There are about 380,000 known
species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000,
produce seeds. They range in size from single cells to the tallest
trees. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen; the sugars they create supply the energy for most of Earth's
ecosystems and other
organisms, including animals, either
consume plants directly or rely on organisms which do so. (Full article...)
These are
featured articles, which represent some of the best content on English Wikipedia.
Image 1
Banksia caleyi, commonly known as Caley's banksia or red lantern banksia, is a species of woody
shrub of the family
Proteaceae native to
Western Australia. It generally grows as a dense shrub up to 2 m (7 ft) tall, has
serrated leaves and red,
pendent (hanging)
inflorescences which are generally hidden in the foliage. First
described by Scottish naturalist
Robert Brown in 1830, Banksia caleyi was named in honour of the English botanist
George Caley. No subspecies are recognised. It is one of three or four related species with hanging inflorescences, which is an unusual feature within the genus.
Alloxylon pinnatum, known as Dorrigo waratah, is a tree of the family
Proteaceae found in
warm-temperate rainforest of south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales in eastern Australia. It has shiny green leaves that are either
pinnate (lobed) and up to 30 cm (12 in) long, or
lanceolate (spear-shaped) and up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long. The prominent pinkish-red flower heads, known as
inflorescences, appear in spring and summer; these are made up of 50 to 140 individual flowers arranged in
corymb or
raceme. These are followed by rectangular woody seed pods, which bear two rows of winged seeds.
Known for many years as Oreocallis pinnata, it was transferred to the new genus Alloxylon by
Peter Weston and
Mike Crisp in 1991. This genus contains the four species previously classified in Oreocallis that are found in Australasia. Its terminal globular flowers indicate that the species is pollinated by birds. Classified as near threatened under the Queensland
Nature Conservation Act 1992, the Dorrigo waratah has proven difficult to keep alive in cultivation. (Full article...)
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Telopea oreades, commonly known as the Gippsland-, mountain- or Victorian waratah, is a large shrub or small tree in the family
Proteaceae. Native to southeastern Australia, it is found in wet
sclerophyll forest and
rainforest on rich
acidic soils high in organic matter. No
subspecies are recognised, though a northern isolated population
hybridises extensively with the Braidwood waratah (T. mongaensis). Reaching a height of up to 19 metres (62 feet), T. oreades grows with a single trunk and erect
habit. It has dark green leaves with prominent veins that are 11–28 centimetres (4.3–11 in) long and 1.5–6 cm (0.6–2.4 in) wide. The red flower heads, known as
inflorescences, appear in late spring. Each is composed of up to 60 individual flowers.
In the garden, T. oreades grows in soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part-shaded or sunny positions. Several commercially available
cultivars that are hybrid forms with T. speciosissima have been developed, such as the 'Shady Lady' series. The timber is hard and has been used for making furniture and tool handles. (Full article...)
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Several plants in cultivation
Drosera regia, commonly known as the king sundew, is a
carnivorous plant in the sundew genus Drosera that is
endemic to a single valley in
South Africa. The genus name Drosera comes from the
Greek word droseros, meaning "dew-covered". The
specific epithetregia is derived from the
Latin for "royal", a reference to the "striking appearance" of the species. Individual leaves can reach 70 cm (28 in) in length. It has many unusual
relict characteristics not found in most other Drosera species, including woody
rhizomes,
operculatepollen, and the lack of
circinate vernation in
scape growth. All of these factors, combined with
molecular data from
phylogenetic analysis, contribute to the evidence that D. regia possesses some of the most ancient characteristics within the genus. Some of these are shared with the related
Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), which suggests a close evolutionary relationship.
The
tentacle-covered leaves can capture large prey, such as beetles, moths, and butterflies. The tentacles of all Drosera species have special stalked glands on the leaf's upper surface that produce a sticky
mucilage. The leaves are considered active
flypaper traps that respond to captured prey by bending to surround it. In its native
fynbos habitat, the plants compete for space with native marsh grasses and low
evergreenshrubs. Of the two known populations of D. regia, the higher elevation site appears to be overgrown and is essentially
extirpated. The lower elevation site is estimated to have about 50 mature plants, making it the most endangered Drosera species, since it is threatened with extinction in the wild. It is often cultivated by carnivorous plant enthusiasts, and a single
cultivar has been registered. (Full article...)
Banksia spinulosa, the hairpin banksia, is a species of woody
shrub, of the genus Banksia in the family
Proteaceae, native to eastern
Australia. Widely distributed, it is found as an
understorey plant in open dry forest or
heathland from
Victoria to northern
Queensland, generally on sandstone though sometimes also clay soils. It generally grows as a small shrub to 2 metres (7 ft) in height, though can be a straggly tree to 6 metres (20 ft). It has long narrow leaves with
inflorescences which can vary considerably in coloration; while the spikes are gold or less commonly yellowish, the emergent styles may be a wide range of colours – from black, purple, red, orange or yellow.
Banksia spinulosa was named by
James Edward Smith in England in 1793, after being collected by
John White, most likely in 1792. He gave it the common name prickly-leaved banksia, though this has fallen out of use. With four currently recognised varieties, the species has had a complicated
taxonomic history, with two varieties initially described as separate species in the early 19th century. A fourth, from the
New England region, has only recently been described. However, there has been disagreement whether one, var. cunninghamii, is distinct enough to once again have specific status. The pre-eminent authority on Banksia,
Alex George, concedes there is still more work to be done on the Banksia spinulosa complex. (Full article...)
Banksia sessilis, commonly known as parrot bush, is a
species of
shrub or
tree in the
plantgenusBanksia of the family
Proteaceae. It had been known as Dryandra sessilis until 2007, when the genus Dryandra was sunk into Banksia. The
Noongar peoples know the plant as budjan or butyak. Widespread throughout
southwestWestern Australia, it is found on sandy soils over
laterite or
limestone, often as an
understorey plant in open forest, woodland or shrubland. Encountered as a shrub or small tree up to 6 m (20 ft) in height, it has prickly dark green leaves and dome-shaped cream-yellow
flowerheads. Flowering from winter through to late spring, it provides a key source of food—both the nectar and the insects it attracts—for
honeyeaters in the cooler months, and
species diversity is reduced in areas where there is little or no parrot bush occurring. Several species of honeyeater, some species of native bee, and the
European honey bee seek out and consume the nectar, while the
long-billed black cockatoo and
Australian ringneck eat the seed. The life cycle of Banksia sessilis is adapted to regular bushfires. Killed by fire and regenerating by seed afterwards, each shrub generally produces many flowerheads and a massive amount of seed. It can recolonise disturbed areas, and may grow in thickets.
Banksia sessilis has a somewhat complicated
taxonomic history. It was collected from
King George Sound in 1801 and described by
Robert Brown in 1810 as Dryandra floribunda, a name by which it was known for many years. However,
Joseph Knight had published the name Josephia sessilis in 1809, which had precedence due to its earlier date, and the specific name was formalised in 1924. Four
varieties are recognised. It is a prickly plant with little apparent
horticultural potential; none of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation. A profuse producer of nectar, B. sessilis is valuable to the
beekeeping industry. (Full article...)
The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres (50 ft) in 25 years. While the species rarely lives more than 50 years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age. Its
suckering ability allows this tree to clone itself indefinitely. It is considered a
noxious weed and vigorous
invasive species, and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America. In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its role in the life cycle of the also destructive and invasive
spotted lanternfly. (Full article...)
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Banksia lemanniana, the yellow lantern banksia or Lemann's banksia, is a
species of
flowering plant in the
familyProteaceae, native to
Western Australia. It generally grows as an open woody shrub or small tree to 5 m (16 ft) high, with stiff serrated leaves and unusual hanging
inflorescences. Flowering occurs over summer, the greenish buds developing into oval flower spikes before turning grey and developing the characteristic large woody
follicles. It occurs within and just east of the
Fitzgerald River National Park on the southern coast of the state. B. lemanniana is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed.
Described by Swiss botanist
Carl Meissner in 1856, Banksia lemanniana was named in honour of English botanist
Charles Morgan Lemann. It is one of three or four related species all with
pendent inflorescences, which is an unusual feature of
banksias. No subspecies are recognised. Banksia lemanniana is classified as Not Threatened under the
Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia. Unlike many Western Australian banksias, it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil-borne
water mouldPhytophthora cinnamomi, and is one of the easier Western Australian species to grow in cultivation. (Full article...)
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Banksia dentata, commonly known as the tropical banksia, is a species of tree in the
genusBanksia. It occurs across northern Australia, southern
New Guinea and the
Aru Islands. Growing as a gnarled tree to 7 m (23 ft) high, it has large green leaves up to 22 cm (8.7 in) long with
dentatemargins. The cylindrical yellow
inflorescences, up to 13 cm (5.1 in) high, appear between November and May, attracting various species of
honeyeaters,
sunbirds, the
sugar glider and a variety of insects. Flowers fall off the ageing spikes, which swell and develop
follicles containing up to two viable seeds each.
Banksia dentata is one of four Banksia species collected by Sir
Joseph Banks in 1770, and one of the four species published in 1782 as part of
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger's original description of Banksia. Within the genus, it is classified in the
seriesSalicinae, a group of species from Australia's eastern states.
