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Social peer-to-peer processes are interactions among humans with a
peer-to-peer dynamic. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a term that originated from the popular concept of the P2P distributed computer application architecture which partitions tasks or workloads between peers.[1][better source needed] This application structure was popularized by
file sharing systems like
Napster, the first of its kind in the late 1990s.
The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. P2P human dynamic affords a critical look at current
authoritarian and
centralized social structures. Peer-to-peer is also a political and social program for those who believe that in many cases, peer-to-peer modes are a preferable option.
P2P is a specific form of relational dynamic, based on the assumed equipotency[2] of its participants, organized through the free cooperation of equals in view of the performance of a common task, for the creation of a common good, with forms of decision making and autonomy that are widely distributed throughout the network.
There are several fundamental aspects of social P2P processes:
peer production - A form of collaborative production that is open to participation, or operates on the to the widest possible number (as defined by
Yochai Benkler, in his essay Coase's Penguin);[3] and is even
permissionless in extreme cases. It does not produce
commodities, does not use the
price mechanism or
corporatehierarchy to determine the allocation of resources. It must, therefore, be distinguished from both the
capitalistmarket (though it can be linked and embedded in the broader market) and from production through state and corporate planning.
peer
governance - Processes are governed by the participants themselves, not by
corporatehierarchy or by external forces such as market allocation. It differs from traditional
linear hierarchies
peer
property - assets, infrastructure and processes are not exclusive, though recognize individual authorship (ex. the
GNU General Public License or the
Creative Commons license for digital assets,
nondominium for infrastructure and material assets, see also the
Ricardian contract and
self-owned resources). It differs from both traditional
private property and state-based collective
public property; it is rather the common property of its producers and users and the whole of humankind. Unlike
private property, peer property is inclusive rather than exclusive — its nature is to share ownership as widely, rather than as narrowly, as possible, or to eliminate ownership all together (ex.
self-ownership as implemented using
blockchain technology).
Many of the characteristics of P2P processes emerged in the
open source movement.
P2P processes are not structureless but are characterized by dynamic and changing structures that adapt themselves to phase changes. We can describe this by invoking
self organization.Stigmergy is also cited by some practitioners in P2P as their principal mode of coordination, as an alternative to planning (see more on the Open value network model).
Its rules are not derived from authority, as in hierarchical systems. It does not deny ‘authority’, but only fixed forced hierarchy, and therefore accepts forms of influence that based on expertise, initiation of the project, etc.[4] P2P may be the first true
meritocracy[citation needed].
P2P eliminates most, if not all, barriers to entry. It is assumed that ‘anybody’ can contribute and does not use formal rules in advance to determine its participating agents. The threshold for participation is kept as low as possible, to being
permissionless at the extreme, for example in mining for the
Bitcoin network or in opening a wallet and perform transactions on the same network. Participants are expected to self-select the module that corresponds best to their expertise. Equipotency means that it is the immediate practice of collaboration which determines the expertise and level of participation.
Validation of knowledge, acceptance of processes, are determined by the collective through the use of digital rules which are, in some cases, embedded in the project's basic protocol.
Communication is not top-down and based on strictly defined reporting rules, but feedback is systemic, integrated into the protocol of the collaborative system. Techniques of 'participation capture' and other social accounting make automatic collaboration the default scheme of the project. Personal
identity becomes partly generated by the contribution to the common project. P2P characteristics have been studied by
Howard Rheingoldet al.'s Cooperation Project.[5]
The organizational topology in P2P is a network, not a linear or 'pyramidal' hierarchy (though it may have transient elements of it); it is 'distributed' or 'decentralized'; intelligence is not located at any center, but everywhere within the system.
P2P processes start from the premise that ‘we don't know where the needed resource will be located’. Thus, most processes are
crowdsourced.
Collaboration must be free, not forced, and not based on an exchange (i.e. time vs money).
These P2P interactions are geared to produce something, enabling the widest possible participation.
Whereas participants in hierarchical systems are subject to the panoptism of the select few who control the vast majority, in P2P systems, participants have access to holoptism, the ability for any participant to see the whole.
