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Vietnamese Kinh people account for just over 85.32% of the population of
Vietnam in the
2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as the Kinh people (người Kinh) to distinguish them from the other
minority groups residing in the country such as the
Hmong,
Cham, or
Mường. The Vietnamese are one of the four main groups of
Vietic speakers in Vietnam, the others being the
Mường,
Thổ, and
Chứt people. They are related to the
Gin people, a minority ethnic group in China.
Terminology
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam,
Old Chinese*kraw) by
Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[68]
Việt
The term "
Việt" (Yue) (
Chinese: 越;
pinyin: Yuè;
Cantonese Yale: Yuht;
Wade–Giles: Yüeh4;
Vietnamese: Việt) in
Early Middle Chinese was first written using the
logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in
oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late
Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[69] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[70][71] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle
Yangtze were called the
Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[70] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the
State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[69][70] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called
Minyue,
Ouyue (Vietnamese:
Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese:
Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the
Baiyue (Bách Việt,
Chinese: 百越;
pinyin: Bǎiyuè;
Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet;
Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ).[69][70] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[72][73] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people).[74]
Kinh
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language) with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the
Vietnamese language.[75][76][77] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with
Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern
Mường people.[78] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh (
Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[74]
History
Origins and pre-history
The forerunners of the ethnic Vietnamese descended from a
subset of
Proto-Austroasiatic people who are believed to have originated around the modern borders of southern China, either around
Yunnan,
Lingnan, or the
Yangtze River, as well as mainland
Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into
Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the
Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The
Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[79][80][81][82][83] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the
North Central Region of Vietnam to the
Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by
Taispeakers.[84][85][86][87] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in
Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the
Han-
Tang periods.[88] Others[who?] have proposed that northern Vietnam and southern China were never homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and languages but were populated by
people who shared similar customs. These ancient tribes did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[89] Attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[90]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day
Bolikhamsai Province and
Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of
Nghệ An Province and
Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[91] Archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the
Dong Son period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from the
Phùng Nguyên culture's
Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as the Khmer and
Mlabri.[92][93] Meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from the
Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site show affinity with "
Dai people from China,
Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and Austroasiatic speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh".[94]
According to the Vietnamese legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the
dragon lord
Lạc Long Quân and the
fairyÂu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the
Hùng king.[95] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure
Shen Nong.[96]
Early history and Chinese rule
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,[97] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot
Austroasiatic and
Kra-Dai speakers occupied the
Red River Delta.[98][99] The Lạc developed the metallurgical
Đông Sơn culture and the
Văn Langchiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical
Hùng kings.[100] To the south of the Dongsonians was the
Sa Huỳnh culture of the
AustronesianChamic people.[101] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with the
Âu Việt (a splinter group of
Tai people) and the
Sinitic people from the north.[102] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt,
Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last
Hùng king.[103] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of
Âu Lạc kingdom.[100]
In 179 BC,
Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who has established the
Nanyue state in modern-day Southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted in a millennium.[104] In 111 BC, the
Han Empire conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Han rule.[105]
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the
Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as
Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the
Mường and
Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[106] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants.[107] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by
Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse.[108] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, which historians believe that was the separation between the
Mường and the Vietnamese took at the end of Tang rule in Vietnam.[106][109] In 938, the Vietnamese leader
Ngô Quyền who was a native of
Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces defeated the Chinese
Southern Han armada at
Bạch Đằng River and proclaimed himself king, became the first Viet king of polity that now could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[110]
Medieval and early modern period
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[111] In 968, a leader named
Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[112] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose
Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the
Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era
Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[113] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness."[114] In 979, Emperor
Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen
Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general
Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese
Song dynasty and
Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[115] A
Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in
Angkor.[116] Chinese writers Song Hao,
Fan Chengda and
Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing."[117] The early 11th-century
Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn,
My Son, erected by king of Champa
Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[118]
Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý dynasties and (
Hoa)/Chinese ancestry Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor
Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from
Hoa Lư to
Đại La, the center of the
Red River Delta in 1010.[119] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles,[120] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence.[121] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the
Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving
chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[122]
The Mongol
Yuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[123] The
Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader
Lê Lợi.[124] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor
Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with
gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival
Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and
Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[125]
16th century – Modern period
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[126] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In northern Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[127] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands.[128] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651,
Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages
catechism in
Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the
Vietnamese alphabet.[129]
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor
Gia Long, who was aided by French mercenaries defeated the
Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by
Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous
Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor
Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[130] This demographic model continues to persist through the
French Indochina,
Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the
French colony of Cochinchina.[131] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of
Annam and
Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of
French Indochina in 1887.[132][133] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[134] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new
humanist values into Vietnam.[135]
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially
ethnonationalism and eugenic
social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the
First Indochina War (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the
Mekong Delta.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the
Vietnam War, a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the
reunification of Vietnam in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the
Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century. Later, North Vietnam's Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Vietnamese ethnic chauvinism was officially discouraged.