Genetic studies show it is a
basal member within the group. Banksia dentata is found in tropical grassland known as
savanna, and associated with Pandanus and Melaleuca. It regenerates from bushfire by regrowing from its woody base, known as a
lignotuber. (Full article...)
In nature, B. sceptrum grows in deep yellow or pale red sand in tall
shrubland, commonly on
dunes, being found as a shrub to 5 metres (16 ft) high, though often smaller in exposed areas. It is killed by
fire and regenerates by
seed, the woody
follicles opening with fire. B. sceptrum is one of the most striking yellow-flowered
banksias of all. Its tall bright yellow spikes, known as
inflorescences, are terminal and well displayed. Flowering is in summer, mainly December and January, though flowers are occasionally seen at other times. (Full article...)
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Banksia cuneata, commonly known as matchstick banksia or Quairading banksia, is an
endangered species of
flowering plant in the family
Proteaceae. Endemic to
southwestWestern Australia, it belongs to
Banksia subg. Isostylis, a sub-genus of three closely related Banksia species with
inflorescences or flower clusters that are dome-shaped heads rather than characteristic Banksia flower spikes. A shrub or small tree up to 5 m (16 ft) high, it has prickly foliage and pink and cream flowers. The common name Matchstick Banksia arises from the blooms in late bud, the individual buds of which resemble matchsticks. The species is
pollinated by
honeyeaters (Meliphagidae).
Although B. cuneata was first collected before 1880, it was not until 1981 that Australian botanist
Alex George formally described and named the species. There are two genetically distinct population groups, but no recognised varieties. This Banksia is classified as endangered, surviving in fragments of remnant bushland in a region which has been 93% cleared for agriculture. As Banksia cuneata is killed by fire and regenerates from seed, it is highly sensitive to bushfire frequency—fires recurring within four years could wipe out populations of plants not yet mature enough to set seed. Banksia cuneata is rarely cultivated, and its prickly foliage limits its utility in the cut flower industry. (Full article...)
Aiphanes is a
genus of
spinypalms which is native to
tropical regions of
South and
Central America and the
Caribbean. There are about 26
species in the genus (see below), ranging in size from
understorey shrubs with subterranean stems to
subcanopy trees as tall as 20 metres (66 ft). Most have
pinnately compound leaves (leaves which are divided into leaflets arranged feather-like, in pairs along a central axis); one species has
entire leaves. Stems, leaves and sometimes even the fruit are covered with spines. Plants flower repeatedly over the course of their lifespan and have separate male and female flowers, although these are borne together on the same
inflorescence. Although records of pollinators are limited, most species appear to be pollinated by insects. The fruit are eaten by several birds and mammals, including at least two species of
amazon parrots.
Carl Ludwig Willdenow coined the name Aiphanes in 1801. Before that, species belonging to the genus had been placed in Bactris or Caryota. The name Martinezia had also been applied to the genus, and between 1847 and 1932 it was generally used in place of Aiphanes.
Max Burret resurrected the name Aiphanes in 1932 and laid the basis for the modern concept of the genus. Aiphanes is most closely related to several other genera of spiny palms—Acrocomia, Astrocaryum, Bactris and Desmoncus. Two species are widely planted as
ornamentals and the fruit, seeds or
palm heart of several species have been eaten by
indigenous peoples of the Americas for millennia. (Full article...)
Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as the coast banksia, is a
species of
tree that grows along the east coast of
Australia. One of the most widely distributed Banksia species, it occurs between
Victoria and
Central Queensland in a broad range of
habitats, from coastal
dunes to
mountains. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height. Its
leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
Persoonia lanceolata, commonly known as lance-leaf geebung, is a shrub native to
New South Wales in eastern Australia. It reaches 3 m (10 ft) in height and has smooth grey bark and bright green foliage. Its small yellow flowers grow on
racemes and appear in the austral summer and autumn (January to April), followed by green fleshy fruits (known as
drupes) which ripen the following spring (September to October). Within the genus Persoonia, P. lanceolata belongs to the lanceolata group of 58 closely related species. It interbreeds with several other species found in its range.
The species is usually found in dry
sclerophyll forest on
sandstone-based nutrient-deficient soil. It has adapted to a fire-prone environment; plants lost in bushfires can regenerate through a
ground-stored seed bank. Seedlings mostly germinate within two years of fires. Several species of native bee of the genus Leioproctus pollinate the flowers.
Swamp wallabies are a main consumer of its fruit, and the seeds are spread in wallaby
faeces. Its lifespan ranges from 25 to 60 years, though difficulties in propagation have seen low cultivation rates. (Full article...)
Banksia brownii, commonly known as feather-leaved banksia or Brown's banksia, is a
species of
shrub that grows in
southwestWestern Australia. A plant with fine feathery
leaves and large red-brown flower spikes, it usually grows as an upright bush around two metres (6.6 ft) high, but can also occur as a small tree or a low spreading shrub. First collected in 1829 and published the following year, it is placed in Banksiasubgenus Banksia,
section Oncostylis,
series Spicigerae. There are two genetically distinct forms.
Banksia brownii occurs naturally only in two population clusters between
Albany and the
Stirling Range in southwest Western Australia. In the Stirling Range it occurs among
heath on rocky mountain slopes; further south it occurs among
jarrahwoodland in shallow nutrient-poor sand. It has been evaluated as
critically endangered by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); all major populations are threatened by
Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, a disease to which the species is highly susceptible. Other threats include loss of habitat, commercial exploitation and changes to the
fire regime. Highly valued by Australia's horticultural and
cut flower industries, B. brownii is widely cultivated in areas not exposed to dieback. It prefers a sheltered position in soil with good drainage, and must be provided with some moisture over summer. (Full article...)
The rhyniophytes are a group of extinct early
vascular plants that are considered to be similar to the genus Rhynia, found in the
Early Devonian (around 419 to 393 million years ago). Sources vary in the name and
rank used for this group, some treating it as the class Rhyniopsida, others as the subdivision Rhyniophytina or the division Rhyniophyta. The first definition of the group, under the name Rhyniophytina, was by
Banks, since when there have been many redefinitions, including by Banks himself. "As a result, the Rhyniophytina have slowly dissolved into a heterogeneous collection of plants ... the group contains only one species on which all authors agree: the type species Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii". When defined very broadly, the group consists of plants with dichotomously branched, naked aerial axes ("stems") with terminal spore-bearing structures (sporangia). The rhyniophytes are considered to be stem group tracheophytes (vascular plants). (Full article...)
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Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of
ecology that studies the distribution and
abundance of
plants, the effects of
environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. Examples of these are the distribution of
temperate deciduous forests in North America, the effects of drought or flooding upon plant survival, and competition among desert plants for water, or effects of herds of grazing animals upon the composition of grasslands.
A global overview of the Earth's major vegetation types is provided by O.W. Archibold. He recognizes 11 major vegetation types: tropical forests, tropical savannas, arid regions (deserts), Mediterranean ecosystems, temperate forest ecosystems, temperate grasslands,
coniferous forests, tundra (both polar and high mountain), terrestrial
wetlands, freshwater ecosystems and coastal/marine systems. This breadth of topics shows the complexity of plant ecology, since it includes plants from floating single-celled algae up to large canopy forming trees. (Full article...)
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Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the
traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving the practical uses of local flora for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing.
Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the "father of ethnobotany", explained the discipline in this way:
Ethnobotany simply means investigating plants used by primitive societies in various parts of the world.
Since the time of Schultes, the field of ethnobotany has grown from simply acquiring ethnobotanical knowledge to that of applying it to a modern society, primarily in the form of pharmaceuticals.
Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing arrangements are important issues in ethnobotany. (Full article...)
Image 5
The
evolution of
plants has resulted in a wide range of complexity, from the earliest
algal mats of unicellular
archaeplastids evolved through
endosymbiosis, through multicellular
marine and
freshwatergreen algae, to
spore-bearing terrestrial
bryophytes,
lycopods and
ferns, and eventually to the complex
seed-bearing
gymnosperms and
angiosperms (
flowering plants) of today. While many of the earliest groups continue to thrive, as exemplified by
red and green algae in marine environments, more recently derived groups have displaced previously ecologically dominant ones; for example, the ascendance of flowering plants over gymnosperms in terrestrial environments.
There is evidence that
cyanobacteria and multicellular
thalloid eukaryotes lived in freshwater communities on land as early as 1 billion years ago, and that communities of complex, multicellular photosynthesizing organisms existed on land in the late
Precambrian, around 850 million years ago. (Full article...)
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Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a plant in the botanical class of Cannabis sativacultivars grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with
bamboo, hemp is among the fastest growing plants on Earth. It was also one of the first plants to be spun into usable
fiber 50,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of commercial items, including paper,
rope, textiles, clothing,
biodegradable plastics,
paint,
insulation,
biofuel, food, and
animal feed.
Although chemotype I
cannabis and hemp (types II, III, IV, V) are both Cannabis sativa and contain the
psychoactive component
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), they represent distinct
cultivar groups, typically with unique
phytochemical compositions and uses. Hemp typically has lower concentrations of total THC and may have higher concentrations of
cannabidiol (CBD), which potentially mitigates the
psychoactive effects of THC. The legality of hemp varies widely among countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content into commercial production. (Full article...)