These are a number of characteristics that we can use to describe P2P systems ‘in general’, and in particular as it emerges in the human lifeworld.
There are two important aspects to the emergence of P2P in the economic sphere. On the one hand, as a format for peer production processes, it is emerging as a 'third mode of production' based on the cooperation of autonomous agents. Indeed, if the first mode of production was
laissez-faire based
capitalism, and the second mode was the model of a
centrally-planned economy, then the third mode does not use market and pricing mechanisms, or managerial commands, but instead uses
social relations and socially-defined goals, motivations and incentives.
As a new mode of production, peer production is still largely dependent on the mainstream economy to reproduce itself. Recently, with the advent of
web 3.0 and
Web3 we are seeing breakthroughs in developing its own incentive mechanisms, using various coins and tokens, showing promising signs of bootstrapping itself as an independent and self-sufficient mode of production. As the influence of P2P grows larger, hybrid models have started to emerge. At play are coaptation attempts from institutions that subscribe to both, socialism and capitalism ideologies. For example, initiatives like
The Network State, which coming out of the
Silicon Valley, are the adaptation of
Platform capitalism (itself an adaptation of
Capitalism to new capabilities introduced by
Web 2.0) to newer capabilities introduced by
Web3. On the other side of the spectrum we find the Coordi-Nation as an adaptation from
Platform Cooperative, as proposed by
Primavera De Filippi and others.
The market and capitalism are also dependent on P2P. Capitalism has become a system relying on distributed networks, in particular on the P2P infrastructure in computing and communication.
Moreover, practices that have been developed within P2P networks have been adopted by private and public institutions, to the extent that capitalism has become highly reliant on cooperative
teamwork. See for example
agile development and
extreme manufacturing, influenced by open source development. Other examples of partial implementations of P2P practices by for-profit enterprises are various forms of crowdsourcing or user-generated data or content. For instance,
Amazon built itself around user reviews,[citation needed], while
eBay lives on a platform of worldwide distributed auctions, and
Google is constituted by
user-generated content.
One hybrid
business model is that businesses use the P2P
infrastructure (the Internet for example, or even their
computing cloud which may run on
Linux, an operating system issued from peer production), and create a surplus value through services, which can be packaged for
exchange value.
Another hybrid model is the creation of
two-sided markets. One form of this was improperly called the "
sharing economy",[6] also termed "access economy" or "peer exchange economy.".[7] More properly speaking, this is better described as a "micro-services economy", instantiated by businesses like
Uber,
Lyft, and
Airbnb, which are proprietary platforms that mediate coordination among people who can engage in transactions. This new practice is also called
Platform Capitalism, or the adaptation of Capitalism to the new possibilities introduced by
web 2.0, in which the firm doesn't own the means of production and doesn't even engage in production, but coordinates a network of producers and consumers. In this context peer production is contained within a private domain (a proprietary platform for coordination) and subject to with will of whose who control the platform. The
Platform Coop arrangement also exists, where the platform that insures the coordination among producers and consumers is owned by a cooperative with a more democratic governance. The P2P movement proposes fully decentralized alternatives of these type of economic coordination systems, where the platform is in the hands of participants, like in the
Bitcoin network.
Governments of countries are composed of a specialized and privileged body of individuals, who
monopolize political decision-making. Their function is to enforce existing laws,
legislate new ones, and arbitrate conflicts via their monopoly on violence. Legislation can be open to the general
citizenry through
open source governance, allowing policy development to benefit from the collected wisdom of the people as a whole.
My own concept of Magisteria of the Commons is quite similar. My argument is that we have a commons gap in our global institutional order. We have inter-national governmental cooperation, we have trans-national financial flows, but we do not have transnational civic institutions that are able to project the web of life and the dwindling resource base of the planet. I strongly suspect these Magisteria will evolve various forms of multi-stakeholder governance, but with participation of the productive citizens directly. This is emphatically not an iteration of the
World Economic Forum model.
Many new movements are taking on P2P organizational formats, such as the
alter-globalization movement and the
"Occupy" movement (i.e.
