This is the archive of 2008.
History of Miami, Florida. The area in which the city of Miami, Florida would later be founded by Europeans was inhabited for more than a thousand years by the Tequesta Indians. Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and his men first visited and claimed the area around Miami for Spain in 1566. A Spanish mission was established one year later. Fort Dallas was built in the mid-1800s and subsequently was a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War.
The Miami area was better known as "Biscayne Bay Country" in the early years of its growth. The few published accounts from that period describe the area as a wilderness that held much promise. The area was also characterized as “one of the finest building sites in Florida.” However, the Great Freeze of 1894 changed all that, and the crops of the Miami area were the only ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower, convinced Henry Flagler, a railroad tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railroad to Miami. On July 28, 1896, Miami was officially incorporated as a city with a population of just over 300.
Miami prospered during the 1920s but weakened after the collapse of the
Florida land boom of the 1920s, the
1926 Miami Hurricane and the
Great Depression in the 1930s. When
World War II began, Miami, well-situated due to its location on the southern coast of Florida, played an important role in the battle against
German submarines. The war helped to expand Miami's population to almost half a million. After
Fidel Castro rose to power in 1959, many
Cubans emigrated to Miami, further increasing the population. In the 1980s and 1990s, various crises struck South Florida, among them the
Arthur McDuffie beating and the subsequent riot, drug wars,
Hurricane Andrew, and the
Elián González uproar. Miami remains a major international financial and cultural center.
Ziad Jarrah ( Arabic: زياد سمير جراح; (May 11, 1975—September 11, 2001), was the hijacker who acted as pilot of United Airlines Flight 93, part of the September 11, 2001 attacks. He is believed to have taken over as the pilot of the aircraft and made an unsuccessful attempt to crash the plane into the U.S. Capitol.
There are many variations on his name, including Ziad Samir Al-Jarrah, Zaid Jarrahi, Ziad Jarrah Jarrat, and Ziyad Samir Jarrah. After a wealthy and
secular upbringing, Jarrah became involved in the planning for the September 11 attacks in college. Unique among the hijackers, he had a
German girlfriend and was close to his family. There have been some questions as to whether or not Jarrah was actually on Flight 93 and whether he was a hijacker; the
9/11 Commission concluded that his was not a case of mistaken identity and that he piloted the plane. In October 2006, an al-Qaeda video was released showing Jarrah and Mohammed Atta recording their wills in January 2000 in Osama Bin Laden's
Tarnak Farms base near
Kandahar.
"
England expects that every man will do his duty" was a
signal sent by
Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson from his
flagship
HMS Victory as the
Battle of Trafalgar was about to commence on October 21, 1805. Trafalgar was the decisive naval engagement of the
Napoleonic Wars. It gave the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland control of the seas, removing all possibility of a
French invasion and conquest of Britain. Although there was much confusion surrounding the wording of the signal in the aftermath of the battle, the significance of the victory and Nelson's death during the battle led to the phrase becoming embedded in the English psyche, and it has been regularly quoted, paraphrased and referenced up to the modern day.
The
history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 deals with the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the
prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the
history of Lithuania is recorded in chronicles, treaties, and other written documents. In 1219,
twenty-one Lithuanian dukes signed a peace treaty with
Halych-Volhynia. This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the
Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating. Despite continuous warfare with two Christian orders, the
Livonian Order and the
Teutonic Knights, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established and gained some control over the lands of
Black Ruthenia,
Polatsk,
Minsk, and other territories east of modern-day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of
Kievan Rus'.
Charles Edward Magoon (December 5, 1861 – January 14, 1920) was an American lawyer, judge, diplomat, and administrator who is best remembered as a governor of the Panama Canal Zone and an occupation governor of Cuba. He was also the subject of several small scandals during his career.
As a legal adviser working for the
United States Department of War, he drafted recommendations and reports that were used by
Congress and the executive branch in governing the United States' new territories following the
Spanish–American War. These reports were collected as a published book in 1902, then considered the seminal work on the subject. During his time as a governor, Magoon worked to put these recommendations into practice.
The Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm, then president of South Vietnam, marked the culmination of a successful CIA-backed coup d'état led by General Duong Van Minh in November 1963. On the morning of November 2, 1963, Diem and his adviser, younger brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, were arrested after the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) had been successful in a bloody overnight siege on Gia Long Palace in Saigon. The coup was the culmination of nine years of autocratic and nepotistic family rule in South Vietnam. Discontent with the Diem regime had been simmering below the surface, and exploded with mass Buddhist protests against long-standing religious discrimination after the government shooting of protesters who defied a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag.