Nectar is an economically important substance as it is the sugar source for
honey. It is also useful in
agriculture and
horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar. For example, a number of predacious or
parasitoid wasps (e.g., the social wasp species Apoica flavissima) rely on nectar as a primary food source. In turn, these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young. (Full article...)
Image 8
Garden roses are predominantly
hybridroses that are grown as
ornamental plants in private or public gardens. They are one of the most popular and widely cultivated groups of flowering plants, especially in temperate
climates. An enormous number of garden
cultivars have been produced, especially over the last two centuries, though roses have been known in the garden for millennia beforehand. While most garden roses are grown for their flowers, often in dedicated
rose gardens, some are also valued for other reasons, such as having ornamental fruit, providing
ground cover, or for
hedging. The cultivars are classified in a number of different and overlapping ways, generally without much reference to strict
botanical principles. Taking overall size and shape, the most common type is the bush rose, a rounded plant from 2 foot up to about 7 foot tall, above which height roses generally fall into the "'climbing and rambling'" class, the latter spreading wider; support is needed for these. There are also miniature roses, generally small bushes, and low sprawling
ground cover roses, both up to about 15 inches tall. Most modern roses are propagated by
budding onto
rootstocks much closer to wild species; in "standard" shapes there is a single bare stem, with the graft at the top of that. Shrub roses are a rather loose category that include some of the original
species and cultivars closely related to them, plus cultivars that grow rather larger than most bush roses. Technically all roses are
shrubs. In terms of ancestry, roses are often divided into three main groups: Wild, Old Garden, and Modern Garden roses, with many subdivisions of these. (Full article...)
The history of cannabis and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.
The earliest restrictions on
cannabis were reported in the Islamic world by the 14th century. In the 19th century, it began to be restricted in colonial countries, often associated with racial and class stresses. In the middle of the 20th century, international coordination led to sweeping restrictions on cannabis throughout most of the globe. Entering the 21st century, some nations began to take measures to decriminalize or legalize cannabis. (Full article...)
Image 11
Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in
agriculture, the
DNA of which has been modified using
genetic engineering methods. Plant
genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in
T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new
trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a
herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of
pharmaceutical agents,
biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for
bioremediation.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (
soybean,
maize,
canola and
cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of
Genetically modified maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less
mycotoxins (−28.8%),
fumonisin (−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for lower populations some
parasitoid wasps due to decreased populations of their pest host
European corn borer; European corn borer is a target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher. (Full article...)
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In botany,
C4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods of
photosynthesis used by plants. C4 plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressing
photorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity. There are roughly 8,100 known C4 species, which belong to at least 61 distinct
evolutionary lineages in 19 families (as per
APG IV classification) of
flowering plants. Among these are important crops such as
maize,
sorghum and
sugarcane, but also
weeds and
invasive plants. Although only 3% of flowering plant species use C4 carbon fixation, they account for 23% of global
primary production. The repeated,
convergent C4 evolution from
C3 ancestors has spurred hopes to
bio-engineer the C4 pathway into C3 crops such as
rice. C4 photosynthesis probably first evolved 30–35 million years ago in the
Oligocene, and further origins occurred since, most of them in the last 15 million years. C4 plants are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, predominantly in open
grasslands where they are often dominant. While most are
graminoids, other growth forms such as
forbs, vines, shrubs, and even some trees and aquatic plants are also known among C4 plants. (Full article...)
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An arboretum (
pl.: arboreta) is a
botanical collection composed exclusively of
trees of a variety of species. Originally mostly created as a section in a larger garden or park for specimens of mostly non-local species, many modern arboreta are in
botanical gardens as living collections of woody plants and are intended at least in part for scientific study.
In Latin, an arboretum is a place planted with trees, not necessarily in this specific sense, and "arboretum" as an English word is first recorded used by
John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardener's Magazine, but the concept was already long-established by then. (Full article...)
Image 14
The Botanical Magazine, 1845 title page
The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name Curtis's Botanical Magazine.
Each of the issues contains a description, in formal yet accessible language, and is renowned for featuring the work of two centuries of
botanical illustrators. Many plants received their first publication on the pages, and the description given was enhanced by the keenly detailed illustrations. (Full article...)
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A fine root is most commonly defined as a plant
root that is two millimeters or less in diameter. Fine roots may function in acquisition of soil resources (eg. nutrients, water) and/or resource transport, making them functionally most analogous to the
leaves and
twigs in a plant's
shoot system. Fine-root traits are variable between species and responsive to environmental conditions. Consequently, fine roots are studied to characterize the resource acquisition strategies and competitive ability of plant species. Categories of fine roots have been developed based on root diameter, position in a root system's branching hierarchy, and primary function. Fine roots are often associated with
symbiotic fungi and play a role in many ecosystem processes like nutrient cycles and soil reinforcement. (Full article...)
These are
good articles, which meet a core set of high editorial standards..
Image 1
Allan
c. 1956
Harry Howard Barton AllanCBE (27 April 1882 – 29 October 1957) was a New Zealand teacher, botanist, scientific administrator, and writer. Despite never receiving a formal education in botany, he became an eminent scientist, publishing over 100 scientific papers, three introductory handbooks on New Zealand plants, and completing the first volume of a
flora in his lifetime.
Born in
Nelson, he was educated at
Nelson College and later
Auckland University College, from which he graduated
MA in 1908. He worked for many years as a teacher of English and agricultural studies at secondary schools around New Zealand. Throughout his teaching career, he became increasingly interested in and knowledgeable of botany, and wrote several articles in academic journals. He often collaborated and spoke with botanists, such as
Alfred and
Leonard Cockayne. For his lengthy botanical study of
Mount Peel, he was awarded the degree of
Doctor of Science (DSc) in 1923. He became a member of the
Linnean society and the
New Zealand Institute, and was appointed a
systematic botanist for the Plant Research Station in 1928. (Full article...)
It is
endemic to the
San Francisco Bay Area of California,
United States, and occurs only at altitudes less than 620 metres (2,034 ft). P. bellidiflora is found chiefly on rocky, grassy areas. The
conservation status of this
species was, as of 1999, characterized by a declining population, with a severely diminished and fragmented range. The specific bellidiflora refers to the similarity of the flowers with those of common daisies (Bellis). (Full article...)
An oak is a
hardwood tree or shrub in the
genusQuercus of the
beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an
acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere; it includes some 500 species, both
deciduous and
evergreen. Fossil oaks date back to the Middle
Eocene.
Molecular phylogeny shows that the genus is divided into
Old World and New World
clades, but many oak species
hybridise freely, making the genus's history difficult to resolve.
Ecologically, oaks are
keystone species in habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical
rainforest. They live in association with many kinds of
fungi including
truffles. Oaks support more than 950 species of
caterpillar, many kinds of
gall wasp which form distinctive
galls, roundish woody lumps such as the
oak apple, and a large number of pests and diseases. Oak leaves and acorns contain enough
tannin to be toxic to cattle, but pigs are able to digest them safely. Oak timber is strong and hard, and has found many uses in construction and furniture-making. The bark was traditionally used for
tanning leather.
Wine barrels are made of oak; these are used for aging alcoholic beverages such as
sherry and
whisky, giving them a range of flavours, colours, and aromas. The spongy bark of the
cork oak is used to make traditional wine bottle corks. Almost a third of oak species are threatened with extinction due to climate change,
invasive pests, and
habitat loss. (Full article...)
Image 4
Habit
Hypericum androsaemum, the shrubby St. John's wort, is a
flowering plant in the family
Hypericaceae. Commonly called tutsan or sweet-amber, the species is cultivated as an
ornamental plant because of its striking red-tinted foliage, bright yellow petals, and its large clusters of fruit.
Cultivars like 'Albury Purple' and 'Golden Tutsan' which have leaves with more pronounced purple and golden coloring, respectively.
The plant is native to
Western Europe,
North Africa and the
Middle East, but has been introduced elsewhere in temperate areas with high rainfall, including
Australia and
New Zealand. In these countries, it is often considered a
noxious weed. The plant is easily dispersed across wide ranges because of its small and numerous seeds, and methods for
biological control are required to manage the species. (Full article...)
Image 5
Margaret Sibella Brown (March 2, 1866 – November 16, 1961) was a Canadian
bryologist specializing in
mosses and
liverworts native to
Nova Scotia. Although lacking formal scientific training, she has been recognized for her contributions to bryology and as an authority on the mosses and liverworts of Nova Scotia. Samples she collected are now housed at major
herbaria in North America and Europe. (Full article...)
Image 6
Rhinanthus minor, known as yellow rattle, is a
herbaceous wildflower in the genus Rhinanthus in the
familyOrobanchaceae (the broomrapes). It has circumpolar distribution in Europe, Russia, western Asia, and northern North America. An
annual plant, yellow rattle grows up to 10–50 centimetres (3.9–19.7 in) tall, with upright stems and opposite, simple leaves. The fruit is a dry
capsule, with loose, rattling seeds.
The preferred
habitat of Rhinanthus minor is dry fields or meadows; it tolerates a wide range of soil types. It flowers in the summer between May and September. It is
hemiparasitic, notably on
Poaceae (grasses) and
Fabaceae (legumes), and farmers consider it to be a pest, as it reduces grass growth. (Full article...)
