Historically, a civilization has often been understood as a larger and "more advanced"
culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of
nomadic pastoralists,
Neolithic societies, or
hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves. Civilizations are organized densely-populated settlements divided into
hierarchicalsocial classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in
intensive agriculture,
mining, small-scale manufacture and
trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. (Full article...)
Ecological civilization is the
hypothetical concept that describes the alleged final goal of social and environmental reform within a given society. It implies that the changes required in response to global
climate disruption and social injustices are so extensive as to require another form of human civilization, one based on
ecological principles. (Full article...)
Superpower describes a
state or
supranational union that holds a dominant position characterized by the ability to exert
influence or
project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined means of economic, military, technological, political, and cultural strength as well as
diplomatic and
soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the
great powers. While a great power state is capable of exerting its influence globally, superpowers are states so influential that no significant action can be taken by the global community without first considering the positions of the superpowers on the issue.
In 1944, during
World War II, the term was first applied to the
United States, the
British Empire, and the
Soviet Union. During the
Cold War, the British Empire dissolved, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union to dominate world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States became, and remains, the world's sole superpower, a position sometimes referred to as that of a "hyperpower". Since the late
2010s and into the
2020s,
China has been described as an
emerging superpower, as China poses "the most significant challenge of any nation-state in the world to the United States". (Full article...)
Image 5
A great power is a
sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and
soft power influence, which may cause
middle or
small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own.
International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.
While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is considerable debate on the exact criteria of great power status. Historically, the status of great powers has been formally recognized in organizations such as the
Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 or the
United Nations Security Council, of which permanent members are: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The United Nations Security Council,
NATO Quint, the
G7, the
BRICs and the
Contact Group have all been described as great power concerts. (Full article...)
The scale is
hypothetical, and refers to energy consumption on a
cosmic scale. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed, including a wider range of power levels (Types 0, IV, and V) and the use of metrics other than pure power (e.g.,
computational growth or
food consumption). (Full article...)
Image 7
The planetary phase of civilization is a term created by the
Global Scenario Group (GSG) to describe the contemporary era in which increasing global interdependence and risks are binding the world into a unitary
socio-ecological system. Characteristics of this phase include
economic globalization, biospheric destabilization, mass migration, new global institutions, the Internet, new forms of transboundary conflict, and shifts in culture and consciousness. (Full article...)
The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker
Giovanni Botero divided the world into three types of states: grandissime (great powers), mezano (middle powers), and piccioli (
small powers). According to Botero, a mezano or middle power "has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others." (Full article...)
Image 10
A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where
civilization was developed independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that can be characterized as "civilized". Other characteristics of civilization include a sedentary non-nomadic population, monumental architecture, the existence of social classes and inequality, and the creation of a
writing system for communication. The transition from simpler societies to the complex society of a civilization is gradual.
Scholars generally acknowledge six cradles of civilization:
Mesopotamia,
Ancient Egypt,
Ancient India, and
China are believed to be the earliest in
Afro-Eurasia (previously called the
Old World), while the
Caral-Supe civilization of coastal
Peru and the
Olmec civilization of
Mexico are believed to be the earliest in
Americas - previously known in Eurocentric Western literature as the
New World. All of the cradles of civilization depended upon agriculture for sustenance (except possibly Caral-Supe which may have depended initially on
marine resources). All depended upon farmers producing an agricultural surplus to support the centralized government, political leaders, priests, and public works of the urban centers of the early civilizations. (Full article...)
Selected civilizations
Image 1
Women in Aztec civilization shared some equal opportunities.
Aztec civilization saw the rise of a military culture that was closed off to women and made their role more prescribed to domestic and reproductive labor and less equal. The status of Aztec women in society was further altered in the
16th century, when Spanish conquest forced European norms onto the indigenous culture. However, many pre-Columbian norms survived and their legacy still remains. (Full article...)
The Minoan civilization developed from the local
Neolithic culture around 3100BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000BC. After
c.1450BC, they came under the cultural and perhaps political domination of the mainland
Mycenaean Greeks, forming a hybrid culture which lasted until around 1100BC. (Full article...)