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.[136]
Pischedda et. al (2017) stated that the majority of Vietnamese carried mtDNA haplotypes that clustered in clades
M7 (20%) and
R9’F (27%), which is common in Southeast Asian populations. The Vietnamese also have high genetic similarities with
Laotians, who assimilated the majority of Austronesian maternal lineages. Overall, the Vietnamese can be described as having heavy southern Chinese admixture, originating from Nam tiến expansions, which is superimposed to a minor Thai-Indonesian composite.[138]
Ha et. al (2019) revealed that Kinh Vietnamese cluster closely with Han Chinese and Thai but there is less genetic distance between Kinh and Thai. Whilst the study focused on northern Kinh, they were not significantly dissimilar from other Kinh in Vietnam.[139]
Like other mainland Southeast Asians, Vietnamese people have
South Asian admixture (~2%-16%) which arose from
Indian cultural influence in the region. Changmai et. al (2022) confirmed the sharing of
West Eurasian Y-haplogroups
R1a-M420 and
R2-M479 in
Ede (8.3% and 4.2%) and
Giarai (3.7% and 3.7%) peoples. The
Cham additionally share haplogroups
R-M17 (13.6%) and
R-M124 (3.4%).[140]
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former
Champa Kingdom and
Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring
Cambodia.
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the
Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around
Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population.[141] Under the
Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
During
French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina.[142] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during
World War I and
World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[143]
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into
North and
South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.[143]
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the
Khmer Rouge era reduced the
Vietnamese population in
Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[144]
The
fall of Saigon and end of the
Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese
refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada.[145] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in
Eastern Bloc countries of
Central and
Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[146] However, after the
fall of the Berlin Wall, a vast majority of these overseas Vietnamese decided to remain in their host nations.[citation needed]
^The number of Vietnamese nationals currently in Taiwan with a valid residence permit was 259,375 as of 30 April 2024 (155,147 males, 104,228 females). The number of Vietnamese nationals with a valid residence permit in Taiwan (including those currently not in Taiwan) was 295,051 as of 30 April 2024 (174,108 males, 120,943 females).[10] The number of foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin in Taiwan was 111,529 as of April 2022 (2,383 males, 109,146 females).[11] According to the
Taiwanese Ministry of the Interior, between 1993 and 2021, 94,015 Vietnamese nationals became naturalized citizens in the Republic of China.[12] It was also estimated that 70% of
Vietnamese brides in Taiwan had obtained Taiwanese nationality as of 2014,[13] with many renouncing Vietnamese citizenship in the process of naturalization, in accordance with
Taiwanese law.[14]
An estimated 200,000 children were born to Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese fathers, according to a report by
Voice of Vietnam in 2014.[15] According to
Taiwanese Ministry of Education, in 2021, 105,237 children born to foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin were enrolled in educational institutions across Taiwan (4,601 in kindergartens, 23,719 in primary schools, 17,904 in secondary schools, 31,497 in high schools, and 27,516 in universities/colleges),[16] a decrease of nearly 3,000 students compared to the previous year, which recorded a total of 108,037 students (5,168 in kindergartens, 25,752 in primary schools, 22,462 in secondary schools, 33,430 in high schools, and 21,225 in universities/colleges).[17]
^According to a report released by the
Ministry of the Interior and Safety, as of 2022, there were 209,373 Vietnamese nationals in South Korea (those without Korean nationality), including 41,555 foreign workers; 36,362 marriage immigrants; 68,181 international students and 63,274 people classified as "Others". Additionally, the report revealed that 50,660 Vietnamese individuals had acquired Korean nationality, and there were also 103,295 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin in South Korea.[21]
^This data only included Vietnamese Nationals in Mainland China, Excluding
Gin people and data in
Hong Kong, Macau and
Taiwan.