Image 7
Characteres generum plantarum (complete title Characteres generum plantarum, quas in Itinere ad Insulas Maris Australis, Collegerunt, Descripserunt, Delinearunt, annis MDCCLXXII-MDCCLXXV Joannes Reinoldus Forster et Georgius Forster, "Characteristics of the types of plants collected, described, and delineated during a voyage to islands of the
South Seas, in the years 1772–1775 by Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster") is a 1775/1776 book by
Johann Reinhold Forster and
Georg Forster about the botanical discoveries they made during the
second voyage of James Cook.
The book contains 78 plates, the majority of which depict dissections of flowers at natural size. The book introduced 94 binomial names from 75 genera, of which 43 are still the accepted names today. Many plant genera were named after friends or patrons of the Forsters. The book was published in a
folio and a
quarto edition and translated into German in 1779. It is an important book as the earliest publication of names and descriptions of the native species of New Zealand. (Full article...)
Despite its prominence in the industry, the grape is a relatively new variety, the product of a chance
crossing between
Cabernet Franc and
Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern
France. Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation—the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and naturally
low yielding,
budding late to avoid frost and resistant to
viticultural hazards such as
rot and insects—and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ("
typicity") of the variety. Familiarity has helped sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers, even from unfamiliar wine regions. Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a "colonizer" that takes over wine regions at the expense of indigenous grape varieties. (Full article...)
Wild
species of cherry tree are widely distributed, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. They are common in East Asia, especially in
Japan, where they have been cultivated, producing many varieties. (Full article...)
Aside from illustration, Tangerini also teaches classes on the subject and serves as a manager and curator for the Department of Botany at the
National Museum of Natural History. In 2005, she lost sight in her right eye following an unidentified injury, and has
diplopia due to a subsequent surgery. She has received the "Distinguished Service Award" from Guild of Natural Science Illustrators and the "Excellence in Scientific Botanical Art" award from the
American Society of Botanical Artists. She has also been credited as one of the leading figures in her field by American botanist
Warren H. Wagner and the
Smithsonian Associates. (Full article...)
Image 11
Eriophorum angustifolium, commonly known as common cottongrass or common cottonsedge, is a
species of
flowering plant in the sedge family,
Cyperaceae. Native to
North America,
North Asia, and
Europe, it grows on
peat or
acidic soils, in open
wetland,
heath or
moorland. It begins to flower in April or May and, after fertilisation in early summer, the small, unremarkable brown and green flowers develop distinctive white bristle-like seed-heads that resemble tufts of
cotton; combined with its ecological suitability to
bog, these characteristics give rise to the plant's alternative name, bog cotton.
Eriophorum angustifolium is a
hardy,
herbaceous,
rhizomatous,
perennial sedge, able to endure in a variety of environments in the temperate, subarctic and arctic regions of Earth. Unlike Gossypium, the genus from which cotton is derived, the bristles which grow on E. angustifolium are unsuited to
textile manufacturing. Nevertheless, in Northern Europe, they were used as a substitute in the production of paper, pillows, candle-wicks, and wound-dressings. The
indigenous peoples of North America use the plant in cooking and in the treatment of digestive problems. Following a vote in 2002,
Plantlife International designated E. angustifolium the County Flower of
Greater Manchester, as part of its
British County Flowers campaign. (Full article...)
Saxifragales (
colloquial/plural: the saxifrages) is an
order of
angiosperms, or flowering plants, containing 15 botanical
families and around 100
genera, with nearly 2,500
species. Of the 15 families, many are small, with eight of them being
monotypic (having only a single genus). The largest family is the
Crassulaceae (stonecrops), a diverse group of mostly
succulent plants, with about 35 genera. Saxifragales are found worldwide, primarily in
temperate to
subtropical zones, rarely being encountered growing wild in the
tropics; however, many species are now
cultivated throughout the world as knowledge of plant husbandry has improved. They can be found in a wide variety of environments, from
deserts to fully
aquatichabitats, with species adapted to
alpine, forested or fully-
aquatic habitats. Many are
epiphytic or
lithophytic, growing on exposed cliff faces, on trees or on rocks, and not requiring a highly organic or nutrient-dense substrate to thrive.
Globally, the saxifrages have a wide variety of uses by humans, ranging from
textiles and
timber to foodstuffs. Several families—such as the aforementioned Crassulaceae—and genera are of significant commercial importance in some countries and economies, being cultivated on a large scale for sale as
ornamental plants. Apart from ornamentals, another highly-prized group are the
Grossulariaceae (
currants and
gooseberries), particularly
blackcurrants,
redcurrants and
white currants. (Full article...)
Image 13
Diversity of stramenopiles
The Stramenopiles, also called Heterokonts, are a
clade of organisms distinguished by the presence of stiff tripartite external hairs. In most species, the hairs are attached to
flagella, in some they are attached to other areas of the cellular surface, and in some they have been secondarily lost (in which case relatedness to stramenopile ancestors is evident from other shared cytological features or from genetic similarity). Stramenopiles represent one of the three major clades in the
SAR supergroup, along with
Alveolata and
Rhizaria.
Stramenopiles are
eukaryotes; most are single-celled, but some are multicellular including some large seaweeds, the
brown algae. The group includes a variety of algal
protists, heterotrophic flagellates,
opalines and closely related
proteromonad flagellates (all
endobionts in other organisms); the actinophryid
heliozoa, and
oomycetes. The tripartite hairs characteristic of the group have been lost in some of the included taxa – for example in most
diatoms. (Full article...)
Image 14
Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after
ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish
biologist and
physician who formalised
binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern
taxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761
ennoblement, as Carolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of a
curate and he was born in
Råshult, the countryside of
Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at
Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. (Full article...)
Hippeastrum (/ˌhɪpiːˈæstrəm/) is a
genus of about 90
species, and over 600
hybrids and
cultivars, of
perennial,
herbaceous and
bulbous plants, native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
Americas, from
Mexico south to
Argentina and on some islands in the
Caribbean. The majority have large, fleshy bulbs—usually about the size of a
softball—and tall, broad, strap-like leaves that are (generally) evergreen, and large red or purple flowers. Numerous colors and cultivars have been created over the past hundred years.
Hippeastrum is a genus in the
familyAmaryllidaceae (
subfamilyAmaryllidoideae,
tribeHippeastreae, and
subtribeHippeastrinae). For many years, there has been confusion among
botanists, as well as collectors and the general public, over the
generic names Amaryllis and Hippeastrum; the former is a
South African genus of plants, while the latter is a new world genus. However, the common name "amaryllis" has been used for Hippeastrum for years, especially for the ornamental cultivars (sold as indoor flowering bulbs around November and December, for
Christmas, in the
Northern Hemisphere). Within the genus Hippeastrum exist many
epiphytic species, as well, which may be found living in natural debris and leaf litter on the crooks of tree branches; by comparison, Amaryllis is a primarily terrestrial, southern African genus of perennial bulbs. (Full article...)
... that New York City's Bartow–Pell Mansion became a museum after its operator was restricted from importing and exporting plants?
... that while most
lichens that grow on plants live on the surface, the sole species in Amazonotrema grows partially among the cells of the tree bark on which it lives?
... that ochrophyte algae have twice as many membranes around their chloroplasts as plants?
The following are images from various plant-related articles on Wikipedia.
Image 11 An oat
coleoptile with the sun overhead.
Auxin (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip. 2 With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulates
cell elongation there. 3 and 4 Extra growth on that side causes the shoot to
bend towards the sun. (from Botany)
Image 2A nineteenth-century illustration showing the morphology of the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the rice plant Oryza sativa (from Botany)
Image 7Leaf lamina. The megaphyllous
leaf architecture arose multiple times in different plant lineages (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 8The trunk of early tree fern Psaronius, showing internal structure. The top of the plant would have been to the left of the image (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 9Structure of a plant cell (from Plant cell)
Image 10The food we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants such as rice. (from Botany)
Image 20The fruit of Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg. (from Botany)
Image 21A
late Siluriansporangium, artificially colored. Green: A spore tetrad. Blue: A spore bearing a trilete mark – the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35 μm across. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 23Transverse section of a fossil stem of the Devonian vascular plant Rhynia gwynne-vaughani (from Botany)
Image 24Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, the first plant to have its genome sequenced, remains the most important model organism. (from Botany)
Image 25Echeveria glauca in a Connecticut greenhouse. Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific name glauca means blue. (from Botany)
Image 26A
banded tube from the Late Silurian/Early Devonian. The bands are difficult to see on this specimen, as an opaque carbonaceous coating conceals much of the tube. Bands are just visible in places on the left half of the image. Scale bar: 20 μm (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 27A botanist preparing a plant specimen for mounting in the
herbarium (from Botany)
Image 28The evolution of syncarps. a: sporangia borne at tips of leaf b: Leaf curls up to protect sporangia c: leaf curls to form enclosed roll d: grouping of three rolls into a syncarp (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 34Structure of
Azadirachtin, a terpenoid produced by the
Neem plant, which helps ward off microbes and insects. Many secondary metabolites have complex structures (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 35The Devonian marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants, which – through their effects on erosion and sedimentation – brought about significant climatic change. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 36Five of the key areas of study within plant physiology (from Botany)
Image 37The branching pattern of megaphyll veins may indicate their origin as webbed, dichotomising branches. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
There are about 380,000 known
species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000,
produce seeds. They range in size from single cells to the tallest
trees. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen; the sugars they create supply the energy for most of Earth's
ecosystems and other
organisms, including animals, either
consume plants directly or rely on organisms which do so. (Full article...)