Image 3
Economy is conventionally defined as a function for production and distribution of goods and services by multiple agents within a
society and/or geographical place An economy is hierarchical, made up of individuals that aggregate to make larger organizations such as governments and gives value to goods and services. The
Maya economy had no universal form of trade exchange other than resources and services that could be provided among groups such as cacao beans and copper bells. Though there is limited archeological evidence to study the trade of perishable goods, it is noteworthy to explore the trade networks of
artifacts and other luxury items that were likely transported together.
While subsistence agriculture played a central role in daily life, the Maya had a mechanism for economic exchange between settlements, which was capable of supporting specialists and a system of merchants through trade routes. Maya specialist Joanne Pillsbury states that "access to imported goods is perhaps the most recoverable aspect of prestige and leadership in ancient states." The power of Maya rulers not only depended on their ability to control resources, but also in managing the production and distribution of status goods as well as (non-local) commodities like salt. Furthermore, Maya laborers were subject to a labor
tax to build palaces, temples and public works. A ruler successful in war was able to control more laborers and exact tribute on defeated enemies, further increasing their economic might. (Full article...)
Image 4
Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.
On the origins of the Etruscans a large body of literature has flourished; however, the consensus among modern scholars is that the Etruscans were an indigenous population. The earliest evidence of a
culture that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900BC. This is the period of the
Iron AgeVillanovan culture, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization, which itself developed from the previous late
Bronze AgeProto-Villanovan culture in the same region, part of the central European
Urnfield culture system. Etruscan civilization dominated Italy until it fell to the expanding
Rome beginning in the late 4thcenturyBC as a result of the
Roman–Etruscan Wars; Etruscans were granted
Roman citizenship in 90 BC, and only in 27 BC the whole Etruscan territory was incorporated into the newly established
Roman Empire. (Full article...)
Image 5
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)
The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods; these were preceded by the Archaic Period, which saw the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of chronology of the
Maya civilization, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decadence. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author. The Preclassic lasted from approximately 3000 BC to approximately 250 AD; this was followed by the Classic, from 250 AD to roughly 950 AD, then by the Postclassic, from 950 AD to the middle of the 16th century. Each period is further subdivided: (Full article...)
A river valley civilization is an
agricultural nation or
civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A river gives the inhabitants a reliable source of water for drinking and agriculture. Some other possible benefits for the inhabitants are fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation. (Full article...)
Image 9
Late Postclassic Huastec temple at Castillo de Teayo
Surviving remains from the Huastec civilization include several large archaeological sites, a well-preserved temple, and a large amount of stone sculpture. By the
Late Postclassic (c. AD 1200–1521), the Huastecs had developed
metallurgy and were producing copper alloys. The
Aztec Empire conquered the Huastec region around the 15th century, and probably demanded tribute payments. (Full article...)
Image 10
The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, was a civilization or culture on the Mediterranean island of
Sardinia,
Italy, which lasted from the 18th century BC (Middle
Bronze Age), or from the 23rd century BC, up to the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD, and in some areas, namely the
Barbagia, to the 6th century AD, or possibly even to the 11th century AD.
The adjective "Nuragic" is neither an
autonym nor an
ethnonym. It derives from the island's most characteristic monument, the
nuraghe, a tower-fortress type of construction the ancient
Sardinians built in large numbers starting from about 1800 BC. Today, more than 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape. (Full article...)
Image 11
The extensive
trade networks of the
Ancient Maya contributed largely to the success of their civilization spanning three millennia. Maya royal control and the wide distribution of foreign and domestic commodities for both population sustenance and social affluence are hallmarks of the Maya visible throughout much of the iconography found in the archaeological record. In particular, moderately long-distance trade of foreign commodities from the Caribbean and Gulf Coasts provided the larger inland Maya cities with the resources they needed to sustain settled population levels in the several thousands. Though the
ruling class essentially controlled the trade economy, a middle merchant class supervised import and export from cities and trade ports. Not much is known of the Maya merchant class; however, merchants of royal lineage are sometimes represented in the iconography. Notably, a canoe paddle often accompanies the royal merchant depictions, signifying their association with marine resources.