Occupy Wall Street). The movements see itself as a network of networks that combines players from a wide variety of fields and opinion, who, despite the fact that they do not see eye to eye in all things, manage to unite around a common
platform of action around certain key events.
They are able to mobilize vast numbers of people from every
continent, without having at their disposal any of the traditional
news media, such as television, radio or newspapers. Rather, they rely almost exclusively on the P2P technologies described above. Thus, Internet media are used for communication and learning on a continuous basis, prior to the mobilizations, and also during the mobilizations.
Independent Internet media platforms such as
Indymedia, as well as the skillful use of mobile phones, are used for real-time response management, undertaken by small groups that use buddy-list technologies, and sometimes open-source programs that have been explicitly designed for political activism such as TextMob.
Many reports have appeared, including those described in Howard Rheingold's
Smart Mobs, about the political significance of
SMS in organizing successful protests and ‘democratic revolutions’. The network model allows for a more fluid organization that does not fix any group in a permanent adversarial position. Various temporary coalitions are created on an
ad hoc basis depending on the issues.
Notable contributors
The following is a list of individuals who have made contributions to the peer-to-peer paradigm.
Business and economics
Eric Von Hippel, author of Democratizing Innovation, on user innovation communities
Pekka Himanen, for his examination of the new work culture in 'Hacker Ethics'
Michel Bauwens, co-founder and primary activist of the P2P Foundation.
Elinor Ostrom, for her work on Common Pool Resources (CPR).
Rachel Botsman for co-writing 'What's Mine Is Yours: The Rise of Collaborative Consumption' (see
Collaborative consumption)
Culture
Lawrence Lessig, created the
Creative Commons licenses and is an advocate of Free Culture against the encroachments of excessive intellectual property restrictions
McKenzie Wark, author of a class analysis of the information age, and her hypothesis of the vectoralist class (owners of the vectors of information) in her book A Hacker Manifesto [2004]
Ferrer, Jorge N. Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. SUNY, 2001 (outlines the new paradigm of participatory spirituality)
Galloway, Alexander. Protocol: How Control Exists After Decentralization. MIT Press, 2004 (power as embedded in the digital protocols governing networked systems)
Gilmor, Dan. We the Media. O'Reilly, 2004 (on participatory journalism)
Gunderson, Lance H. and C.S. Holling. Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Systems of Humans and Nature. Island Press, 2001 (on networked and P2P physical and social laws)
Heron, John. Sacred Science. PCCS Books, 1998 (defines relational spirituality and the methodology called Cooperative Inquiry)
Himanen, Pekka. The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. Random House, 2002 (on the 'P2P' work culture exemplified by the hackers but spreading in the general economy)
Lasica, J.D. Darknet: Hollywood's War against the Digital Generation. John Wiley & Sons, 2005 (cultural and political consequences of P2P filesharing)
Malone, Thomas. The Future of Work. How the New Order of Business Will Shape Your Organization, Your Management Style, and Your Life. Harvard Business School Press, 2004 (coordination theory and decentralisation in the corporate enterprise)
Ostrom, Elinor. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 (how to manage the physical commons)
Unless the copyright status of the text of this page or section is clarified and determined to be compatible with
Wikipedia's content license, the problematic text and revisions or the entire page may be
deleted one week after the time of its listing (i.e. after 23:48, 10 July 2024 (UTC)). Until then, this page will be hidden from search engine results until the copyright issue is resolved.
What can I do to resolve the issue?
If you hold the copyright to this text, you can license it in a manner that allows its use on Wikipedia.
To confirm your permission, you can either display a notice to this effect at the site of original publication or send an e-mail from an address associated with the original publication to permissions-enwikimedia.org or a postal letter to the
Wikimedia Foundation. These messages must explicitly permit use under CC BY-SA and the GFDL. See
Wikipedia:Donating copyrighted materials.
Note that articles on Wikipedia must be written from a
neutral point of view and must be
verifiable in published third-party sources; consider whether, copyright issues aside, your text is appropriate for inclusion in Wikipedia.
Otherwise, you may rewrite this page without copyright-infringing material. Your rewrite should be placed on this page, where it will be available for an administrator or clerk to review it at the end of the listing period. Follow this link to create the temporary subpage. Please mention the rewrite upon completion on
this article's discussion page.