These are
featured articles, which represent some of the best content on English Wikipedia.
Image 1
Banksia caleyi, commonly known as Caley's banksia or red lantern banksia, is a species of woody
shrub of the family
Proteaceae native to
Western Australia. It generally grows as a dense shrub up to 2 m (7 ft) tall, has
serrated leaves and red,
pendent (hanging)
inflorescences which are generally hidden in the foliage. First
described by Scottish naturalist
Robert Brown in 1830, Banksia caleyi was named in honour of the English botanist
George Caley. No subspecies are recognised. It is one of three or four related species with hanging inflorescences, which is an unusual feature within the genus.
Alloxylon pinnatum, known as Dorrigo waratah, is a tree of the family
Proteaceae found in
warm-temperate rainforest of south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales in eastern Australia. It has shiny green leaves that are either
pinnate (lobed) and up to 30 cm (12 in) long, or
lanceolate (spear-shaped) and up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long. The prominent pinkish-red flower heads, known as
inflorescences, appear in spring and summer; these are made up of 50 to 140 individual flowers arranged in
corymb or
raceme. These are followed by rectangular woody seed pods, which bear two rows of winged seeds.
Known for many years as Oreocallis pinnata, it was transferred to the new genus Alloxylon by
Peter Weston and
Mike Crisp in 1991. This genus contains the four species previously classified in Oreocallis that are found in Australasia. Its terminal globular flowers indicate that the species is pollinated by birds. Classified as near threatened under the Queensland
Nature Conservation Act 1992, the Dorrigo waratah has proven difficult to keep alive in cultivation. (Full article...)
Image 3
Telopea oreades, commonly known as the Gippsland-, mountain- or Victorian waratah, is a large shrub or small tree in the family
Proteaceae. Native to southeastern Australia, it is found in wet
sclerophyll forest and
rainforest on rich
acidic soils high in organic matter. No
subspecies are recognised, though a northern isolated population
hybridises extensively with the Braidwood waratah (T. mongaensis). Reaching a height of up to 19 metres (62 feet), T. oreades grows with a single trunk and erect
habit. It has dark green leaves with prominent veins that are 11–28 centimetres (4.3–11 in) long and 1.5–6 cm (0.6–2.4 in) wide. The red flower heads, known as
inflorescences, appear in late spring. Each is composed of up to 60 individual flowers.
In the garden, T. oreades grows in soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part-shaded or sunny positions. Several commercially available
cultivars that are hybrid forms with T. speciosissima have been developed, such as the 'Shady Lady' series. The timber is hard and has been used for making furniture and tool handles. (Full article...)
Image 4
Several plants in cultivation
Drosera regia, commonly known as the king sundew, is a
carnivorous plant in the sundew genus Drosera that is
endemic to a single valley in
South Africa. The genus name Drosera comes from the
Greek word droseros, meaning "dew-covered". The
specific epithetregia is derived from the
Latin for "royal", a reference to the "striking appearance" of the species. Individual leaves can reach 70 cm (28 in) in length. It has many unusual
relict characteristics not found in most other Drosera species, including woody
rhizomes,
operculatepollen, and the lack of
circinate vernation in
scape growth. All of these factors, combined with
molecular data from
phylogenetic analysis, contribute to the evidence that D. regia possesses some of the most ancient characteristics within the genus. Some of these are shared with the related
Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), which suggests a close evolutionary relationship.
The
tentacle-covered leaves can capture large prey, such as beetles, moths, and butterflies. The tentacles of all Drosera species have special stalked glands on the leaf's upper surface that produce a sticky
mucilage. The leaves are considered active
flypaper traps that respond to captured prey by bending to surround it. In its native
fynbos habitat, the plants compete for space with native marsh grasses and low
evergreenshrubs. Of the two known populations of D. regia, the higher elevation site appears to be overgrown and is essentially
extirpated. The lower elevation site is estimated to have about 50 mature plants, making it the most endangered Drosera species, since it is threatened with extinction in the wild. It is often cultivated by carnivorous plant enthusiasts, and a single
cultivar has been registered. (Full article...)
Banksia spinulosa, the hairpin banksia, is a species of woody
shrub, of the genus Banksia in the family
Proteaceae, native to eastern
Australia. Widely distributed, it is found as an
understorey plant in open dry forest or
heathland from
Victoria to northern
Queensland, generally on sandstone though sometimes also clay soils. It generally grows as a small shrub to 2 metres (7 ft) in height, though can be a straggly tree to 6 metres (20 ft). It has long narrow leaves with
inflorescences which can vary considerably in coloration; while the spikes are gold or less commonly yellowish, the emergent styles may be a wide range of colours – from black, purple, red, orange or yellow.
Banksia spinulosa was named by
James Edward Smith in England in 1793, after being collected by
John White, most likely in 1792. He gave it the common name prickly-leaved banksia, though this has fallen out of use. With four currently recognised varieties, the species has had a complicated
taxonomic history, with two varieties initially described as separate species in the early 19th century. A fourth, from the
New England region, has only recently been described. However, there has been disagreement whether one, var. cunninghamii, is distinct enough to once again have specific status. The pre-eminent authority on Banksia,
Alex George, concedes there is still more work to be done on the Banksia spinulosa complex. (Full article...)
Banksia sessilis, commonly known as parrot bush, is a
species of
shrub or
tree in the
plantgenusBanksia of the family
Proteaceae. It had been known as Dryandra sessilis until 2007, when the genus Dryandra was sunk into Banksia. The
Noongar peoples know the plant as budjan or butyak. Widespread throughout
southwestWestern Australia, it is found on sandy soils over
laterite or
limestone, often as an
understorey plant in open forest, woodland or shrubland. Encountered as a shrub or small tree up to 6 m (20 ft) in height, it has prickly dark green leaves and dome-shaped cream-yellow
flowerheads. Flowering from winter through to late spring, it provides a key source of food—both the nectar and the insects it attracts—for
honeyeaters in the cooler months, and
species diversity is reduced in areas where there is little or no parrot bush occurring. Several species of honeyeater, some species of native bee, and the
European honey bee seek out and consume the nectar, while the
long-billed black cockatoo and
Australian ringneck eat the seed. The life cycle of Banksia sessilis is adapted to regular bushfires. Killed by fire and regenerating by seed afterwards, each shrub generally produces many flowerheads and a massive amount of seed. It can recolonise disturbed areas, and may grow in thickets.
Banksia sessilis has a somewhat complicated
taxonomic history. It was collected from
King George Sound in 1801 and described by
Robert Brown in 1810 as Dryandra floribunda, a name by which it was known for many years. However,
Joseph Knight had published the name Josephia sessilis in 1809, which had precedence due to its earlier date, and the specific name was formalised in 1924. Four
varieties are recognised. It is a prickly plant with little apparent
horticultural potential; none of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation. A profuse producer of nectar, B. sessilis is valuable to the
beekeeping industry. (Full article...)
The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres (50 ft) in 25 years. While the species rarely lives more than 50 years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age. Its
suckering ability allows this tree to clone itself indefinitely. It is considered a
noxious weed and vigorous
invasive species, and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America. In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its role in the life cycle of the also destructive and invasive
spotted lanternfly. (Full article...)
Image 8
Banksia lemanniana, the yellow lantern banksia or Lemann's banksia, is a
species of
flowering plant in the
familyProteaceae, native to
Western Australia. It generally grows as an open woody shrub or small tree to 5 m (16 ft) high, with stiff serrated leaves and unusual hanging
inflorescences. Flowering occurs over summer, the greenish buds developing into oval flower spikes before turning grey and developing the characteristic large woody
follicles. It occurs within and just east of the
Fitzgerald River National Park on the southern coast of the state. B. lemanniana is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed.
Described by Swiss botanist
Carl Meissner in 1856, Banksia lemanniana was named in honour of English botanist
Charles Morgan Lemann. It is one of three or four related species all with
pendent inflorescences, which is an unusual feature of
banksias. No subspecies are recognised. Banksia lemanniana is classified as Not Threatened under the
Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia. Unlike many Western Australian banksias, it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil-borne
water mouldPhytophthora cinnamomi, and is one of the easier Western Australian species to grow in cultivation. (Full article...)
Image 9
Banksia dentata, commonly known as the tropical banksia, is a species of tree in the
genusBanksia. It occurs across northern Australia, southern
New Guinea and the
Aru Islands. Growing as a gnarled tree to 7 m (23 ft) high, it has large green leaves up to 22 cm (8.7 in) long with
dentatemargins. The cylindrical yellow
inflorescences, up to 13 cm (5.1 in) high, appear between November and May, attracting various species of
honeyeaters,
sunbirds, the
sugar glider and a variety of insects. Flowers fall off the ageing spikes, which swell and develop
follicles containing up to two viable seeds each.
Banksia dentata is one of four Banksia species collected by Sir
Joseph Banks in 1770, and one of the four species published in 1782 as part of
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger's original description of Banksia. Within the genus, it is classified in the
seriesSalicinae, a group of species from Australia's eastern states.
Genetic studies show it is a
basal member within the group. Banksia dentata is found in tropical grassland known as
savanna, and associated with Pandanus and Melaleuca. It regenerates from bushfire by regrowing from its woody base, known as a
lignotuber. (Full article...)