^this data only included
Gin people in Mainland China.
^"令和5年12月末現在における在留外国人数について" [Number of Foreign Residents as of December 2023] (PDF). Immigration Services Agency. 23 March 2024.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
^外僑居留人數統計表11209 [Statistical Table for the Number of Foreign Residents as of April 2024]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 30 April 2024.
Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2024.
^統計資料 [Statistics]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2022.
Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
^L. Anh Hoang; Cheryll Alipio (2019). Money and Moralities in Contemporary Asia. Amsterdam University Press. p. 64.
ISBN9789048543151. It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
^Dlhopolec, Peter (3 March 2022).
"The Vietnamese campaign for their rights: "We belong here"". The Slovak Spectator.
Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022. The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
^Theobald, Ulrich (2018)
"Shang Dynasty – Political History" in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. quote: "Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the
Guifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the
Qiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方, Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 and
Zhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as the
Yifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast."
^The Annals of Lü Buwei, translated by John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, Stanford University Press (2000), p. 510.
ISBN978-0-8047-3354-0. "For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes."
^Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers"
"Relying on Rulers" text: "揚、漢之南,百越之際,敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地,縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國,多無君" translation: South of the
Yang and
Han rivers, among the Hundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"
^Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
^Reconstructing Austroasiatic prehistory. In P. Sidwell & M. Jenny (Eds.), The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. (Page 1: “Sagart (2011) and Bellwood (2013) favour the middle Yangzi”)
^Lipson, Mark; Cheronet, Olivia; Mallick, Swapan; Rohland, Nadin; Oxenham, Marc; Pietrusewsky, Michael; Pryce, Thomas Oliver; Willis, Anna; Matsumura, Hirofumi; Buckley, Hallie; Domett, Kate; Hai, Nguyen Giang; Hiep, Trinh Hoang; Kyaw, Aung Aung; Win, Tin Tin; Pradier, Baptiste; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Candilio, Francesca; Changmai, Piya; Fernandes, Daniel; Ferry, Matthew; Gamarra, Beatriz; Harney, Eadaoin; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Kutanan, Wibhu; Michel, Megan; Novak, Mario; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Sirak, Kendra; Stewardson, Kristin; Zhang, Zhao; Flegontov, Pavel; Pinhasi, Ron; Reich, David (17 May 2018).
"Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory". Science. 361 (6397). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 92–95.
Bibcode:
2018Sci...361...92L.
bioRxiv10.1101/278374.
doi:
10.1126/science.aat3188.
ISSN0036-8075.
PMC6476732.
PMID29773666.
^Corny, Julien, et al. 2017. "Dental phenotypic shape variation supports a multiple dispersal model for anatomically modern humans in Southeast Asia." Journal of Human Evolution 112 (2017):41–56. cited in Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). "Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture". Conference: "Contact Zones and Colonialism in Southeast Asia and China's South (~221 BCE – 1700 CE)"At: Pennsylvania State University
^McColl et al. 2018. "Ancient Genomics Reveals Four Prehistoric Migration Waves into Southeast Asia". Preprint. Published in Science.
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/278374v1 cited in Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). "Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture". Conference: "Contact Zones and Colonialism in Southeast Asia and China's South (~221 BCE – 1700 CE)"At: Pennsylvania State University
^Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.), Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107,
ISBN978-9-81165-055-0
^Kiernan 2019, pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].
^Golzio, Karl-Heinz (2004), Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates, Shaker Verlag, pp. 163–164, Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ kmīrayvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.