Simply modifying copyrighted text is not sufficient to avoid copyright infringement—if the original copyright violation cannot be cleanly removed or the article reverted to a prior version, it is best to write the article from scratch. (See
Wikipedia:Close paraphrasing.)
For license compliance, any content used from the original article must be properly attributed; if you use content from the original, please leave a note at the top of your rewrite saying as much. You may duplicate non-infringing text that you had contributed yourself.
It is always a good idea, if rewriting, to identify the point where the copyrighted content was imported to Wikipedia and to check to make sure that the contributor did not add content imported from other sources. When closing investigations, clerks and administrators may find other copyright problems than the one identified. If this material is in the proposed rewrite and cannot be easily removed, the rewrite may not be usable.
Place {{copyvio/bottom}} at the end of the portion you want to blank. If nominating the entire page, please place this template at the top of the page, set the "fullpage" parameter to "yes", and place {{copyvio/bottom}} at the very end or the article.
Social peer-to-peer processes are interactions among humans with a
peer-to-peer dynamic. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a term that originated from the popular concept of the P2P distributed computer application architecture which partitions tasks or workloads between peers.[1][better source needed] This application structure was popularized by
file sharing systems like
Napster, the first of its kind in the late 1990s.
The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. P2P human dynamic affords a critical look at current
authoritarian and
centralized social structures. Peer-to-peer is also a political and social program for those who believe that in many cases, peer-to-peer modes are a preferable option.
P2P is a specific form of relational dynamic, based on the assumed equipotency[2] of its participants, organized through the free cooperation of equals in view of the performance of a common task, for the creation of a common good, with forms of decision making and autonomy that are widely distributed throughout the network.
There are several fundamental aspects of social P2P processes:
peer production - A form of collaborative production that is open to participation, or operates on the to the widest possible number (as defined by
Yochai Benkler, in his essay Coase's Penguin);[3] and is even
permissionless in extreme cases. It does not produce
commodities, does not use the
price mechanism or
corporatehierarchy to determine the allocation of resources. It must, therefore, be distinguished from both the
capitalistmarket (though it can be linked and embedded in the broader market) and from production through state and corporate planning.
peer
governance - Processes are governed by the participants themselves, not by
corporatehierarchy or by external forces such as market allocation. It differs from traditional
linear hierarchies
peer
property - assets, infrastructure and processes are not exclusive, though recognize individual authorship (ex. the
GNU General Public License or the
Creative Commons license for digital assets,
nondominium for infrastructure and material assets, see also the
Ricardian contract and
self-owned resources). It differs from both traditional
private property and state-based collective
public property; it is rather the common property of its producers and users and the whole of humankind. Unlike
private property, peer property is inclusive rather than exclusive — its nature is to share ownership as widely, rather than as narrowly, as possible, or to eliminate ownership all together (ex.
self-ownership as implemented using
blockchain technology).
Many of the characteristics of P2P processes emerged in the
open source movement.
P2P processes are not structureless but are characterized by dynamic and changing structures that adapt themselves to phase changes. We can describe this by invoking
self organization.Stigmergy is also cited by some practitioners in P2P as their principal mode of coordination, as an alternative to planning (see more on the Open value network model).
Its rules are not derived from authority, as in hierarchical systems. It does not deny ‘authority’, but only fixed forced hierarchy, and therefore accepts forms of influence that based on expertise, initiation of the project, etc.[4] P2P may be the first true
meritocracy[citation needed].
P2P eliminates most, if not all, barriers to entry. It is assumed that ‘anybody’ can contribute and does not use formal rules in advance to determine its participating agents. The threshold for participation is kept as low as possible, to being
permissionless at the extreme, for example in mining for the
Bitcoin network or in opening a wallet and perform transactions on the same network. Participants are expected to self-select the module that corresponds best to their expertise. Equipotency means that it is the immediate practice of collaboration which determines the expertise and level of participation.
Validation of knowledge, acceptance of processes, are determined by the collective through the use of digital rules which are, in some cases, embedded in the project's basic protocol.