In nature, B. sceptrum grows in deep yellow or pale red sand in tall
shrubland, commonly on
dunes, being found as a shrub to 5 metres (16 ft) high, though often smaller in exposed areas. It is killed by
fire and regenerates by
seed, the woody
follicles opening with fire. B. sceptrum is one of the most striking yellow-flowered
banksias of all. Its tall bright yellow spikes, known as
inflorescences, are terminal and well displayed. Flowering is in summer, mainly December and January, though flowers are occasionally seen at other times. (Full article...)
Image 11
Banksia cuneata, commonly known as matchstick banksia or Quairading banksia, is an
endangered species of
flowering plant in the family
Proteaceae. Endemic to
southwestWestern Australia, it belongs to
Banksia subg. Isostylis, a sub-genus of three closely related Banksia species with
inflorescences or flower clusters that are dome-shaped heads rather than characteristic Banksia flower spikes. A shrub or small tree up to 5 m (16 ft) high, it has prickly foliage and pink and cream flowers. The common name Matchstick Banksia arises from the blooms in late bud, the individual buds of which resemble matchsticks. The species is
pollinated by
honeyeaters (Meliphagidae).
Although B. cuneata was first collected before 1880, it was not until 1981 that Australian botanist
Alex George formally described and named the species. There are two genetically distinct population groups, but no recognised varieties. This Banksia is classified as endangered, surviving in fragments of remnant bushland in a region which has been 93% cleared for agriculture. As Banksia cuneata is killed by fire and regenerates from seed, it is highly sensitive to bushfire frequency—fires recurring within four years could wipe out populations of plants not yet mature enough to set seed. Banksia cuneata is rarely cultivated, and its prickly foliage limits its utility in the cut flower industry. (Full article...)
Aiphanes is a
genus of
spinypalms which is native to
tropical regions of
South and
Central America and the
Caribbean. There are about 26
species in the genus (see below), ranging in size from
understorey shrubs with subterranean stems to
subcanopy trees as tall as 20 metres (66 ft). Most have
pinnately compound leaves (leaves which are divided into leaflets arranged feather-like, in pairs along a central axis); one species has
entire leaves. Stems, leaves and sometimes even the fruit are covered with spines. Plants flower repeatedly over the course of their lifespan and have separate male and female flowers, although these are borne together on the same
inflorescence. Although records of pollinators are limited, most species appear to be pollinated by insects. The fruit are eaten by several birds and mammals, including at least two species of
amazon parrots.
Carl Ludwig Willdenow coined the name Aiphanes in 1801. Before that, species belonging to the genus had been placed in Bactris or Caryota. The name Martinezia had also been applied to the genus, and between 1847 and 1932 it was generally used in place of Aiphanes.
Max Burret resurrected the name Aiphanes in 1932 and laid the basis for the modern concept of the genus. Aiphanes is most closely related to several other genera of spiny palms—Acrocomia, Astrocaryum, Bactris and Desmoncus. Two species are widely planted as
ornamentals and the fruit, seeds or
palm heart of several species have been eaten by
indigenous peoples of the Americas for millennia. (Full article...)
Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as the coast banksia, is a
species of
tree that grows along the east coast of
Australia. One of the most widely distributed Banksia species, it occurs between
Victoria and
Central Queensland in a broad range of
habitats, from coastal
dunes to
mountains. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height. Its
leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
Persoonia lanceolata, commonly known as lance-leaf geebung, is a shrub native to
New South Wales in eastern Australia. It reaches 3 m (10 ft) in height and has smooth grey bark and bright green foliage. Its small yellow flowers grow on
racemes and appear in the austral summer and autumn (January to April), followed by green fleshy fruits (known as
drupes) which ripen the following spring (September to October). Within the genus Persoonia, P. lanceolata belongs to the lanceolata group of 58 closely related species. It interbreeds with several other species found in its range.
The species is usually found in dry
sclerophyll forest on
sandstone-based nutrient-deficient soil. It has adapted to a fire-prone environment; plants lost in bushfires can regenerate through a
ground-stored seed bank. Seedlings mostly germinate within two years of fires. Several species of native bee of the genus Leioproctus pollinate the flowers.
Swamp wallabies are a main consumer of its fruit, and the seeds are spread in wallaby
faeces. Its lifespan ranges from 25 to 60 years, though difficulties in propagation have seen low cultivation rates. (Full article...)
Banksia brownii, commonly known as feather-leaved banksia or Brown's banksia, is a
species of
shrub that grows in
southwestWestern Australia. A plant with fine feathery
leaves and large red-brown flower spikes, it usually grows as an upright bush around two metres (6.6 ft) high, but can also occur as a small tree or a low spreading shrub. First collected in 1829 and published the following year, it is placed in Banksiasubgenus Banksia,
section Oncostylis,
series Spicigerae. There are two genetically distinct forms.
Banksia brownii occurs naturally only in two population clusters between
Albany and the
Stirling Range in southwest Western Australia. In the Stirling Range it occurs among
heath on rocky mountain slopes; further south it occurs among
jarrahwoodland in shallow nutrient-poor sand. It has been evaluated as
critically endangered by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); all major populations are threatened by
Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, a disease to which the species is highly susceptible. Other threats include loss of habitat, commercial exploitation and changes to the
fire regime. Highly valued by Australia's horticultural and
cut flower industries, B. brownii is widely cultivated in areas not exposed to dieback. It prefers a sheltered position in soil with good drainage, and must be provided with some moisture over summer. (Full article...)
The rhyniophytes are a group of extinct early
vascular plants that are considered to be similar to the genus Rhynia, found in the
Early Devonian (around 419 to 393 million years ago). Sources vary in the name and
rank used for this group, some treating it as the class Rhyniopsida, others as the subdivision Rhyniophytina or the division Rhyniophyta. The first definition of the group, under the name Rhyniophytina, was by
Banks, since when there have been many redefinitions, including by Banks himself. "As a result, the Rhyniophytina have slowly dissolved into a heterogeneous collection of plants ... the group contains only one species on which all authors agree: the type species Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii". When defined very broadly, the group consists of plants with dichotomously branched, naked aerial axes ("stems") with terminal spore-bearing structures (sporangia). The rhyniophytes are considered to be stem group tracheophytes (vascular plants). (Full article...)
Image 3
Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of
ecology that studies the distribution and
abundance of
plants, the effects of
environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. Examples of these are the distribution of
temperate deciduous forests in North America, the effects of drought or flooding upon plant survival, and competition among desert plants for water, or effects of herds of grazing animals upon the composition of grasslands.
A global overview of the Earth's major vegetation types is provided by O.W. Archibold. He recognizes 11 major vegetation types: tropical forests, tropical savannas, arid regions (deserts), Mediterranean ecosystems, temperate forest ecosystems, temperate grasslands,
coniferous forests, tundra (both polar and high mountain), terrestrial
wetlands, freshwater ecosystems and coastal/marine systems. This breadth of topics shows the complexity of plant ecology, since it includes plants from floating single-celled algae up to large canopy forming trees. (Full article...)
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Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the
traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving the practical uses of local flora for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing.
Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the "father of ethnobotany", explained the discipline in this way:
Ethnobotany simply means investigating plants used by primitive societies in various parts of the world.
Since the time of Schultes, the field of ethnobotany has grown from simply acquiring ethnobotanical knowledge to that of applying it to a modern society, primarily in the form of pharmaceuticals.
Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing arrangements are important issues in ethnobotany. (Full article...)
Image 5
The
evolution of
plants has resulted in a wide range of complexity, from the earliest
algal mats of unicellular
archaeplastids evolved through
endosymbiosis, through multicellular
marine and
freshwatergreen algae, to
spore-bearing terrestrial
bryophytes,
lycopods and
ferns, and eventually to the complex
seed-bearing
gymnosperms and
angiosperms (
flowering plants) of today. While many of the earliest groups continue to thrive, as exemplified by
red and green algae in marine environments, more recently derived groups have displaced previously ecologically dominant ones; for example, the ascendance of flowering plants over gymnosperms in terrestrial environments.
There is evidence that
cyanobacteria and multicellular
thalloid eukaryotes lived in freshwater communities on land as early as 1 billion years ago, and that communities of complex, multicellular photosynthesizing organisms existed on land in the late
Precambrian, around 850 million years ago. (Full article...)
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Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a plant in the botanical class of Cannabis sativacultivars grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with
bamboo, hemp is among the fastest growing plants on Earth. It was also one of the first plants to be spun into usable
fiber 50,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of commercial items, including paper,
rope, textiles, clothing,
biodegradable plastics,
paint,
insulation,
biofuel, food, and
animal feed.
Although chemotype I
cannabis and hemp (types II, III, IV, V) are both Cannabis sativa and contain the
psychoactive component
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), they represent distinct
cultivar groups, typically with unique
phytochemical compositions and uses. Hemp typically has lower concentrations of total THC and may have higher concentrations of
cannabidiol (CBD), which potentially mitigates the
psychoactive effects of THC. The legality of hemp varies widely among countries. Some governments regulate the concentration of THC and permit only hemp that is bred with an especially low THC content into commercial production. (Full article...)
