"><bdi>978-0-7607-0091-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Emperors&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7607-0091-4&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Grant, Michael</a> (1996). <i>The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire</i>. London: <a href="/info/en/?search=Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12772-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12772-1"><bdi>978-0-415-12772-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Severans%3A+The+Changed+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12772-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2017" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Kyle (2017). <i>The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire</i>. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-0-691-19206-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-19206-2"><bdi>978-0-691-19206-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fate+of+Rome%3A+Climate%2C+Disease%2C+and+the+End+of+an+Empire&rft.place=Princeton%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-691-19206-2&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHasebroek1921" class="citation book cs1">Hasebroek, Johannes (1921). <a class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/untersuchungenzu00haseuoft"><i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Septimius Severus</i></a>. Heidelberg: C Winter. <a href="/info/en/?search=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4153259">4153259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Untersuchungen+zur+Geschichte+des+Kaisers+Septimius+Severus&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=C+Winter&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4153259&rft.aulast=Hasebroek&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funtersuchungenzu00haseuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHovannisian2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hovannisian, R. G. (2004) [1997]. <i>The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times</i>. Vol. 1: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. New York: <a href="/info/en/?search=Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6421-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6421-2"><bdi>978-1-4039-6421-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+People+From+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6421-2&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLichtenberger2011" class="citation book cs1">Lichtenberger, Achim (2011). <i>Severus Pius Augustus: Studien zur sakralen Repräsentation und Rezeption der Herrschaft des Septimius Severus und seiner Familie (193–211 n. chr.)</i>. Impact of Empire. Vol. 14. Leiden; Boston: <a href="/info/en/?search=Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20192-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20192-7"><bdi>978-90-04-20192-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Severus+Pius+Augustus%3A+Studien+zur+sakralen+Repr%C3%A4sentation+und+Rezeption+der+Herrschaft+des+Septimius+Severus+und+seiner+Familie+%28193%E2%80%93211+n.+chr.%29&rft.place=Leiden%3B+Boston&rft.series=Impact+of+Empire&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20192-7&rft.aulast=Lichtenberger&rft.aufirst=Achim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Harold_Mattingly" title="Harold Mattingly">Mattingly, Harold</a> & Edward A. Sydenham (1936). <i>The <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Imperial_Coinage" title="Roman Imperial Coinage">Roman Imperial Coinage</a>, vol. IV, part I, Pertinax to Geta</i>, London, Spink & Son.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSettipani2000" class="citation book cs1">Settipani, Christian (2000). <i>Continuité Gentilice et Continuité Familiale dans les Familles Sénatoriales Romaines à l'Époque Impériale: Mythe et Réalité</i>. Oxford: Unit for Prosographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-1-900934-02-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-900934-02-2"><bdi>978-1-900934-02-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Continuit%C3%A9+Gentilice+et+Continuit%C3%A9+Familiale+dans+les+Familles+S%C3%A9natoriales+Romaines+%C3%A0+l%27%C3%89poque+Imp%C3%A9riale%3A+Mythe+et+R%C3%A9alit%C3%A9&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Unit+for+Prosographical+Research%2C+Linacre+College%2C+University+of+Oxford&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-900934-02-2&rft.aulast=Settipani&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTabbernee2007" class="citation book cs1">Tabbernee, William (2007). <i>Fake Prophecy and Polluted Sacraments: Ecclesiastical and Imperial Reactions to Montanism (Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae)</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/info/en/?search=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/info/en/?search=Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15819-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15819-1"><bdi>978-90-04-15819-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fake+Prophecy+and+Polluted+Sacraments%3A+Ecclesiastical+and+Imperial+Reactions+to+Montanism+%28Supplements+to+Vigiliae+Christianae%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15819-1&rft.aulast=Tabbernee&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Septimius_Severus&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus*.html">Life of Septimius Severus</a> (<i>Historia Augusta</i> at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74*.html">Books 74</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75*.html">75</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76*.html">76</a> and <a class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77*.html">77</a> of <a href="/info/en/?search=Dio_Cassius" class="mw-redirect" title="Dio Cassius">Dio Cassius</a>, covering the rise to power and reign of Septimius Severus</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.ancientopedia.com/Septimius_Severus/">Septimius Severus on Ancient History Encyclopedia</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm">Book 3 of Herodian</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a> Online encyclopaedia of Roman emperors</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html">Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025100233/http://www.livius.org/a/italy/rome/arch_severus/arch_severus1.html">Archived</a> 25 October 2008 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf">Septimius Severus in Scotland</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611162140/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_107/107_092_102.pdf">Archived</a> 11 June 2007 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html">Arch of Septimius Severus in Lepcis Magna</a> <a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071228223148/http://www.livius.org/a/libya/lepcis_magna/arch_severus/lepcis_magna-arch_severus.html">Archived</a> 28 December 2007 at the <a href="/info/en/?search=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060528175255/http://www.numismatics.org/exhibits/DrachmasDoubloonsDollars/cases/case02.G.html">Coins issued by Septimius Severus</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Septimius Severus"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Septimius_Severus">"Septimius Severus" </a></span>. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Septimius+Severus&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeptimius+Severus" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130502235723/http://cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/Roman_People/LUCIUS-SEPTIMIUS-SEVERUS.html">THE LIFE AND REIGN OF THE EMPEROR LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, in BTM Format</a></li></ul>