Communication is not top-down and based on strictly defined reporting rules, but feedback is systemic, integrated into the protocol of the collaborative system. Techniques of 'participation capture' and other social accounting make automatic collaboration the default scheme of the project. Personal
identity becomes partly generated by the contribution to the common project. P2P characteristics have been studied by
Howard Rheingoldet al.'s Cooperation Project.[5]
The organizational topology in P2P is a network, not a linear or 'pyramidal' hierarchy (though it may have transient elements of it); it is 'distributed' or 'decentralized'; intelligence is not located at any center, but everywhere within the system.
P2P processes start from the premise that ‘we don't know where the needed resource will be located’. Thus, most processes are
crowdsourced.
Collaboration must be free, not forced, and not based on an exchange (i.e. time vs money).
These P2P interactions are geared to produce something, enabling the widest possible participation.
Whereas participants in hierarchical systems are subject to the panoptism of the select few who control the vast majority, in P2P systems, participants have access to holoptism, the ability for any participant to see the whole.
These are a number of characteristics that we can use to describe P2P systems ‘in general’, and in particular as it emerges in the human lifeworld.
There are two important aspects to the emergence of P2P in the economic sphere. On the one hand, as a format for peer production processes, it is emerging as a 'third mode of production' based on the cooperation of autonomous agents. Indeed, if the first mode of production was
laissez-faire based
capitalism, and the second mode was the model of a
centrally-planned economy, then the third mode does not use market and pricing mechanisms, or managerial commands, but instead uses
social relations and socially-defined goals, motivations and incentives.
As a new mode of production, peer production is still largely dependent on the mainstream economy to reproduce itself. Recently, with the advent of
web 3.0 and
Web3 we are seeing breakthroughs in developing its own incentive mechanisms, using various coins and tokens, showing promising signs of bootstrapping itself as an independent and self-sufficient mode of production. As the influence of P2P grows larger, hybrid models have started to emerge. At play are coaptation attempts from institutions that subscribe to both, socialism and capitalism ideologies. For example, initiatives like
The Network State, which coming out of the
Silicon Valley, are the adaptation of
Platform capitalism (itself an adaptation of
Capitalism to new capabilities introduced by
Web 2.0) to newer capabilities introduced by
Web3. On the other side of the spectrum we find the Coordi-Nation as an adaptation from
Platform Cooperative, as proposed by
Primavera De Filippi and others.
The market and capitalism are also dependent on P2P. Capitalism has become a system relying on distributed networks, in particular on the P2P infrastructure in computing and communication.
Moreover, practices that have been developed within P2P networks have been adopted by private and public institutions, to the extent that capitalism has become highly reliant on cooperative
teamwork. See for example
agile development and
extreme manufacturing, influenced by open source development. Other examples of partial implementations of P2P practices by for-profit enterprises are various forms of crowdsourcing or user-generated data or content. For instance,
Amazon built itself around user reviews,[citation needed], while
eBay lives on a platform of worldwide distributed auctions, and
Google is constituted by
user-generated content.
One hybrid
business model is that businesses use the P2P
infrastructure (the Internet for example, or even their
computing cloud which may run on
Linux, an operating system issued from peer production), and create a surplus value through services, which can be packaged for
exchange value.
Another hybrid model is the creation of
two-sided markets. One form of this was improperly called the "
sharing economy",[6] also termed "access economy" or "peer exchange economy.".[7] More properly speaking, this is better described as a "micro-services economy", instantiated by businesses like
Uber,
Lyft, and
Airbnb, which are proprietary platforms that mediate coordination among people who can engage in transactions. This new practice is also called
Platform Capitalism, or the adaptation of Capitalism to the new possibilities introduced by
web 2.0, in which the firm doesn't own the means of production and doesn't even engage in production, but coordinates a network of producers and consumers. In this context peer production is contained within a private domain (a proprietary platform for coordination) and subject to with will of whose who control the platform. The
Platform Coop arrangement also exists, where the platform that insures the coordination among producers and consumers is owned by a cooperative with a more democratic governance. The P2P movement proposes fully decentralized alternatives of these type of economic coordination systems, where the platform is in the hands of participants, like in the
Bitcoin network.