Nectar is an economically important substance as it is the sugar source for
honey. It is also useful in
agriculture and
horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar. For example, a number of predacious or
parasitoid wasps (e.g., the social wasp species Apoica flavissima) rely on nectar as a primary food source. In turn, these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young. (Full article...)
Image 8
Garden roses are predominantly
hybridroses that are grown as
ornamental plants in private or public gardens. They are one of the most popular and widely cultivated groups of flowering plants, especially in temperate
climates. An enormous number of garden
cultivars have been produced, especially over the last two centuries, though roses have been known in the garden for millennia beforehand. While most garden roses are grown for their flowers, often in dedicated
rose gardens, some are also valued for other reasons, such as having ornamental fruit, providing
ground cover, or for
hedging. The cultivars are classified in a number of different and overlapping ways, generally without much reference to strict
botanical principles. Taking overall size and shape, the most common type is the bush rose, a rounded plant from 2 foot up to about 7 foot tall, above which height roses generally fall into the "'climbing and rambling'" class, the latter spreading wider; support is needed for these. There are also miniature roses, generally small bushes, and low sprawling
ground cover roses, both up to about 15 inches tall. Most modern roses are propagated by
budding onto
rootstocks much closer to wild species; in "standard" shapes there is a single bare stem, with the graft at the top of that. Shrub roses are a rather loose category that include some of the original
species and cultivars closely related to them, plus cultivars that grow rather larger than most bush roses. Technically all roses are
shrubs. In terms of ancestry, roses are often divided into three main groups: Wild, Old Garden, and Modern Garden roses, with many subdivisions of these. (Full article...)
The history of cannabis and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.
The earliest restrictions on
cannabis were reported in the Islamic world by the 14th century. In the 19th century, it began to be restricted in colonial countries, often associated with racial and class stresses. In the middle of the 20th century, international coordination led to sweeping restrictions on cannabis throughout most of the globe. Entering the 21st century, some nations began to take measures to decriminalize or legalize cannabis. (Full article...)
Image 11
Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in
agriculture, the
DNA of which has been modified using
genetic engineering methods. Plant
genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in
T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new
trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a
herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of
pharmaceutical agents,
biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for
bioremediation.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (
soybean,
maize,
canola and
cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of
Genetically modified maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less
mycotoxins (−28.8%),
fumonisin (−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for lower populations some
parasitoid wasps due to decreased populations of their pest host
European corn borer; European corn borer is a target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher. (Full article...)
Image 12
In botany,
C4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods of
photosynthesis used by plants. C4 plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressing
photorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity. There are roughly 8,100 known C4 species, which belong to at least 61 distinct
evolutionary lineages in 19 families (as per
APG IV classification) of
flowering plants. Among these are important crops such as
maize,
sorghum and
sugarcane, but also
weeds and
invasive plants. Although only 3% of flowering plant species use C4 carbon fixation, they account for 23% of global
primary production. The repeated,
convergent C4 evolution from
C3 ancestors has spurred hopes to
bio-engineer the C4 pathway into C3 crops such as
rice. C4 photosynthesis probably first evolved 30–35 million years ago in the
Oligocene, and further origins occurred since, most of them in the last 15 million years. C4 plants are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, predominantly in open
grasslands where they are often dominant. While most are
graminoids, other growth forms such as
forbs, vines, shrubs, and even some trees and aquatic plants are also known among C4 plants. (Full article...)
Image 13
An arboretum (
pl.: arboreta) is a
botanical collection composed exclusively of
trees of a variety of species. Originally mostly created as a section in a larger garden or park for specimens of mostly non-local species, many modern arboreta are in
botanical gardens as living collections of woody plants and are intended at least in part for scientific study.
In Latin, an arboretum is a place planted with trees, not necessarily in this specific sense, and "arboretum" as an English word is first recorded used by
John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardener's Magazine, but the concept was already long-established by then. (Full article...)
Image 14
The Botanical Magazine, 1845 title page
The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name Curtis's Botanical Magazine.
Each of the issues contains a description, in formal yet accessible language, and is renowned for featuring the work of two centuries of
botanical illustrators. Many plants received their first publication on the pages, and the description given was enhanced by the keenly detailed illustrations. (Full article...)
Image 15
A fine root is most commonly defined as a plant
root that is two millimeters or less in diameter. Fine roots may function in acquisition of soil resources (eg. nutrients, water) and/or resource transport, making them functionally most analogous to the
leaves and
twigs in a plant's
shoot system. Fine-root traits are variable between species and responsive to environmental conditions. Consequently, fine roots are studied to characterize the resource acquisition strategies and competitive ability of plant species. Categories of fine roots have been developed based on root diameter, position in a root system's branching hierarchy, and primary function. Fine roots are often associated with
symbiotic fungi and play a role in many ecosystem processes like nutrient cycles and soil reinforcement. (Full article...)
These are
good articles, which meet a core set of high editorial standards..
Image 1
Allan
c. 1956
Harry Howard Barton AllanCBE (27 April 1882 – 29 October 1957) was a New Zealand teacher, botanist, scientific administrator, and writer. Despite never receiving a formal education in botany, he became an eminent scientist, publishing over 100 scientific papers, three introductory handbooks on New Zealand plants, and completing the first volume of a
flora in his lifetime.
Born in
Nelson, he was educated at
Nelson College and later
Auckland University College, from which he graduated
MA in 1908. He worked for many years as a teacher of English and agricultural studies at secondary schools around New Zealand. Throughout his teaching career, he became increasingly interested in and knowledgeable of botany, and wrote several articles in academic journals. He often collaborated and spoke with botanists, such as
Alfred and
Leonard Cockayne. For his lengthy botanical study of
Mount Peel, he was awarded the degree of
Doctor of Science (DSc) in 1923. He became a member of the
Linnean society and the
New Zealand Institute, and was appointed a
systematic botanist for the Plant Research Station in 1928. (Full article...)
It is
endemic to the
San Francisco Bay Area of California,
United States, and occurs only at altitudes less than 620 metres (2,034 ft). P. bellidiflora is found chiefly on rocky, grassy areas. The
conservation status of this
species was, as of 1999, characterized by a declining population, with a severely diminished and fragmented range. The specific bellidiflora refers to the similarity of the flowers with those of common daisies (Bellis). (Full article...)
An oak is a
hardwood tree or shrub in the
genusQuercus of the
beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an
acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere; it includes some 500 species, both
deciduous and
evergreen. Fossil oaks date back to the Middle
Eocene.
Molecular phylogeny shows that the genus is divided into
Old World and New World
clades, but many oak species
hybridise freely, making the genus's history difficult to resolve.
Ecologically, oaks are
keystone species in habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical
rainforest. They live in association with many kinds of
fungi including
truffles. Oaks support more than 950 species of
caterpillar, many kinds of
gall wasp which form distinctive
galls, roundish woody lumps such as the
oak apple, and a large number of pests and diseases. Oak leaves and acorns contain enough
tannin to be toxic to cattle, but pigs are able to digest them safely. Oak timber is strong and hard, and has found many uses in construction and furniture-making. The bark was traditionally used for
tanning leather.
Wine barrels are made of oak; these are used for aging alcoholic beverages such as
sherry and
whisky, giving them a range of flavours, colours, and aromas. The spongy bark of the
cork oak is used to make traditional wine bottle corks. Almost a third of oak species are threatened with extinction due to climate change,
invasive pests, and
habitat loss. (Full article...)
Image 4
Habit
Hypericum androsaemum, the shrubby St. John's wort, is a
flowering plant in the family
Hypericaceae. Commonly called tutsan or sweet-amber, the species is cultivated as an
ornamental plant because of its striking red-tinted foliage, bright yellow petals, and its large clusters of fruit.
Cultivars like 'Albury Purple' and 'Golden Tutsan' which have leaves with more pronounced purple and golden coloring, respectively.
The plant is native to
Western Europe,
North Africa and the
Middle East, but has been introduced elsewhere in temperate areas with high rainfall, including
Australia and
New Zealand. In these countries, it is often considered a
noxious weed. The plant is easily dispersed across wide ranges because of its small and numerous seeds, and methods for
biological control are required to manage the species. (Full article...)
Image 5
Margaret Sibella Brown (March 2, 1866 – November 16, 1961) was a Canadian
bryologist specializing in
mosses and
liverworts native to
Nova Scotia. Although lacking formal scientific training, she has been recognized for her contributions to bryology and as an authority on the mosses and liverworts of Nova Scotia. Samples she collected are now housed at major
herbaria in North America and Europe. (Full article...)
Image 6
Rhinanthus minor, known as yellow rattle, is a
herbaceous wildflower in the genus Rhinanthus in the
familyOrobanchaceae (the broomrapes). It has circumpolar distribution in Europe, Russia, western Asia, and northern North America. An
annual plant, yellow rattle grows up to 10–50 centimetres (3.9–19.7 in) tall, with upright stems and opposite, simple leaves. The fruit is a dry
capsule, with loose, rattling seeds.
The preferred
habitat of Rhinanthus minor is dry fields or meadows; it tolerates a wide range of soil types. It flowers in the summer between May and September. It is
hemiparasitic, notably on
Poaceae (grasses) and
Fabaceae (legumes), and farmers consider it to be a pest, as it reduces grass growth. (Full article...)