<table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;">
<tbody><tr>
<td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Septimius Severus </div><div><b><a href="/info/en/?search=Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> 11 April 146</span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 4 February 211</span>
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<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles
</th></tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/info/en/?search=Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></div>
</td>
<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Roman_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Emperors">Roman Emperor</a> </b><br />193–211<br /><i>with <a href="/info/en/?search=Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> (rival 193–194),<br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a> (rival 193–197),<br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> (198–211),<br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Publius Septimius Geta</a> (209–211)</i>
</td>
<td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>,<br /> <a href="/info/en/?search=Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Publius Septimius Geta</a></div>
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<th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucius_Fabius_Cilo" title="Lucius Fabius Cilo">Lucius Fabius Cilo</a>, and<br /><a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Silius_Messala" title="Marcus Silius Messala">Marcus Silius Messala</a></div>
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<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_late_imperial_Roman_consuls" class="mw-redirect" title="List of late imperial Roman consuls">Consul</a> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </b><br />194<br /><i>with <a href="/info/en/?search=Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a></i>
</td>
<td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Publius_Julius_Scapula_Tertullus_Priscus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Publius Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus (page does not exist)">Publius Julius Scapula Tertullus Priscus</a>,<br />and <a href="/info/en/?search=Quintus_Tineius_Clemens" title="Quintus Tineius Clemens">Quintus Tineius Clemens</a></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Annius_Fabianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Annius Fabianus (page does not exist)">Annius Fabianus</a>,<br />and <a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Nonius_Arrius_Mucianus" title="Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus">Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus</a></div>
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<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_late_imperial_Roman_consuls" class="mw-redirect" title="List of late imperial Roman consuls">Consul</a> of the <a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </b><br />202<br /><i>with <a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></i>
</td>
<td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Titus_Murrenius_Severus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Titus Murrenius Severus (page does not exist)">Titus Murrenius Severus</a>,<br />and <a href="/info/en/?search=Gaius_Cassius_Regallianus" title="Gaius Cassius Regallianus">Gaius Cassius Regallianus</a></div><small><i><b>as Suffect consuls</b></i></small>
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<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Septimius Severus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis</a><br />235–285</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Volusianus" title="Volusianus">Volusianus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Silbannacus</a></u> (?)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a><br />284–610</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constans" title="Constans">Constans I</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a></u></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a></u></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Victor_(emperor)" title="Victor (emperor)">Victor</a></u></i>)</li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a></u></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a><br />395–480</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Constans_II_(son_of_Constantine_III)" title="Constans II (son of Constantine III)">Constans II</a></u></i>)</li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a></u></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Libius_Severus" title="Libius Severus">Severus III</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a></u></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a></u></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a></u></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Empire</a><br />395–610</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_II_(emperor)" title="Leo II (emperor)">Leo II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_(son_of_Basiliscus)" title="Marcus (son of Basiliscus)">Marcus</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodosius_(son_of_Maurice)" title="Theodosius (son of Maurice)">Theodosius</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/info/en/?search=Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern/<br />Byzantine Empire</a><br />610–1453</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclius_Constantine" title="Heraclius Constantine">Constantine III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclonas" title="Heraclonas">Heraclonas</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=David_(son_of_Heraclius)" title="David (son of Heraclius)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Heraclius (son of Constans II)">Heraclius</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Constans II)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leontius" title="Leontius">Leontius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius_(son_of_Justinian_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Justinian II)">Tiberius</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philippicus" title="Philippicus">Philippicus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anastasius_II_(emperor)" title="Anastasius II (emperor)">Anastasius II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodosius_III" title="Theodosius III">Theodosius III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a></li>