^Hillmann 2005, p. 87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHillmann2005 (
help)
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This article needs attention from an expert in Vietnam. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article.WikiProject Vietnam may be able to help recruit an expert.(November 2023)
Vietnamese Kinh people account for just over 85.32% of the population of
Vietnam in the
2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as the Kinh people (người Kinh) to distinguish them from the other
minority groups residing in the country such as the
Hmong,
Cham, or
Mường. The Vietnamese are one of the four main groups of
Vietic speakers in Vietnam, the others being the
Mường,
Thổ, and
Chứt people. They are related to the
Gin people, a minority ethnic group in China.
Terminology
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam,
Old Chinese*kraw) by
Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[68]
Việt
The term "
Việt" (Yue) (
Chinese: 越;
pinyin: Yuè;
Cantonese Yale: Yuht;
Wade–Giles: Yüeh4;
Vietnamese: Việt) in
Early Middle Chinese was first written using the
logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in
oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late
Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[69] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[70][71] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle
Yangtze were called the
Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[70] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the
State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[69][70] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called
Minyue,
Ouyue (Vietnamese:
Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese:
Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the
Baiyue (Bách Việt,
Chinese: 百越;
pinyin: Bǎiyuè;
Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet;
Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ).[69][70] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[72][73] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people).[74]
Kinh
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language) with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the
Vietnamese language.[75][76][77] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with
Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern
Mường people.[78] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh (
Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[74]
History
Origins and pre-history
The forerunners of the ethnic Vietnamese descended from a
subset of
Proto-Austroasiatic people who are believed to have originated around the modern borders of southern China, either around
Yunnan,
Lingnan, or the
Yangtze River, as well as mainland
Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into
Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the
Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The
Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[79][80][81][82][83] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the
North Central Region of Vietnam to the
Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by
Taispeakers.[84][85][86][87] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in
Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the
Han-
Tang periods.[88] Others[who?] have proposed that northern Vietnam and southern China were never homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and languages but were populated by
people who shared similar customs. These ancient tribes did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[89] Attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[90]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day
Bolikhamsai Province and
Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of
Nghệ An Province and
Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[91] Archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the
Dong Son period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from the
Phùng Nguyên culture's
Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as the Khmer and
Mlabri.[92][93] Meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from the
Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site show affinity with "
Dai people from China,
Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and Austroasiatic speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh".[94]
According to the Vietnamese legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the
dragon lord
Lạc Long Quân and the
fairyÂu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the
Hùng king.[95] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure
Shen Nong.[96]
Early history and Chinese rule
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,[97] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot
Austroasiatic and
Kra-Dai speakers occupied the
Red River Delta.[98][99] The Lạc developed the metallurgical
Đông Sơn culture and the
Văn Langchiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical
Hùng kings.[100] To the south of the Dongsonians was the
Sa Huỳnh culture of the
AustronesianChamic people.[101] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with the
Âu Việt (a splinter group of
Tai people) and the
Sinitic people from the north.[102] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt,
Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last
Hùng king.[103] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of
Âu Lạc kingdom.[100]
In 179 BC,
Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who has established the
Nanyue state in modern-day Southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted in a millennium.[104] In 111 BC, the
Han Empire conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Han rule.[105]
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the
Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as
Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the
Mường and
Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[106] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants.[107] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by
Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse.[108] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, which historians believe that was the separation between the
Mường and the Vietnamese took at the end of Tang rule in Vietnam.[106][109] In 938, the Vietnamese leader
Ngô Quyền who was a native of
Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces defeated the Chinese
Southern Han armada at
Bạch Đằng River and proclaimed himself king, became the first Viet king of polity that now could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[110]
Medieval and early modern period
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[111] In 968, a leader named
Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[112] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose
Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the
Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era
Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[113] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness."[114] In 979, Emperor
Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen
Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general
Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese
Song dynasty and
Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[115] A
Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in
Angkor.[116] Chinese writers Song Hao,
Fan Chengda and
Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing."[117] The early 11th-century
Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn,
My Son, erected by king of Champa
Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[118]
Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý dynasties and (
Hoa)/Chinese ancestry Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor
Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from
Hoa Lư to
Đại La, the center of the
Red River Delta in 1010.[119] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles,[120] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence.[121] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the
Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving
chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[122]
The Mongol
Yuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[123] The
Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader
Lê Lợi.[124] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor
Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with
gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival
Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and
Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[125]
16th century – Modern period
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[126] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In northern Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[127] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands.[128] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651,
Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages
catechism in
Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the
Vietnamese alphabet.[129]
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor
Gia Long, who was aided by French mercenaries defeated the
Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by
Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous
Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor
Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[130] This demographic model continues to persist through the
French Indochina,
Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the
French colony of Cochinchina.[131] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of
Annam and
Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of
French Indochina in 1887.[132][133] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[134] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new
humanist values into Vietnam.[135]
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially
ethnonationalism and eugenic
social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the
First Indochina War (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the
Mekong Delta.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the
Vietnam War, a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the
reunification of Vietnam in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the
Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century. Later, North Vietnam's Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Vietnamese ethnic chauvinism was officially discouraged.