Image 7
Characteres generum plantarum (complete title Characteres generum plantarum, quas in Itinere ad Insulas Maris Australis, Collegerunt, Descripserunt, Delinearunt, annis MDCCLXXII-MDCCLXXV Joannes Reinoldus Forster et Georgius Forster, "Characteristics of the types of plants collected, described, and delineated during a voyage to islands of the
South Seas, in the years 1772–1775 by Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster") is a 1775/1776 book by
Johann Reinhold Forster and
Georg Forster about the botanical discoveries they made during the
second voyage of James Cook.
The book contains 78 plates, the majority of which depict dissections of flowers at natural size. The book introduced 94 binomial names from 75 genera, of which 43 are still the accepted names today. Many plant genera were named after friends or patrons of the Forsters. The book was published in a
folio and a
quarto edition and translated into German in 1779. It is an important book as the earliest publication of names and descriptions of the native species of New Zealand. (Full article...)
Despite its prominence in the industry, the grape is a relatively new variety, the product of a chance
crossing between
Cabernet Franc and
Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern
France. Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation—the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and naturally
low yielding,
budding late to avoid frost and resistant to
viticultural hazards such as
rot and insects—and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ("
typicity") of the variety. Familiarity has helped sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers, even from unfamiliar wine regions. Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a "colonizer" that takes over wine regions at the expense of indigenous grape varieties. (Full article...)
Wild
species of cherry tree are widely distributed, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. They are common in East Asia, especially in
Japan, where they have been cultivated, producing many varieties. (Full article...)
Aside from illustration, Tangerini also teaches classes on the subject and serves as a manager and curator for the Department of Botany at the
National Museum of Natural History. In 2005, she lost sight in her right eye following an unidentified injury, and has
diplopia due to a subsequent surgery. She has received the "Distinguished Service Award" from Guild of Natural Science Illustrators and the "Excellence in Scientific Botanical Art" award from the
American Society of Botanical Artists. She has also been credited as one of the leading figures in her field by American botanist
Warren H. Wagner and the
Smithsonian Associates. (Full article...)
Image 11
Eriophorum angustifolium, commonly known as common cottongrass or common cottonsedge, is a
species of
flowering plant in the sedge family,
Cyperaceae. Native to
North America,
North Asia, and
Europe, it grows on
peat or
acidic soils, in open
wetland,
heath or
moorland. It begins to flower in April or May and, after fertilisation in early summer, the small, unremarkable brown and green flowers develop distinctive white bristle-like seed-heads that resemble tufts of
cotton; combined with its ecological suitability to
bog, these characteristics give rise to the plant's alternative name, bog cotton.
Eriophorum angustifolium is a
hardy,
herbaceous,
rhizomatous,
perennial sedge, able to endure in a variety of environments in the temperate, subarctic and arctic regions of Earth. Unlike Gossypium, the genus from which cotton is derived, the bristles which grow on E. angustifolium are unsuited to
textile manufacturing. Nevertheless, in Northern Europe, they were used as a substitute in the production of paper, pillows, candle-wicks, and wound-dressings. The
indigenous peoples of North America use the plant in cooking and in the treatment of digestive problems. Following a vote in 2002,
Plantlife International designated E. angustifolium the County Flower of
Greater Manchester, as part of its
British County Flowers campaign. (Full article...)
Saxifragales (
colloquial/plural: the saxifrages) is an
order of
angiosperms, or flowering plants, containing 15 botanical
families and around 100
genera, with nearly 2,500
species. Of the 15 families, many are small, with eight of them being
monotypic (having only a single genus). The largest family is the
Crassulaceae (stonecrops), a diverse group of mostly
succulent plants, with about 35 genera. Saxifragales are found worldwide, primarily in
temperate to
subtropical zones, rarely being encountered growing wild in the
tropics; however, many species are now
cultivated throughout the world as knowledge of plant husbandry has improved. They can be found in a wide variety of environments, from
deserts to fully
aquatichabitats, with species adapted to
alpine, forested or fully-
aquatic habitats. Many are
epiphytic or
lithophytic, growing on exposed cliff faces, on trees or on rocks, and not requiring a highly organic or nutrient-dense substrate to thrive.
Globally, the saxifrages have a wide variety of uses by humans, ranging from
textiles and
timber to foodstuffs. Several families—such as the aforementioned Crassulaceae—and genera are of significant commercial importance in some countries and economies, being cultivated on a large scale for sale as
ornamental plants. Apart from ornamentals, another highly-prized group are the
Grossulariaceae (
currants and
gooseberries), particularly
blackcurrants,
redcurrants and
white currants. (Full article...)
Image 13
Diversity of stramenopiles
The Stramenopiles, also called Heterokonts, are a
clade of organisms distinguished by the presence of stiff tripartite external hairs. In most species, the hairs are attached to
flagella, in some they are attached to other areas of the cellular surface, and in some they have been secondarily lost (in which case relatedness to stramenopile ancestors is evident from other shared cytological features or from genetic similarity). Stramenopiles represent one of the three major clades in the
SAR supergroup, along with
Alveolata and
Rhizaria.
Stramenopiles are
eukaryotes; most are single-celled, but some are multicellular including some large seaweeds, the
brown algae. The group includes a variety of algal
protists, heterotrophic flagellates,
opalines and closely related
proteromonad flagellates (all
endobionts in other organisms); the actinophryid
heliozoa, and
oomycetes. The tripartite hairs characteristic of the group have been lost in some of the included taxa – for example in most
diatoms. (Full article...)
Image 14
Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after
ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish
biologist and
physician who formalised
binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern
taxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761
ennoblement, as Carolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of a
curate and he was born in
Råshult, the countryside of
Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at
Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. (Full article...)
Hippeastrum (/ˌhɪpiːˈæstrəm/) is a
genus of about 90
species, and over 600
hybrids and
cultivars, of
perennial,
herbaceous and
bulbous plants, native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
Americas, from
Mexico south to
Argentina and on some islands in the
Caribbean. The majority have large, fleshy bulbs—usually about the size of a
softball—and tall, broad, strap-like leaves that are (generally) evergreen, and large red or purple flowers. Numerous colors and cultivars have been created over the past hundred years.
Hippeastrum is a genus in the
familyAmaryllidaceae (
subfamilyAmaryllidoideae,
tribeHippeastreae, and
subtribeHippeastrinae). For many years, there has been confusion among
botanists, as well as collectors and the general public, over the
generic names Amaryllis and Hippeastrum; the former is a
South African genus of plants, while the latter is a new world genus. However, the common name "amaryllis" has been used for Hippeastrum for years, especially for the ornamental cultivars (sold as indoor flowering bulbs around November and December, for
Christmas, in the
Northern Hemisphere). Within the genus Hippeastrum exist many
epiphytic species, as well, which may be found living in natural debris and leaf litter on the crooks of tree branches; by comparison, Amaryllis is a primarily terrestrial, southern African genus of perennial bulbs. (Full article...)
... that New York City's Bartow–Pell Mansion became a museum after its operator was restricted from importing and exporting plants?
... that while most
lichens that grow on plants live on the surface, the sole species in Amazonotrema grows partially among the cells of the tree bark on which it lives?
... that ochrophyte algae have twice as many membranes around their chloroplasts as plants?
The following are images from various plant-related articles on Wikipedia.
Image 11 An oat
coleoptile with the sun overhead.
Auxin (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip. 2 With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulates
cell elongation there. 3 and 4 Extra growth on that side causes the shoot to
bend towards the sun. (from Botany)
Image 2A nineteenth-century illustration showing the morphology of the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the rice plant Oryza sativa (from Botany)
Image 7Leaf lamina. The megaphyllous
leaf architecture arose multiple times in different plant lineages (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 8The trunk of early tree fern Psaronius, showing internal structure. The top of the plant would have been to the left of the image (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 9Structure of a plant cell (from Plant cell)
Image 10The food we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants such as rice. (from Botany)
Image 20The fruit of Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg. (from Botany)
Image 21A
late Siluriansporangium, artificially colored. Green: A spore tetrad. Blue: A spore bearing a trilete mark – the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35 μm across. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 23Transverse section of a fossil stem of the Devonian vascular plant Rhynia gwynne-vaughani (from Botany)
Image 24Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, the first plant to have its genome sequenced, remains the most important model organism. (from Botany)
Image 25Echeveria glauca in a Connecticut greenhouse. Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific name glauca means blue. (from Botany)
Image 26A
banded tube from the Late Silurian/Early Devonian. The bands are difficult to see on this specimen, as an opaque carbonaceous coating conceals much of the tube. Bands are just visible in places on the left half of the image. Scale bar: 20 μm (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 27A botanist preparing a plant specimen for mounting in the
herbarium (from Botany)
Image 28The evolution of syncarps. a: sporangia borne at tips of leaf b: Leaf curls up to protect sporangia c: leaf curls to form enclosed roll d: grouping of three rolls into a syncarp (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 34Structure of
Azadirachtin, a terpenoid produced by the
Neem plant, which helps ward off microbes and insects. Many secondary metabolites have complex structures (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 35The Devonian marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants, which – through their effects on erosion and sedimentation – brought about significant climatic change. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 36Five of the key areas of study within plant physiology (from Botany)
Image 37The branching pattern of megaphyll veins may indicate their origin as webbed, dichotomising branches. (from Evolutionary history of plants)