<li><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Artabasdos" title="Artabasdos">Artabasdos</a></u> (w. <i><u><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikephoros_(son_of_Artabasdos)" title="Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)">Nikephoros</a></u></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Staurakios" title="Staurakios">Staurakios</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Theophylact_(son_of_Michael_I)" title="Theophylact (son of Michael I)">Theophylact</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Staurakios_(son_of_Michael_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Staurakios (son of Michael I)">Staurakios</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_(son_of_Leo_V)" title="Constantine (son of Leo V)">Constantine</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_(son_of_Theophilos)" title="Constantine (son of Theophilos)">Constantine</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora (II)</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Thekla_(daughter_of_Theophilos)" title="Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)">Thekla</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_(son_of_Basil_I)" title="Constantine (son of Basil I)">Constantine</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexander_(Byzantine_emperor)" title="Alexander (Byzantine emperor)">Alexander</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanos I Lekapenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Christopher_Lekapenos" title="Christopher Lekapenos">Christopher</a></i>, <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Stephen_Lekapenos" title="Stephen Lekapenos">Stephen</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_Lekapenos" title="Constantine Lekapenos">Constantine Lekapenos</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Romanos_III_Argyros" title="Romanos III Argyros">Romanos III Argyros</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_V_Kalaphates" title="Michael V Kalaphates">Michael V</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodora_Porphyrogenita" title="Theodora Porphyrogenita">Theodora (III)</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_VI_Bringas" title="Michael VI Bringas">Michael VI Bringas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Isaac_I_Komnenos" title="Isaac I Komnenos">Isaac I Komnenos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X Doukas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eudokia_Makrembolitissa" title="Eudokia Makrembolitissa">Eudokia Makrembolitissa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Leo_Diogenes" title="Leo Diogenes">Leo</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikephoros_Diogenes" title="Nikephoros Diogenes">Nikephoros</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)">Andronikos</a></i>, <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Konstantios_Doukas" title="Konstantios Doukas">Konstantios</a></i> & <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_Komnenos_(co-emperor)" title="Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)">Alexios</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II Komnenos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=John_Komnenos_(son_of_Andronikos_I)" title="John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)">John</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II Angelos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_III_Angelos" title="Alexios III Angelos">Alexios III Angelos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexios_V_Doukas" title="Alexios V Doukas">Alexios V Doukas</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodore_I_Laskaris" title="Theodore I Laskaris">Theodore I Laskaris</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nicholas_Laskaris_(son_of_Theodore_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)">Nicholas</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_III_Vatatzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John III Vatatzes">John III Vatatzes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Theodore_II_Laskaris" title="Theodore II Laskaris">Theodore II Laskaris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_IV_Laskaris" title="John IV Laskaris">John IV Laskaris</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Michael_IX_Palaiologos" title="Michael IX Palaiologos">Michael IX Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Matthew_Kantakouzenos" title="Matthew Kantakouzenos">Matthew</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_IV_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos IV Palaiologos">Andronikos IV Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_VII_Palaiologos" title="John VII Palaiologos">John VII Palaiologos</a> (w. <i><a href="/info/en/?search=Andronikos_V_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos V Palaiologos">Andronikos V</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII Palaiologos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic emperors</a> (260–274)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene emperors</a> (267–273)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Britannic emperors</a> (286–296)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">Trapezuntine emperors</a> (1204–1461)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonian emperors</a> (1224–1242)</li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">Augustae</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Usurpers</a>
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">Classical</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_Byzantine_usurpers" title="List of Byzantine usurpers">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharaohs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template:Pharaohs" title="Template:Pharaohs"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/info/en/?search=Template_talk:Pharaohs" title="Template talk:Pharaohs"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/info/en/?search=Special:EditPage/Template:Pharaohs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharaohs"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharaohs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Protodynastic_to_First_Intermediate_Period_(" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a> to <a href="/info/en/?search=First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (<3150–2040 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Pharaohs
<ul><li>male</li>
<li>female<sup>♀</sup></li></ul></li>
<li><i>uncertain</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Protodynastic</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(pre-3150 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ni-Neith" title="Ni-Neith">Ni-Neith</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hat-Hor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hat-Hor">Hat-Hor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu (pharaoh)">Pu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=A_(pharaoh_of_lower_egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="A (pharaoh of lower egypt)">A</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=A_(pharaoh)" title="A (pharaoh)">A</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Stork_(pharaoh)" title="Stork (pharaoh)">Stork</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Bull_(pharaoh)" title="Bull (pharaoh)">Bull</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/info/en/?search=Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(3150–2686 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/info/en/?search=Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2686–2181 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">III</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sedjes" title="Sedjes">Sedjes</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">V</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">VI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferka" title="Neferka">Neferka</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nefer#Pharaoh" title="Nefer">Nefer</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1<sup>st</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2181–2040 