When rebel forces entered the palace, the Ngo brothers were not present, as they had escaped the night before to a loyalist shelter in Cholon. The brothers had kept in communication with the rebels through a direct link from the shelter to the palace, and misled them into believing that they were still in the palace. The Ngo brothers soon agreed to surrender and were promised safe exile; after being arrested, they were instead executed in the back of an armoured personnel carrier by ARVN officers on the journey back to military headquarters at Tan Son Nhut Air Base.
While no formal inquiry was conducted, the responsibility for the deaths of the Ngo brothers is commonly placed on Minh's bodyguard, Captain
Nguyen Van Nhung, and on Major
Duong Hieu Nghia, both of whom guarded the brothers during the trip. Minh's army colleagues and US officials in
Saigon agreed that Minh ordered the executions. They postulated various motives, including that the brothers embarrassed Minh by fleeing the Presidential Palace, and that the brothers were killed to eliminate a later political comeback. The generals initially attempted to cover up the execution by suggesting that the brothers had committed suicide, but this was contradicted when photos of the Ngos' bloodied bodies surfaced in the media.
The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. While the medieval fortress and prison in Paris known as the Bastille contained only seven prisoners, its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution, and it subsequently became an icon of the French Republic. In France, Le quatorze juillet ( 14 July) is a public holiday, formally known as the Fête de la Fédération (Federation Holiday). It is usually called Bastille Day in English.
During the reign of Louis XVI, France faced a major financial crisis, triggered by the cost of intervening in the American War of Independence, and exacerbated by an unequal system of taxation. On 5 May 1789, the Estates-General of 1789 convened to deal with this issue, but was held back by archaic protocols and the conservatism of the Second Estate, consisting of the nobility and comprising 2% of France's population at the time. On 17 June 1789, the Third Estate, with its representatives drawn from the middle class, or bourgeoisie, reconstituted themselves as the National Assembly, a body whose purpose was the creation of a French constitution. The king initially opposed this development, but was forced to acknowledge the authority of the assembly, which subsequently renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July.
The storming of the Bastille and the subsequent
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was the third event of this opening stage of the revolution. The first had been the revolt of the nobility, refusing to aid King Louis XVI through the payment of taxes.
[1] The second had been the formation of the National Assembly and the
Tennis Court Oath.
Pilgrims, or Pilgrim Fathers, is a name commonly applied to the early settlers of the
Plymouth Colony in present-day
Plymouth, Massachusetts. Their leadership came from a religious congregation who had fled a volatile political environment in the
East Midlands of
England for the relative calm of the
Netherlands to preserve their religion. Concerned with losing their cultural identity, the group later arranged with English investors to establish a new colony in North America. The colonists faced a lengthy series of challenges, from bureaucracy, impatient investors and internal conflicts to sabotage, storms, disease, and uncertain relations with the
indigenous people. The colony, established in 1620, became the second successful English settlement in what was to become the
United States of America, the first being
Jamestown, Virginia, which was founded in 1607. Their story has become a central theme of the history and culture of the US.
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) [2] was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806).
As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectual leaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state [3] and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersonian democracy and the co-founder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for a quarter-century. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) and second Vice President (1797–1801).
A polymath, Jefferson achieved distinction as, among other things, a horticulturist, statesman, architect, archaeologist, paleontologist, author, inventor and founder of the University of Virginia. When President John F. Kennedy welcomed forty-nine Nobel Prize winners to the White House in 1962 he said, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent and of human knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House — with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."
The Mormon handcart pioneers in the migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the LDS Church) to Salt Lake City, Utah, who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and lasted until 1860.
Motivated to join their fellow Church members in Utah but lacking funds for full ox or horse teams, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett, a survivor, wrote, "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death." [1]
Although less than 10 percent of the 1847–68
Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as
Pioneer Day, Church pageants, and similar commemorations. The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th century
Mormon folk music and have been a theme in LDS fiction, such as
Gerald Lund's historical novel, Fire of the Covenant, and
Orson Scott Card's science-fiction short story, "
West."
The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732), ( Arabic: فتح, Fatah, literally opening,) also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests, [2] began after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified political polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula.