Water lilies are also a recognizable feature of Maya iconography, appearing on ceramics and murals in landlocked cities like
Palenque where the lilies cannot grow, further indicating the important political symbolism of water connections. The dugout style canoes of the Maya and other small watercraft are also represented in various
codices, sometimes ferrying royal figures or deities. The rich tradition of maritime trade has continued into the modern era, exemplified by the resource exploitation of the coastal lagoons and cay locations along the Caribbean coast of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. Eventually, the intensification of maritime trade reliance aided in the collapse of interior Maya power regimes, shifting political influence to coastal polities such as
Uxmal and
Chichen Itza in the Terminal Classic. A seaborne trade economy would continue to dominate the Maya civilization until the period of European contact. (Full article...)
Ancient Rome began as an
Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the
River Tiber in the
Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the
Greek culture of southern
Italy (
Magna Grecia) and the
Etruscan culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the
North African coast,
Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the
Balkans,
Crimea, and much of the Middle East, including
Anatolia,
Levant, and parts of
Mesopotamia and
Arabia. That empire was among the
largest empires in the ancient world, covering around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) in AD 117, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a
classical republic and then to an increasingly
autocraticmilitary dictatorship during the Empire. (Full article...)
The book is Kaplan's most notable work and has influenced a number of American Jewish thinkers. Kaplan's work centers around the concept that Judaism ought not to be defined as the religion of the Jews, but the sum of Jewish religion, culture, language, literature and social organization. (Full article...)
Image 19
The Quimbaya (/kɪmbaɪa/) were a small indigenous group in present-day
Colombia noted for their
gold work characterized by technical accuracy and detailed designs. The majority of the gold work is made in tumbaga alloy, with 30%
copper, which colours the pieces. (Full article...)
Image 20
The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the
Yellow River valley, which along with the
Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The
traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the
dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the
cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the
Tian Shan, the
Tarim Basin, and the
Himalayas, as far north as the
Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the
delta of the Red River.
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the
Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.
Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the
Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE,
persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages.
Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the
Punjab from
Central Asia in several
waves of migration. The
Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their large collections of hymns (
Vedas). The social structure was stratified via the
varna system, which persists till this day though highly evolved. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the
Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (
janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (
mahajanapadas). A second urbanisation took place, which came with the rise of new
ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of
Jainism and
Buddhism. The latter
was synthesised with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to
Hinduism.
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the
Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the
Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor
Brihadratha by his general
Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would go on to form the
Shunga Empire in the north and northeast of the subcontinent, while the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the northwest and found the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the
Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a
Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the
Classical or
Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming
Greater India. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the
Tripartite struggle centred on
Kannauj.
Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The
Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period
Indian mathematics, including
Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the
Arab world, including the creation of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system. (Full article...)
Activity consisted mainly of foods like
fish,
squash,
yams,
corn,
honey,
beans,
turkey,
vegetables,
salt,
chocolate drinks; raw materials such as limestone, marble, jade, wood, copper, and gold; and manufactured goods such as paper, books, furniture, jewelry, clothing, carvings, toys, weapons, and luxury goods. The Maya also had an important services sector, through which mathematicians, farming consultants, artisans, architects, astronomers, scribes and artists would work. Some of the richer merchants also sold weapons, gold and other valuables. Specialized craftsmen created luxury items and devices to overcome specific problems, usually by royal decree. (Full article...)
Image 23
The Aztecs (/ˈæztɛks/AZ-teks) were a
Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central
Mexico in the
post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different
ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the
Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The
Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427:
Tenochtitlan, city-state of the
Mexica or Tenochca,
Texcoco, and
Tlacopan, previously part of the
Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was
Azcapotzalco. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to
Nahua polities or peoples of central
Mexico in the prehispanic era, as well as the
Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The
definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist
Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early 19th century.
Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the
post-classic period shared essential cultural traits of Mesoamerica. So many of the characteristics that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes
maize cultivation, the social division between nobility (pipiltin) and commoners (macehualtin), a
pantheon (featuring
Tezcatlipoca,
Tlaloc, and
Quetzalcoatl), and the
calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron God
Huitzilopochtli,
twin pyramids, and the ceramic styles known as Aztec I to IV. (Full article...)