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.[136]
Pischedda et. al (2017) stated that the majority of Vietnamese carried mtDNA haplotypes that clustered in clades
M7 (20%) and
R9’F (27%), which is common in Southeast Asian populations. The Vietnamese also have high genetic similarities with
Laotians, who assimilated the majority of Austronesian maternal lineages. Overall, the Vietnamese can be described as having heavy southern Chinese admixture, originating from Nam tiến expansions, which is superimposed to a minor Thai-Indonesian composite.[138]
Ha et. al (2019) revealed that Kinh Vietnamese cluster closely with Han Chinese and Thai but there is less genetic distance between Kinh and Thai. Whilst the study focused on northern Kinh, they were not significantly dissimilar from other Kinh in Vietnam.[139]
Like other mainland Southeast Asians, Vietnamese people have
South Asian admixture (~2%-16%) which arose from
Indian cultural influence in the region. Changmai et. al (2022) confirmed the sharing of
West Eurasian Y-haplogroups
R1a-M420 and
R2-M479 in
Ede (8.3% and 4.2%) and
Giarai (3.7% and 3.7%) peoples. The
Cham additionally share haplogroups
R-M17 (13.6%) and
R-M124 (3.4%).[140]
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former
Champa Kingdom and
Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring
Cambodia.
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the
Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around
Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population.[141] Under the
Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
During
French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina.[142] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during
World War I and
World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[143]
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into
North and
South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.[143]
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the
Khmer Rouge era reduced the
Vietnamese population in
Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[144]
The
fall of Saigon and end of the
Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese
refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada.[145] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in
Eastern Bloc countries of
Central and
Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[146] However, after the
fall of the Berlin Wall, a vast majority of these overseas Vietnamese decided to remain in their host nations.[citation needed]
^The number of Vietnamese nationals currently in Taiwan with a valid residence permit was 259,375 as of 30 April 2024 (155,147 males, 104,228 females). The number of Vietnamese nationals with a valid residence permit in Taiwan (including those currently not in Taiwan) was 295,051 as of 30 April 2024 (174,108 males, 120,943 females).[10] The number of foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin in Taiwan was 111,529 as of April 2022 (2,383 males, 109,146 females).[11] According to the
Taiwanese Ministry of the Interior, between 1993 and 2021, 94,015 Vietnamese nationals became naturalized citizens in the Republic of China.[12] It was also estimated that 70% of
Vietnamese brides in Taiwan had obtained Taiwanese nationality as of 2014,[13] with many renouncing Vietnamese citizenship in the process of naturalization, in accordance with
Taiwanese law.[14]
An estimated 200,000 children were born to Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese fathers, according to a report by
Voice of Vietnam in 2014.[15] According to
Taiwanese Ministry of Education, in 2021, 105,237 children born to foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin were enrolled in educational institutions across Taiwan (4,601 in kindergartens, 23,719 in primary schools, 17,904 in secondary schools, 31,497 in high schools, and 27,516 in universities/colleges),[16] a decrease of nearly 3,000 students compared to the previous year, which recorded a total of 108,037 students (5,168 in kindergartens, 25,752 in primary schools, 22,462 in secondary schools, 33,430 in high schools, and 21,225 in universities/colleges).[17]
^According to a report released by the
Ministry of the Interior and Safety, as of 2022, there were 209,373 Vietnamese nationals in South Korea (those without Korean nationality), including 41,555 foreign workers; 36,362 marriage immigrants; 68,181 international students and 63,274 people classified as "Others". Additionally, the report revealed that 50,660 Vietnamese individuals had acquired Korean nationality, and there were also 103,295 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin in South Korea.[21]
^This data only included Vietnamese Nationals in Mainland China, Excluding
Gin people and data in
Hong Kong, Macau and
Taiwan.