Edward Gibbon writes in History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:
"Under the last of the Ommiades, the Arabian empire extended two hundred days’ journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. And if we retrench the sleeve of the robe, as it is styled by their writers, the long and narrow province of march of a caravan. We should vainly seek the indissoluble union and easy obedience that pervaded the government of Augustus and the Antonines; but the progress of Islam diffused over this ample space a general resemblance of manners and opinions. The language and laws of the Qur'an were studied with equal devotion at Samarcand and Seville: the Moor and the Indian embraced as countrymen and brothers in the pilgrimage of Mecca; and the Arabian language was adopted as the popular idiom in all the provinces to the westward of the Tigris."
The Arab conquests brought about the collapse of the
Sassanian Empire and a great territorial loss for the
Byzantine Empire. Though spectacular, the Arab successes are not hard to understand in hindsight. The Sassanid Persian and Byzantine empires were militarily exhausted from decades of fighting one another. This prevented them from dealing effectively with the mobile Arab raiders operating from the
desert. Moreover, many of the peoples living under the rule of these empires, for example
Jews and
Christians in
Persia and
Monophysites in
Syria, were disloyal and sometimes even welcomed the Arab invaders, largely because of religious conflict in both empires.
[3]
KGB ( transliteration of "КГБ") is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Russian: ; Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty), which was the official name of the umbrella organization serving as the Soviet Union's premier security agency, secret police, and intelligence agency, from 1954 to 1991. The name of the largest of the Russian successors to the KGB is the FSB (ФСБ, Федеральная служба безопасности; Federalnaya Slujba Bezopasnosty; English: Federal Security Service).
The KGB's function was illustrated by its official emblem: bearing both shield and sword, the KGB was an organization with a military hierarchy aimed at providing national defense, specifically the defence of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). It was similar in function to the United States' CIA, with additional tasks of counter-espionage and national FBI, or by the twin organizations MI5 and MI6 in the United Kingdom.
On December 21, 1995, the President of Russia Boris Yeltsin signed the decree that disbanded the KGB, which was then substituted by the FSB, the current domestic state security agency of the Russian Federation.
In Belarus, a former Soviet republic, the official Russian name of the State Security Agency remains "KGB".
The term is also sometimes used figuratively in the Western press to refer to the current FSB committee after the 1991 renaming due to its recognition and public perception. [4]
Most of the information about the KGB remains secret, although there are two sources of documents of KGB available online.
[5]
This is the archive of 2008.
History of Miami, Florida. The area in which the city of Miami, Florida would later be founded by Europeans was inhabited for more than a thousand years by the Tequesta Indians. Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and his men first visited and claimed the area around Miami for Spain in 1566. A Spanish mission was established one year later. Fort Dallas was built in the mid-1800s and subsequently was a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War.
The Miami area was better known as "Biscayne Bay Country" in the early years of its growth. The few published accounts from that period describe the area as a wilderness that held much promise. The area was also characterized as “one of the finest building sites in Florida.” However, the Great Freeze of 1894 changed all that, and the crops of the Miami area were the only ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower, convinced Henry Flagler, a railroad tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railroad to Miami. On July 28, 1896, Miami was officially incorporated as a city with a population of just over 300.
Miami prospered during the 1920s but weakened after the collapse of the
Florida land boom of the 1920s, the
1926 Miami Hurricane and the
Great Depression in the 1930s. When
World War II began, Miami, well-situated due to its location on the southern coast of Florida, played an important role in the battle against
German submarines. The war helped to expand Miami's population to almost half a million. After
Fidel Castro rose to power in 1959, many
Cubans emigrated to Miami, further increasing the population. In the 1980s and 1990s, various crises struck South Florida, among them the
Arthur McDuffie beating and the subsequent riot, drug wars,
Hurricane Andrew, and the
Elián González uproar. Miami remains a major international financial and cultural center.
Ziad Jarrah ( Arabic: زياد سمير جراح; (May 11, 1975—September 11, 2001), was the hijacker who acted as pilot of United Airlines Flight 93, part of the September 11, 2001 attacks. He is believed to have taken over as the pilot of the aircraft and made an unsuccessful attempt to crash the plane into the U.S. Capitol.
There are many variations on his name, including Ziad Samir Al-Jarrah, Zaid Jarrahi, Ziad Jarrah Jarrat, and Ziyad Samir Jarrah. After a wealthy and
secular upbringing, Jarrah became involved in the planning for the September 11 attacks in college. Unique among the hijackers, he had a
German girlfriend and was close to his family. There have been some questions as to whether or not Jarrah was actually on Flight 93 and whether he was a hijacker; the
9/11 Commission concluded that his was not a case of mistaken identity and that he piloted the plane. In October 2006, an al-Qaeda video was released showing Jarrah and Mohammed Atta recording their wills in January 2000 in Osama Bin Laden's
Tarnak Farms base near
Kandahar.