Historically, a civilization has often been understood as a larger and "more advanced"
culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of
nomadic pastoralists,
Neolithic societies, or
hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves. Civilizations are organized densely-populated settlements divided into
hierarchicalsocial classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in
intensive agriculture,
mining, small-scale manufacture and
trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. (Full article...)
Ecological civilization is the
hypothetical concept that describes the alleged final goal of social and environmental reform within a given society. It implies that the changes required in response to global
climate disruption and social injustices are so extensive as to require another form of human civilization, one based on
ecological principles. (Full article...)
Superpower describes a
state or
supranational union that holds a dominant position characterized by the ability to exert
influence or
project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined means of economic, military, technological, political, and cultural strength as well as
diplomatic and
soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the
great powers. While a great power state is capable of exerting its influence globally, superpowers are states so influential that no significant action can be taken by the global community without first considering the positions of the superpowers on the issue.
In 1944, during
World War II, the term was first applied to the
United States, the
British Empire, and the
Soviet Union. During the
Cold War, the British Empire dissolved, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union to dominate world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States became, and remains, the world's sole superpower, a position sometimes referred to as that of a "hyperpower". Since the late
2010s and into the
2020s,
China has been described as an
emerging superpower, as China poses "the most significant challenge of any nation-state in the world to the United States". (Full article...)
Image 5
A great power is a
sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and
soft power influence, which may cause
middle or
small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own.
International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.
While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is considerable debate on the exact criteria of great power status. Historically, the status of great powers has been formally recognized in organizations such as the
Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 or the
United Nations Security Council, of which permanent members are: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The United Nations Security Council,
NATO Quint, the
G7, the
BRICs and the
Contact Group have all been described as great power concerts. (Full article...)
The scale is
hypothetical, and refers to energy consumption on a
cosmic scale. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed, including a wider range of power levels (Types 0, IV, and V) and the use of metrics other than pure power (e.g.,
computational growth or
food consumption). (Full article...)
Image 7
The planetary phase of civilization is a term created by the
Global Scenario Group (GSG) to describe the contemporary era in which increasing global interdependence and risks are binding the world into a unitary
socio-ecological system. Characteristics of this phase include
economic globalization, biospheric destabilization, mass migration, new global institutions, the Internet, new forms of transboundary conflict, and shifts in culture and consciousness. (Full article...)
The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker
Giovanni Botero divided the world into three types of states: grandissime (great powers), mezano (middle powers), and piccioli (
small powers). According to Botero, a mezano or middle power "has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others." (Full article...)
Image 10
A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where
civilization was developed independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that can be characterized as "civilized". Other characteristics of civilization include a sedentary non-nomadic population, monumental architecture, the existence of social classes and inequality, and the creation of a
writing system for communication. The transition from simpler societies to the complex society of a civilization is gradual.
Scholars generally acknowledge six cradles of civilization:
Mesopotamia,
Ancient Egypt,
Ancient India, and
China are believed to be the earliest in
Afro-Eurasia (previously called the
Old World), while the
Caral-Supe civilization of coastal
Peru and the
Olmec civilization of
Mexico are believed to be the earliest in
Americas - previously known in Eurocentric Western literature as the
New World. All of the cradles of civilization depended upon agriculture for sustenance (except possibly Caral-Supe which may have depended initially on
marine resources). All depended upon farmers producing an agricultural surplus to support the centralized government, political leaders, priests, and public works of the urban centers of the early civilizations. (Full article...)
Selected civilizations
Image 1
Women in Aztec civilization shared some equal opportunities.
Aztec civilization saw the rise of a military culture that was closed off to women and made their role more prescribed to domestic and reproductive labor and less equal. The status of Aztec women in society was further altered in the
16th century, when Spanish conquest forced European norms onto the indigenous culture. However, many pre-Columbian norms survived and their legacy still remains. (Full article...)
The Minoan civilization developed from the local
Neolithic culture around 3100BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000BC. After
c.1450BC, they came under the cultural and perhaps political domination of the mainland
Mycenaean Greeks, forming a hybrid culture which lasted until around 1100BC. (Full article...)