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">VII</a>/<a href="/info/en/?search=Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">VIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare III Neby</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare IV Khendu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare V Tereru</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare VI Pepiseneb</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Iby</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wadjkare" title="Wadjkare">Wadjkare</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Khuiqer" title="Khuiqer">Khuiqer</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Khui" title="Khui">Khui</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Iytjenu" title="Iytjenu">Iytjenu</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">IX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Imhotep_(pharaoh)" title="Imhotep (pharaoh)">Imhotep</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">X</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Middle_Kingdom_and_Second_Intermediate_Period_(2040–1550_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (2040–1550 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Pharaohs
<ul><li>male</li>
<li>female<sup>♀</sup></li></ul></li>
<li><i>uncertain</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(2040–1802 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">XI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em">Nubia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Segerseni" title="Segerseni">Segerseni</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Qakare_Ini" title="Qakare Ini">Qakare Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Iyibkhentre" title="Iyibkhentre">Iyibkhentre</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">XII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Seankhibtawy_Seankhibra" title="Seankhibtawy Seankhibra">Seankhibtawy Seankhibra</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2<sup>nd</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1802–1550 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemre_Khutawy_Sobekhotep" title="Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep">Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sonbef" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonbef">Sonbef</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nerikare" title="Nerikare">Nerikare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemkare" title="Sekhemkare">Sekhemkare Amenemhat V</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ameny_Qemau" title="Ameny Qemau">Ameny Qemau</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hotepibre" title="Hotepibre">Hotepibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Iufni" title="Iufni">Iufni</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemhet_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenemhet VI">Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Semenkare_Nebnuni" title="Semenkare Nebnuni">Semenkare Nebnuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sehetepibre" title="Sehetepibre">Sehetepibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sewadjkare" title="Sewadjkare">Sewadjkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nedjemibre" title="Nedjemibre">Nedjemibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khaankhre_Sobekhotep" title="Khaankhre Sobekhotep">Khaankhre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Renseneb" title="Renseneb">Renseneb</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hor" title="Hor">Hor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemrekhutawy_Khabaw" title="Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw">Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedkheperew" title="Djedkheperew">Djedkheperew</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sebkay" title="Sebkay">Sebkay</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sedjefakare" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedjefakare">Sedjefakare</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wegaf" title="Wegaf">Wegaf</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khendjer" title="Khendjer">Khendjer</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Imyremeshaw" title="Imyremeshaw">Imyremeshaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sehetepkare_Intef" title="Sehetepkare Intef">Sehetepkare Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seth_Meribre" title="Seth Meribre">Seth Meribre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekhotep_III" title="Sobekhotep III">Sobekhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferhotep_I" title="Neferhotep I">Neferhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sihathor" title="Sihathor">Sihathor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekhotep_IV" title="Sobekhotep IV">Sobekhotep IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merhotepre_Sobekhotep" title="Merhotepre Sobekhotep">Merhotepre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekhotep_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobekhotep VI">Khahotepre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Wahibre_Ibiau" title="Wahibre Ibiau">Wahibre Ibiau</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merneferre_Ay" title="Merneferre Ay">Merneferre Ay</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merhotepre_Ini" title="Merhotepre Ini">Merhotepre Ini</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sankhenre_Sewadjtu" title="Sankhenre Sewadjtu">Sankhenre Sewadjtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mersekhemre_Ined" title="Mersekhemre Ined">Mersekhemre Ined</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sewadjkare_Hori" title="Sewadjkare Hori">Sewadjkare Hori</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merkawre_Sobekhotep" title="Merkawre Sobekhotep">Merkawre Sobekhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Mershepsesre_Ini_II" title="Mershepsesre Ini II">Mershepsesre Ini II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sewahenre_Senebmiu" title="Sewahenre Senebmiu">Sewahenre Senebmiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merkheperre" title="Merkheperre">Merkheperre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merkare" title="Merkare">Merkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sewadjare_Mentuhotep" title="Sewadjare Mentuhotep">Sewadjare Mentuhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seheqenre_Sankhptahi" title="Seheqenre Sankhptahi">Seheqenre Sankhptahi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Yakbim_Sekhaenre" title="Yakbim Sekhaenre">Yakbim Sekhaenre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ya%27ammu_Nubwoserre" title="Ya'ammu Nubwoserre">Ya'ammu Nubwoserre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Qareh" class="mw-redirect" title="Qareh">Qareh Khawoserre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Aahotepre" class="mw-redirect" title="Aahotepre">'Ammu Ahotepre</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sheshi" title="Sheshi">Maaibre Sheshi</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nehesy" title="Nehesy">Nehesy</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khakherewre" class="mw-redirect" title="Khakherewre">Khakherewre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebefawre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebefawre">Nebefawre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sehebre" title="Sehebre">Sehebre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merdjefare" title="Merdjefare">Merdjefare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sewadjkare_III" title="Sewadjkare