Governments of countries are composed of a specialized and privileged body of individuals, who
monopolize political decision-making. Their function is to enforce existing laws,
legislate new ones, and arbitrate conflicts via their monopoly on violence. Legislation can be open to the general
citizenry through
open source governance, allowing policy development to benefit from the collected wisdom of the people as a whole.
My own concept of Magisteria of the Commons is quite similar. My argument is that we have a commons gap in our global institutional order. We have inter-national governmental cooperation, we have trans-national financial flows, but we do not have transnational civic institutions that are able to project the web of life and the dwindling resource base of the planet. I strongly suspect these Magisteria will evolve various forms of multi-stakeholder governance, but with participation of the productive citizens directly. This is emphatically not an iteration of the
World Economic Forum model.
Many new movements are taking on P2P organizational formats, such as the
alter-globalization movement and the
"Occupy" movement (i.e.
Occupy Wall Street). The movements see itself as a network of networks that combines players from a wide variety of fields and opinion, who, despite the fact that they do not see eye to eye in all things, manage to unite around a common
platform of action around certain key events.
They are able to mobilize vast numbers of people from every
continent, without having at their disposal any of the traditional
news media, such as television, radio or newspapers. Rather, they rely almost exclusively on the P2P technologies described above. Thus, Internet media are used for communication and learning on a continuous basis, prior to the mobilizations, and also during the mobilizations.
Independent Internet media platforms such as
Indymedia, as well as the skillful use of mobile phones, are used for real-time response management, undertaken by small groups that use buddy-list technologies, and sometimes open-source programs that have been explicitly designed for political activism such as TextMob.
Many reports have appeared, including those described in Howard Rheingold's
Smart Mobs, about the political significance of
SMS in organizing successful protests and ‘democratic revolutions’. The network model allows for a more fluid organization that does not fix any group in a permanent adversarial position. Various temporary coalitions are created on an
ad hoc basis depending on the issues.
Notable contributors
The following is a list of individuals who have made contributions to the peer-to-peer paradigm.
Business and economics
Eric Von Hippel, author of Democratizing Innovation, on user innovation communities
Pekka Himanen, for his examination of the new work culture in 'Hacker Ethics'
Michel Bauwens, co-founder and primary activist of the P2P Foundation.
Elinor Ostrom, for her work on Common Pool Resources (CPR).
Rachel Botsman for co-writing 'What's Mine Is Yours: The Rise of Collaborative Consumption' (see
Collaborative consumption)
Culture
Lawrence Lessig, created the
Creative Commons licenses and is an advocate of Free Culture against the encroachments of excessive intellectual property restrictions
McKenzie Wark, author of a class analysis of the information age, and her hypothesis of the vectoralist class (owners of the vectors of information) in her book A Hacker Manifesto [2004]
Ferrer, Jorge N. Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. SUNY, 2001 (outlines the new paradigm of participatory spirituality)
Galloway, Alexander. Protocol: How Control Exists After Decentralization. MIT Press, 2004 (power as embedded in the digital protocols governing networked systems)
Gilmor, Dan. We the Media. O'Reilly, 2004 (on participatory journalism)
Gunderson, Lance H. and C.S. Holling. Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Systems of Humans and Nature. Island Press, 2001 (on networked and P2P physical and social laws)
Heron, John. Sacred Science. PCCS Books, 1998 (defines relational spirituality and the methodology called Cooperative Inquiry)
Himanen, Pekka. The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. Random House, 2002 (on the 'P2P' work culture exemplified by the hackers but spreading in the general economy)
Lasica, J.D. Darknet: Hollywood's War against the Digital Generation. John Wiley & Sons, 2005 (cultural and political consequences of P2P filesharing)
Malone, Thomas. The Future of Work. How the New Order of Business Will Shape Your Organization, Your Management Style, and Your Life. Harvard Business School Press, 2004 (coordination theory and decentralisation in the corporate enterprise)
Ostrom, Elinor. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990 (how to manage the physical commons)