^this data only included
Gin people in Mainland China.
^"令和5年12月末現在における在留外国人数について" [Number of Foreign Residents as of December 2023] (PDF). Immigration Services Agency. 23 March 2024.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
^外僑居留人數統計表11209 [Statistical Table for the Number of Foreign Residents as of April 2024]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 30 April 2024.
Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2024.
^統計資料 [Statistics]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2022.
Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
^L. Anh Hoang; Cheryll Alipio (2019). Money and Moralities in Contemporary Asia. Amsterdam University Press. p. 64.
ISBN9789048543151. It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
^Dlhopolec, Peter (3 March 2022).
"The Vietnamese campaign for their rights: "We belong here"". The Slovak Spectator.
Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022. The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
^Theobald, Ulrich (2018)
"Shang Dynasty – Political History" in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. quote: "Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the
Guifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the
Qiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方, Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 and
Zhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as the
Yifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast."
^The Annals of Lü Buwei, translated by John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, Stanford University Press (2000), p. 510.
ISBN978-0-8047-3354-0. "For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes."
^Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers"
"Relying on Rulers" text: "揚、漢之南,百越之際,敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地,縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國,多無君" translation: South of the
Yang and
Han rivers, among the Hundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"
^Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
^Reconstructing Austroasiatic prehistory. In P. Sidwell & M. Jenny (Eds.), The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. (Page 1: “Sagart (2011) and Bellwood (2013) favour the middle Yangzi”)
^Lipson, Mark; Cheronet, Olivia; Mallick, Swapan; Rohland, Nadin; Oxenham, Marc; Pietrusewsky, Michael; Pryce, Thomas Oliver; Willis, Anna; Matsumura, Hirofumi; Buckley, Hallie; Domett, Kate; Hai, Nguyen Giang; Hiep, Trinh Hoang; Kyaw, Aung Aung; Win, Tin Tin; Pradier, Baptiste; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Candilio, Francesca; Changmai, Piya; Fernandes, Daniel; Ferry, Matthew; Gamarra, Beatriz; Harney, Eadaoin; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Kutanan, Wibhu; Michel, Megan; Novak, Mario; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Sirak, Kendra; Stewardson, Kristin; Zhang, Zhao; Flegontov, Pavel; Pinhasi, Ron; Reich, David (17 May 2018).
"Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory". Science. 361 (6397). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 92–95.
Bibcode:
2018Sci...361...92L.
bioRxiv10.1101/278374.
doi:
10.1126/science.aat3188.
ISSN0036-8075.
PMC6476732.
PMID29773666.
^Corny, Julien, et al. 2017. "Dental phenotypic shape variation supports a multiple dispersal model for anatomically modern humans in Southeast Asia." Journal of Human Evolution 112 (2017):41–56. cited in Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). "Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture". Conference: "Contact Zones and Colonialism in Southeast Asia and China's South (~221 BCE – 1700 CE)"At: Pennsylvania State University
^McColl et al. 2018. "Ancient Genomics Reveals Four Prehistoric Migration Waves into Southeast Asia". Preprint. Published in Science.
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/278374v1 cited in Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). "Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture". Conference: "Contact Zones and Colonialism in Southeast Asia and China's South (~221 BCE – 1700 CE)"At: Pennsylvania State University
^Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.), Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107,
ISBN978-9-81165-055-0
^Kiernan 2019, pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].
^Golzio, Karl-Heinz (2004), Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates, Shaker Verlag, pp. 163–164, Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ kmīrayvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.
^Hillmann 2005, p. 87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHillmann2005 (
help)
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