"
England expects that every man will do his duty" was a
signal sent by
Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson from his
flagship
HMS Victory as the
Battle of Trafalgar was about to commence on October 21, 1805. Trafalgar was the decisive naval engagement of the
Napoleonic Wars. It gave the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland control of the seas, removing all possibility of a
French invasion and conquest of Britain. Although there was much confusion surrounding the wording of the signal in the aftermath of the battle, the significance of the victory and Nelson's death during the battle led to the phrase becoming embedded in the English psyche, and it has been regularly quoted, paraphrased and referenced up to the modern day.
The
history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 deals with the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the
prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the
history of Lithuania is recorded in chronicles, treaties, and other written documents. In 1219,
twenty-one Lithuanian dukes signed a peace treaty with
Halych-Volhynia. This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the
Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating. Despite continuous warfare with two Christian orders, the
Livonian Order and the
Teutonic Knights, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established and gained some control over the lands of
Black Ruthenia,
Polatsk,
Minsk, and other territories east of modern-day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of
Kievan Rus'.
Charles Edward Magoon (December 5, 1861 – January 14, 1920) was an American lawyer, judge, diplomat, and administrator who is best remembered as a governor of the Panama Canal Zone and an occupation governor of Cuba. He was also the subject of several small scandals during his career.
As a legal adviser working for the
United States Department of War, he drafted recommendations and reports that were used by
Congress and the executive branch in governing the United States' new territories following the
Spanish–American War. These reports were collected as a published book in 1902, then considered the seminal work on the subject. During his time as a governor, Magoon worked to put these recommendations into practice.
The Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm, then president of South Vietnam, marked the culmination of a successful CIA-backed coup d'état led by General Duong Van Minh in November 1963. On the morning of November 2, 1963, Diem and his adviser, younger brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, were arrested after the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) had been successful in a bloody overnight siege on Gia Long Palace in Saigon. The coup was the culmination of nine years of autocratic and nepotistic family rule in South Vietnam. Discontent with the Diem regime had been simmering below the surface, and exploded with mass Buddhist protests against long-standing religious discrimination after the government shooting of protesters who defied a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag.
When rebel forces entered the palace, the Ngo brothers were not present, as they had escaped the night before to a loyalist shelter in Cholon. The brothers had kept in communication with the rebels through a direct link from the shelter to the palace, and misled them into believing that they were still in the palace. The Ngo brothers soon agreed to surrender and were promised safe exile; after being arrested, they were instead executed in the back of an armoured personnel carrier by ARVN officers on the journey back to military headquarters at Tan Son Nhut Air Base.
While no formal inquiry was conducted, the responsibility for the deaths of the Ngo brothers is commonly placed on Minh's bodyguard, Captain
Nguyen Van Nhung, and on Major
Duong Hieu Nghia, both of whom guarded the brothers during the trip. Minh's army colleagues and US officials in
Saigon agreed that Minh ordered the executions. They postulated various motives, including that the brothers embarrassed Minh by fleeing the Presidential Palace, and that the brothers were killed to eliminate a later political comeback. The generals initially attempted to cover up the execution by suggesting that the brothers had committed suicide, but this was contradicted when photos of the Ngos' bloodied bodies surfaced in the media.
The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. While the medieval fortress and prison in Paris known as the Bastille contained only seven prisoners, its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution, and it subsequently became an icon of the French Republic. In France, Le quatorze juillet ( 14 July) is a public holiday, formally known as the Fête de la Fédération (Federation Holiday). It is usually called Bastille Day in English.
During the reign of Louis XVI, France faced a major financial crisis, triggered by the cost of intervening in the American War of Independence, and exacerbated by an unequal system of taxation. On 5 May 1789, the Estates-General of 1789 convened to deal with this issue, but was held back by archaic protocols and the conservatism of the Second Estate, consisting of the nobility and comprising 2% of France's population at the time. On 17 June 1789, the Third Estate, with its representatives drawn from the middle class, or bourgeoisie, reconstituted themselves as the National Assembly, a body whose purpose was the creation of a French constitution. The king initially opposed this development, but was forced to acknowledge the authority of the assembly, which subsequently renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July.