Image 3
Economy is conventionally defined as a function for production and distribution of goods and services by multiple agents within a
society and/or geographical place An economy is hierarchical, made up of individuals that aggregate to make larger organizations such as governments and gives value to goods and services. The
Maya economy had no universal form of trade exchange other than resources and services that could be provided among groups such as cacao beans and copper bells. Though there is limited archeological evidence to study the trade of perishable goods, it is noteworthy to explore the trade networks of
artifacts and other luxury items that were likely transported together.
While subsistence agriculture played a central role in daily life, the Maya had a mechanism for economic exchange between settlements, which was capable of supporting specialists and a system of merchants through trade routes. Maya specialist Joanne Pillsbury states that "access to imported goods is perhaps the most recoverable aspect of prestige and leadership in ancient states." The power of Maya rulers not only depended on their ability to control resources, but also in managing the production and distribution of status goods as well as (non-local) commodities like salt. Furthermore, Maya laborers were subject to a labor
tax to build palaces, temples and public works. A ruler successful in war was able to control more laborers and exact tribute on defeated enemies, further increasing their economic might. (Full article...)
Image 4
Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.
On the origins of the Etruscans a large body of literature has flourished; however, the consensus among modern scholars is that the Etruscans were an indigenous population. The earliest evidence of a
culture that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900BC. This is the period of the
Iron AgeVillanovan culture, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization, which itself developed from the previous late
Bronze AgeProto-Villanovan culture in the same region, part of the central European
Urnfield culture system. Etruscan civilization dominated Italy until it fell to the expanding
Rome beginning in the late 4thcenturyBC as a result of the
Roman–Etruscan Wars; Etruscans were granted
Roman citizenship in 90 BC, and only in 27 BC the whole Etruscan territory was incorporated into the newly established
Roman Empire. (Full article...)
Image 5
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)
The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods; these were preceded by the Archaic Period, which saw the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of chronology of the
Maya civilization, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decadence. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author. The Preclassic lasted from approximately 3000 BC to approximately 250 AD; this was followed by the Classic, from 250 AD to roughly 950 AD, then by the Postclassic, from 950 AD to the middle of the 16th century. Each period is further subdivided: (Full article...)
A river valley civilization is an
agricultural nation or
civilization situated beside and drawing sustenance from a river. A river gives the inhabitants a reliable source of water for drinking and agriculture. Some other possible benefits for the inhabitants are fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation. (Full article...)
Image 9
Late Postclassic Huastec temple at Castillo de Teayo
Surviving remains from the Huastec civilization include several large archaeological sites, a well-preserved temple, and a large amount of stone sculpture. By the
Late Postclassic (c. AD 1200–1521), the Huastecs had developed
metallurgy and were producing copper alloys. The
Aztec Empire conquered the Huastec region around the 15th century, and probably demanded tribute payments. (Full article...)
Image 10
The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, was a civilization or culture on the Mediterranean island of
Sardinia,
Italy, which lasted from the 18th century BC (Middle
Bronze Age), or from the 23rd century BC, up to the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD, and in some areas, namely the
Barbagia, to the 6th century AD, or possibly even to the 11th century AD.
The adjective "Nuragic" is neither an
autonym nor an
ethnonym. It derives from the island's most characteristic monument, the
nuraghe, a tower-fortress type of construction the ancient
Sardinians built in large numbers starting from about 1800 BC. Today, more than 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape. (Full article...)
Image 11
The extensive
trade networks of the
Ancient Maya contributed largely to the success of their civilization spanning three millennia. Maya royal control and the wide distribution of foreign and domestic commodities for both population sustenance and social affluence are hallmarks of the Maya visible throughout much of the iconography found in the archaeological record. In particular, moderately long-distance trade of foreign commodities from the Caribbean and Gulf Coasts provided the larger inland Maya cities with the resources they needed to sustain settled population levels in the several thousands. Though the
ruling class essentially controlled the trade economy, a middle merchant class supervised import and export from cities and trade ports. Not much is known of the Maya merchant class; however, merchants of royal lineage are sometimes represented in the iconography. Notably, a canoe paddle often accompanies the royal merchant depictions, signifying their association with marine resources.
