Radioglaciology is the study of
glaciers ,
ice sheets ,
ice caps and
icy moons using
ice penetrating radar . It employs a
geophysical method similar to
ground-penetrating radar and typically operates at
frequencies in the
MF ,
HF ,
VHF and
UHF portions of the
radio spectrum .
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4] This technique is also commonly referred to as "Ice Penetrating Radar (IPR)" or "Radio Echo Sounding (RES)".
Glaciers are particularly well suited to investigation by radar because the
conductivity , imaginary part of the
permittivity , and the
dielectric absorption of ice are small at
radio frequencies resulting in low loss
tangent ,
skin depth , and
attenuation values . This allows echoes from the base of the ice sheet to be detected through ice thicknesses greater than 4 km.
[5]
[6] The subsurface observation of ice masses using radio waves has been an integral and evolving
geophysical technique in
glaciology for over half a century.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14] Its most widespread uses have been the measurement of ice thickness, subglacial topography, and ice sheet stratigraphy.
[15]
[8]
[5] It has also been used to observe the subglacial and conditions of ice sheets and glaciers, including hydrology, thermal state, accumulation, flow history, ice fabric, and bed geology.
[1] In planetary science, ice penetrating radar has also been used to explore the subsurface of the Polar Ice Caps on Mars and comets.
[16]
[17]
[18] Missions are planned to explore the icy moons of Jupiter.
[19]
[20]
Measurements and applications
Radioglaciology uses
nadir facing
radars to probe the subsurface of
glaciers ,
ice sheets ,
ice caps , and
icy moons and to detect
reflected and
scattered energy from within and beneath the ice.
[8] This geometry tends to emphasize
coherent and
specular reflected energy resulting in distinct forms of the radar equation.
[21]
[22] Collected radar data typically undergoes
signal processing ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to
migration to
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.
[23]
[24]
[25]
[22] This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke)
ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems
[26]
[27] to coherent,
chirped airborne sounders
[28]
[29]
[30] to swath-imaging,
[31] multi-frequency,
[32] or
polarimetric
[33] implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars
[34]
[35]
[36] have been used to observe snow,
[37] ice shelf melt rates,
[38] englacial hydrology,
[39] ice sheet structure,
[40] and vertical ice flow.
[41]
[42]
Interferometric analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.
[43] Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,
[44] on in-situ probes,
[45] in low-cost deployments,
[46] using
Software Defined Radios ,
[47] and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.
[48]
[49]
The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes
interpolated "bed maps",
[6]
[50]
[51]
[52] widely used in
ice sheet modeling and
sea level rise projections , studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
[57] and observations of glacier beds.
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61] The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the
reflectivity
[62]
[27] of the bed, the
attenuation
[63]
[64]
[65] of radar in the ice, and the
morphology of the bed.
[66]
[67]
[68] In addition bed echoes, radar returns from englacial layers
[69] are used in studies of the radio
stratigraphy of ice sheets
[70]
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74] including investigations of
ice accumulation ,
[75]
[76]
[77]
[78]
[79] flow,
[80]
[81]
[82]
[83] and
fabric
[84]
[85] as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.
[86]
[87]
[88] Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study
subglacial lakes
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
[93]
[94] and glacial
hydrology
[95] including englacial water,
[96]
[97]
[98] firn aquifers,
[99] and their temporal evolution.
[100]
[39]
[101] Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of
ice shelves including their grounding zones,
[102]
[103] melt rates,
[104]
[105] brine distribution,
[106] and basal channels.
[107]
Planetary exploration
There are currently two ice-penetrating radars orbiting
Mars :
MARSIS and
SHARAD .
[108]
[109]
[110]
[111]
[112]
[113]
[114]
[115]
[116]
[117] An ice penetrating radar was also part of the
ROSETTA mission to
comet
67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko .
[17] Ice penetrating radars are also included in the payloads of two planned missions to the
icy moons of
Jupiter :
JUICE and
Europa Clipper .
[19]
[118]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[123]
IGS symposia
The
International Glaciological Society (IGS) holds a periodic series of symposia focused on radioglaciology. In 2008, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology and its Applications" was hosted at the
Technical University of Madrid . In 2013, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology" was hosted at the
University of Kansas . In 2019, the "Symposium of Five Decades of Radioglaciology" was hosted at
Stanford University .
Further reading
The following books and papers cover important topics in radioglaciology
Allen C (2008)
of-ice-2/ A brief history of radio-echo sounding of ice. Earthzine.
Bingham RG and Siegert MJ (2007)
Radio-echo sounding over polar ice masses. Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics 12(1), 47–62.
Bogorodsky, VV, Bentley CR, and Gudmandsen PE (1985) Radioglaciology. D. Reidel Publishing
Dowdeswell JA and Evans S (2004)
Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio-echo sounding . Reports on Progress in Physics 67(10), 1821–1861.
Haynes M (2020)
Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 135–142.
Hubbard B and Glasser NF (2005). Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons.
Navarro F and Eisen O (2009). 11.
Ground-penetrating radar in glaciological in Remote Sensing of Glaciers , Pellikka P and Rees GW (editors).
Pettinelli E and 6 others (2015)
Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration: a review. Reviews of Geophysics 53(3), 593–641.
Schroeder DM, Bingham RG, Blankenship, DD, Christianson, K, Eisen, O, Flowers, GE, Karlsson, NB, Koutnik MR, Paden JD, Siegert, MJ (2020)
Five decades of radioglaciology. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 1-13.
Turchetti S, Dean K, Naylor S and Siegert M (2008)
Accidents and opportunities: a history of the radio echo-sounding of Antarctica, 1958–79. The British Journal for the History of Science 41(3), 417–444.
Research institutions
Research and education in radioglaciology is undertaken at universities and research institutes around the world. These groups found in institutions and departments that span
physical geography ,
geophysics ,
earth science ,
planetary science ,
electrical engineering , and related disciplines.
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^
a
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^
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