III">Sewadjkare III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebdjefare" title="Nebdjefare">Nebdjefare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebsenre" title="Nebsenre">Nebsenre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekheperenre" title="Sekheperenre">Sekheperenre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bebnum" title="Bebnum">Bebnum</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=%27Apepi" title="'Apepi">'Apepi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nuya" title="Nuya">Nuya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wazad" title="Wazad">Wazad</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sheneh_(pharaoh)" title="Sheneh (pharaoh)">Sheneh</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Shenshek" title="Shenshek">Shenshek</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Khamure" title="Khamure">Khamure</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Yakareb" title="Yakareb">Yakareb</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Yaqub-Har" title="Yaqub-Har">Yaqub-Har</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Sharek" title="Sharek">Sharek</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Salitis" title="Salitis">Salitis</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Yanassi" title="Yanassi">Yanassi</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Apepi" title="Apepi">Apepi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djehuti" class="mw-redirect" title="Djehuti">Djehuti</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekhotep_VIII" title="Sobekhotep VIII">Sobekhotep VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferhotep_III" title="Neferhotep III">Neferhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seankhenre_Mentuhotepi" title="Seankhenre Mentuhotepi">Mentuhotepi</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebiryraw_I" title="Nebiryraw I">Nebiryraw I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebiriau_II" title="Nebiriau II">Nebiriau II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Semenre" title="Semenre">Semenre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bebiankh" title="Bebiankh">Bebiankh</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemre_Shedwast" title="Sekhemre Shedwast">Sekhemre Shedwast</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dedumose_I" title="Dedumose I">Dedumose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Dedumose_II" title="Dedumose II">Dedumose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedankhre_Montemsaf" title="Djedankhre Montemsaf">Montuemsaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merankhre_Mentuhotep" title="Merankhre Mentuhotep">Merankhre Mentuhotep</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Senusret_IV" title="Senusret IV">Senusret IV</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pepi_III" title="Pepi III">Pepi III</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Senebkay" title="Senebkay">Senebkay</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Wepwawetemsaf" title="Wepwawetemsaf">Wepwawetemsaf</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pantjeny" title="Pantjeny">Pantjeny</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Snaaib" title="Snaaib">Snaaib</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;4.75em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rahotep" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahotep">Rahotep</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nebmaatre" title="Nebmaatre">Nebmaatre</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekemsaf_I" title="Sobekemsaf I">Sobekemsaf I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sobekemsaf_II" title="Sobekemsaf II">Sobekemsaf II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemre-Wepmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nubkheperre_Intef" title="Nubkheperre Intef">Nubkheperre Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat_Intef" title="Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef">Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Senakhtenre_Ahmose" title="Senakhtenre Ahmose">Senakhtenre Ahmose</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seqenenre_Tao" title="Seqenenre Tao">Seqenenre Tao</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="New_Kingdom_and_Third_Intermediate_Period_(1550–664_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (1550–664 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Pharaohs  <span class="nobold">(male</span></li><li><span class="nobold">female<sup>♀</sup>)</span></li><li><i>uncertain</i></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1550–1070 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">XIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twosret" title="Twosret">Twosret</a><sup>♀</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">XX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3<sup>rd</sup> Intermediate</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1069–664 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=High_Priest_of_Amun" title="High Priest of Amun">High Priests of Amun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Piankh" title="Piankh">Piankh</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pinedjem_I" title="Pinedjem I">Pinedjem I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Masaharta" title="Masaharta">Masaharta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Djedkhonsuefankh" title="Djedkhonsuefankh">Djedkhonsuefankh</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Menkheperre" title="Menkheperre">Menkheperre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Smendes_II" title="Smendes II">Smendes II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pinedjem_II" title="Pinedjem II">Pinedjem II</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Psusennes_III" title="Psusennes III">Psusennes III</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">XXII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tutkheperre_Shoshenq" title="Tutkheperre Shoshenq">Tutkheperre Shoshenq</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">XXIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Iuput_I" title="Iuput I">Iuput I</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Shoshenq_VII" title="Shoshenq VII">Shoshenq VII</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">XXV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Late_Period_and_Hellenistic_Period_(664–30_BC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> and <a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Hellenistic Period</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (664–30 BC)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Pharaohs
<ul><li>male</li>
<li>female<sup>♀</sup></li></ul></li>