Water lilies are also a recognizable feature of Maya iconography, appearing on ceramics and murals in landlocked cities like
Palenque where the lilies cannot grow, further indicating the important political symbolism of water connections. The dugout style canoes of the Maya and other small watercraft are also represented in various
codices, sometimes ferrying royal figures or deities. The rich tradition of maritime trade has continued into the modern era, exemplified by the resource exploitation of the coastal lagoons and cay locations along the Caribbean coast of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. Eventually, the intensification of maritime trade reliance aided in the collapse of interior Maya power regimes, shifting political influence to coastal polities such as
Uxmal and
Chichen Itza in the Terminal Classic. A seaborne trade economy would continue to dominate the Maya civilization until the period of European contact. (Full article...)
Ancient Rome began as an
Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the
River Tiber in the
Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the
Greek culture of southern
Italy (
Magna Grecia) and the
Etruscan culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the
North African coast,
Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the
Balkans,
Crimea, and much of the Middle East, including
Anatolia,
Levant, and parts of
Mesopotamia and
Arabia. That empire was among the
largest empires in the ancient world, covering around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) in AD 117, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a
classical republic and then to an increasingly
autocraticmilitary dictatorship during the Empire. (Full article...)
The book is Kaplan's most notable work and has influenced a number of American Jewish thinkers. Kaplan's work centers around the concept that Judaism ought not to be defined as the religion of the Jews, but the sum of Jewish religion, culture, language, literature and social organization. (Full article...)
Image 19
The Quimbaya (/kɪmbaɪa/) were a small indigenous group in present-day
Colombia noted for their
gold work characterized by technical accuracy and detailed designs. The majority of the gold work is made in tumbaga alloy, with 30%
copper, which colours the pieces. (Full article...)
Image 20
The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the
Yellow River valley, which along with the
Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The
traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the
dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the
cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the
Tian Shan, the
Tarim Basin, and the
Himalayas, as far north as the
Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the
delta of the Red River.
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the
Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.
Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the
Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE,
persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages.
Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the
Punjab from
Central Asia in several
waves of migration. The
Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their large collections of hymns (
Vedas). The social structure was stratified via the
varna system, which persists till this day though highly evolved. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the
Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (
janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (
mahajanapadas). A second urbanisation took place, which came with the rise of new
ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of
Jainism and
Buddhism. The latter
was synthesised with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to
Hinduism.
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the
Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the
Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor
Brihadratha by his general
Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would go on to form the
Shunga Empire in the north and northeast of the subcontinent, while the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the northwest and found the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the
Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a
Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the
Classical or
Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming
Greater India. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the
Tripartite struggle centred on
Kannauj.
Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The
Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period
Indian mathematics, including
Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the
Arab world, including the creation of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system. (Full article...)
Activity consisted mainly of foods like
fish,
squash,
yams,
corn,
honey,
beans,
turkey,
vegetables,
salt,
chocolate drinks; raw materials such as limestone, marble, jade, wood, copper, and gold; and manufactured goods such as paper, books, furniture, jewelry, clothing, carvings, toys, weapons, and luxury goods. The Maya also had an important services sector, through which mathematicians, farming consultants, artisans, architects, astronomers, scribes and artists would work. Some of the richer merchants also sold weapons, gold and other valuables. Specialized craftsmen created luxury items and devices to overcome specific problems, usually by royal decree. (Full article...)
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The Aztecs (/ˈæztɛks/AZ-teks) were a
Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central
Mexico in the
post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different
ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the
Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The
Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427:
Tenochtitlan, city-state of the
Mexica or Tenochca,
Texcoco, and
Tlacopan, previously part of the
Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was
Azcapotzalco. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to
Nahua polities or peoples of central
Mexico in the prehispanic era, as well as the
Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The
definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist
Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early 19th century.
Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the
post-classic period shared essential cultural traits of Mesoamerica. So many of the characteristics that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes
maize cultivation, the social division between nobility (pipiltin) and commoners (macehualtin), a
pantheon (featuring
Tezcatlipoca,
Tlaloc, and
Quetzalcoatl), and the
calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron God
Huitzilopochtli,
twin pyramids, and the ceramic styles known as Aztec I to IV. (Full article...)