The storming of the Bastille and the subsequent
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was the third event of this opening stage of the revolution. The first had been the revolt of the nobility, refusing to aid King Louis XVI through the payment of taxes.
[1] The second had been the formation of the National Assembly and the
Tennis Court Oath.
Pilgrims, or Pilgrim Fathers, is a name commonly applied to the early settlers of the
Plymouth Colony in present-day
Plymouth, Massachusetts. Their leadership came from a religious congregation who had fled a volatile political environment in the
East Midlands of
England for the relative calm of the
Netherlands to preserve their religion. Concerned with losing their cultural identity, the group later arranged with English investors to establish a new colony in North America. The colonists faced a lengthy series of challenges, from bureaucracy, impatient investors and internal conflicts to sabotage, storms, disease, and uncertain relations with the
indigenous people. The colony, established in 1620, became the second successful English settlement in what was to become the
United States of America, the first being
Jamestown, Virginia, which was founded in 1607. Their story has become a central theme of the history and culture of the US.
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) [2] was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806).
As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectual leaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state [3] and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersonian democracy and the co-founder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for a quarter-century. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) and second Vice President (1797–1801).
A polymath, Jefferson achieved distinction as, among other things, a horticulturist, statesman, architect, archaeologist, paleontologist, author, inventor and founder of the University of Virginia. When President John F. Kennedy welcomed forty-nine Nobel Prize winners to the White House in 1962 he said, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent and of human knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House — with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."
The Mormon handcart pioneers in the migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the LDS Church) to Salt Lake City, Utah, who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and lasted until 1860.
Motivated to join their fellow Church members in Utah but lacking funds for full ox or horse teams, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett, a survivor, wrote, "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death." [1]
Although less than 10 percent of the 1847–68
Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as
Pioneer Day, Church pageants, and similar commemorations. The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th century
Mormon folk music and have been a theme in LDS fiction, such as
Gerald Lund's historical novel, Fire of the Covenant, and
Orson Scott Card's science-fiction short story, "
West."
The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732), ( Arabic: فتح, Fatah, literally opening,) also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests, [2] began after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified political polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula.
Edward Gibbon writes in History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:
"Under the last of the Ommiades, the Arabian empire extended two hundred days’ journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. And if we retrench the sleeve of the robe, as it is styled by their writers, the long and narrow province of march of a caravan. We should vainly seek the indissoluble union and easy obedience that pervaded the government of Augustus and the Antonines; but the progress of Islam diffused over this ample space a general resemblance of manners and opinions. The language and laws of the Qur'an were studied with equal devotion at Samarcand and Seville: the Moor and the Indian embraced as countrymen and brothers in the pilgrimage of Mecca; and the Arabian language was adopted as the popular idiom in all the provinces to the westward of the Tigris."
The Arab conquests brought about the collapse of the
Sassanian Empire and a great territorial loss for the
Byzantine Empire. Though spectacular, the Arab successes are not hard to understand in hindsight. The Sassanid Persian and Byzantine empires were militarily exhausted from decades of fighting one another. This prevented them from dealing effectively with the mobile Arab raiders operating from the
desert. Moreover, many of the peoples living under the rule of these empires, for example
Jews and
Christians in
Persia and
Monophysites in
Syria, were disloyal and sometimes even welcomed the Arab invaders, largely because of religious conflict in both empires.
[3]
KGB ( transliteration of "КГБ") is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Russian: ; Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty), which was the official name of the umbrella organization serving as the Soviet Union's premier security agency, secret police, and intelligence agency, from 1954 to 1991. The name of the largest of the Russian successors to the KGB is the FSB (ФСБ, Федеральная служба безопасности; Federalnaya Slujba Bezopasnosty; English: Federal Security Service).
The KGB's function was illustrated by its official emblem: bearing both shield and sword, the KGB was an organization with a military hierarchy aimed at providing national defense, specifically the defence of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). It was similar in function to the United States' CIA, with additional tasks of counter-espionage and national FBI, or by the twin organizations MI5 and MI6 in the United Kingdom.
On December 21, 1995, the President of Russia Boris Yeltsin signed the decree that disbanded the KGB, which was then substituted by the FSB, the current domestic state security agency of the Russian Federation.
In Belarus, a former Soviet republic, the official Russian name of the State Security Agency remains "KGB".
The term is also sometimes used figuratively in the Western press to refer to the current FSB committee after the 1991 renaming due to its recognition and public perception. [4]
Most of the information about the KGB remains secret, although there are two sources of documents of KGB available online.
[5]