<li><i>uncertain</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(664–332 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Ammeris" title="Ammeris">Ammeris</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tefnakht_II" title="Tefnakht II">Tefnakht II</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Nekauba" title="Nekauba">Nekauba</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">XXVII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Petubastis_III" title="Petubastis III">Petubastis III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Psammetichus_IV" title="Psammetichus IV">Psammetichus IV</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">XXVIII</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">XXIX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nepherites_I" title="Nepherites I">Nepherites I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hakor" title="Hakor">Hakor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Psammuthes" title="Psammuthes">Psammuthes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nepherites_II" title="Nepherites II">Nepherites II</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Muthis" title="Muthis">Muthis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">XXX</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nectanebo_I" title="Nectanebo I">Nectanebo I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Teos_of_Egypt" title="Teos of Egypt">Teos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">XXXI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Khabash" title="Khabash">Khabash</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Arses</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(332–30 BC)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetes</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Euergetes</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_III" title="Cleopatra III">Cleopatra III</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Soter</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_IV" title="Cleopatra IV">Cleopatra IV</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander I</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Berenice_III" title="Berenice III">Berenice III</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander II</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphaneia</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaena" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI Tryphaena">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a></i><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a><sup>♀</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemy_XIV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIV Philopator">Ptolemy XIV Philopator</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Roman_Period_(30_BC–313_AD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Period</a> <span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;"> (30 BC–313 AD)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Period</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dynasty" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Dynasty</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Pharaohs
<ul><li>male</li>
<li>female<sup>♀</sup></li></ul></li>
<li><i>uncertain</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.25em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(30 BC–313 AD)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="XXXIV" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.75em;text-align:center;"><a href="/info/en/?search=Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">XXXIV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a></i></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Septimius Severus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Macrianus_Minor" title="Macrianus Minor">Macrianus Minor</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Quietus" title="Quietus">Quietus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Lucius_Mussius_Aemilianus" title="Lucius Mussius Aemilianus">Lucius Mussius Aemilianus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/info/en/?search=Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus Daza</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Dynastic_genealogies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Dynastic genealogies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/info/en/?search=First_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="First Dynasty of Egypt family tree">1<sup>st</sup></a></li>
<li>2<sup>nd</sup></li>
<li>3<sup>rd</sup></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">4<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree">11<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">12<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">18<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">19<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">20<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=21st,_22nd_%26_23rd_dynasties_of_Egypt_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree">21<sup>st</sup> to 23<sup>rd</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">24<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">25<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">26<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">27<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt#Family_tree" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">30<sup>th</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">31<sup>st</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Argead_dynasty#Family_tree" title="Argead dynasty">Argead</a></li>
<li><a href="/info/en/?search=Ptolemaic_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic family tree">Ptolemaic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/info/en/?search=List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List of pharaohs</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1442#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1442#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/info/en/?search=Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1442#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/84854/">FAST</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000108303370">ISNI</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/36952961">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1028813">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12134416p">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12134416p">BnF data</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058614684106706">Catalonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118764659">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Septimius Severus"><a class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV307252">Italy</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007267973005171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/20872171">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Severus, Lucius Septimius, Emperor of Rome, 146-211"><a class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82000920">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/gdsw0w9006ddm64">Sweden</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=js20020124058&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record141749">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p067660576">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810599126205606">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/10998">Vatican</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/68568">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500115702">ULAN</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118764659.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/014825">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6mc920f">SNAC</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029794846">IdRef</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1714078215' |