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| Moravian axe-shaped bars | |
|---|---|
 Axe-shaped bar from the Great Moravian centre in
Mikulčice-Valy | |
| Occurrence | |
| Moravia, Slovakia, Lesser Poland | |
| Chronology | |
| 9th–10th centuries AD | |
| Function | |
| Pre-commercial currency, monetary tokens |
Moravian axe-shaped bars are iron bars stylized into the shape of long axes made by the Great Moravians during the 9th and early 10th centuries AD. These archaeological finds have primarily been found in the former core of Great Moravia, in what is today the region of Moravia in the Czech Republic, and western Slovakia. However, they have also been found in Silesia, in the eastern Slovakia, [1] and in Lesser Poland. In Lesser Poland, a large hoard of over 4,000 axe-shaped bars was found near Kraków. [2]
Outside of the Central European region, archaeologists have found similar bars in Russia along the Volga and Kama rivers in modern-day Tatarstan and Udmurtia, dating back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD. [3] They have also been found in southern Norway. In this area, their occurrence is the earliest, dating back to the early Iron Age. [4] They also survived there the longest, written mentions of them date back to the 13th century. [5] Similarly stylized iron bars referring to other types of axes are also known from Sweden. [6]
Terminology
Although the term axe-shaped hryvnia is used for these iron artefacts in Czech, Slovak and Polish archaeology (Czech: sekerovité hřivny; Slovak: sekerovité hrivny; Polish: grzywny siekieropodobne), referring to the chronologically later silver currency of Kievan Rus, [7] their original early-medieval name is unknown. The first Czechoslovakian archaeologists investigating the former Great Moravian centers tried to recognize practical tools in them; therefore, they referred to them as carpenter's axes, cleavers, or narrow chisels. [8] Archeologist Antonín Zelnitius, investigating the Great Moravian center in Staré Město (district Uherské Hradiště), reports on them for the first time as iron hryvnias around 1945. [9] Archaeologist Josef Poulík subsequently took over the name, discovering similar artifacts in one of the other important period centers in Mikulčice-Valy. [10] With the increase in the intensity of archaeological excavations after World War II and the increasing number of finds from other Great Moravian centers, the term axe-shaped hryvnia became commonly used in the regional archaeological community.
However, the question of the original naming of the artifacts is still open. The contemporary legal text Zakon Sudnyi Liudem preserves in the list of fines for various offenses the name of the local accounting unit called stljaz, in which the fines are measured together with the weight of gold. [11] Due to the assumed linguistic affinity of the original Old Slavic form *stьlęzь with words close in meaning to today's words connected with chopping or cutting (Czech: sekat, rubat), [12] there is a possibility that it could also have been the original early medieval designation of the axe-shaped bars or the monetary unit that these artefacts represented. [13]
Shape and size
The source for the production of axe-shaped bars was square iron rods of various sizes. A substantial part of the rod was hammered into a gradually widening sheet imitating the blade of a long axe. The eye of the axe was then represented by the occipital part of the bar pierced with a punch pin. [15] However, the "blade" of axe-shaped bars no longer had a sharpened and carburised cutting edge, and the eye in the vast majority of cases was not able to hold the wooden handle. In terms of length, Moravian axe-shaped bars ranged from massive pieces almost half a meter long and weighing around 1 kg to miniature specimens with a length of just a few centimeters and weighing only several of grams. Archaeologists have tried to capture their characteristic length and stylistic diversity through several typologies. Archaeologist Radomír Pleiner distinguishes three length categories – large bars (40 to 47 cm), medium bars (21 to 28 cm), small bars (15 to 17 cm) and miniature bars (5 to 8 cm). [8] Due to the much greater length and weight variability of the finds [16] however, this division must be considered only approximate, rather than reflecting the former standardization of production. [17] Archaeologist Darina Bialeková attempted a classification based on the nature of the piercing of the eyes in the occipital parts of the bars. The typology distinguishes four basic types (which are further divided into several subtypes). Type I bars are the closest in shape to the original axes, and the piercing of the eye is completed by pulling out the side lobes originally used to stabilize the wooden handle. Type II bars are characterized by a simplified design of the eye, the original lobes are only symbolically indicated by the groove of the occipital part in the vicinity of the piercing. This groove then completely disappears in type III bars, which are punched quite simply, without any additional modifications. Type IV bars are then no longer pierced at all, but the eye of the occipital part is created by bending the rod. [18] [14] Both above-described typologies are then combined by the latest typochronological model, which considers the pieces that are the largest and most similar in shape to real axes as chronologically the oldest, and perceives further simplification of shape and shortening of length as a parallel consequence of the gradual transformation of their social and economic function. [17]
Evolution and function
Originally, archaeologists thought of Moravian axe-shaped bars as practical tools or even weapons. One opinion was even that the bars were used as a type of boomerang. However, due to the shape of the bars being unsuitable for use in crafting and the poor quality of their blades, these hypotheses were soon abandoned. [8] Argumentatively problematic were also the opinions that these bars were just idiosyncratic iron semi-finished products that served for better transportation of iron from smelting sites to forges, where they were to be further processed. There is no archaeological evidence of forges from the Great Moravian period that were located directly at smelting sites. It is thus quite improbable that the bars were produced there. There is also no evidence of the occurrence of any axe-shaped bars on smelting sites of the time. [19] Moreover, the experimental production of axe-shaped bars and their subsequent processing clearly demonstrated that their shape is completely unsuitable for further processing and leads to noticeable losses of iron mass. [13] Current research thus leans towards the opinion that Moravian axe-shaped bars were a regional variant of primitive money (or in the D. Graeber's term, social currency), [20] i.e., pre-coin currency, which has countless analogies around the world. [21] These stylized objects usually circulate in the pre-commercial economies and are used for gift-giving and payments leading to establishing, strengthening, or correcting relationships between individuals, clans, or entire communities. [20] [13] Examples of such payments can be payments for brides or blood money (e.g., weregild).
The origins of the axe-shaped bars are assumed to be in the pre-Christian period, where axes most likely played a specific role as ritual offerings or grave gifts. The neglect of the practical function of these axes at the expense of their symbolic function, together with the increasing demand for iron, probably led to their gradual simplification until the stage when they took on a stylized shape, from which it was no longer possible to create an full-fledged axe. These difficult-to-practical products then began to circulate in contemporary society as currency, and their smaller variants were probably later also integrated as a medium of exchange in the nascent Great Moravian market. Moravian axe-shaped bars disappear from archaeological finds during the 10th century, i.e., at the time when Great Moravia and its economic system collapsed. However, evaluations of some Great Moravian central sites show that axe-shaped bars could still circulate for some time after the collapse. [12] [13] [17] The onset of minting, which penetrated Moravia around this time, could also have played a role in the definitive disappearance of the Moravian axe-shaped bars from archaeological record. [22]
References
- ^ Poláček, Lumír, ed. (2020). Great Moravian elites from Mikulčice. Brno: Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology. pp. 82–85. ISBN 978-80-7524-032-3.
- ^ Zaits, Emil (1990). "Wczesnośredniowieczne grzywny siekieropodobne z Małopolski". Materiały Archeologiczne. XXV: 142–191.
- ^ Szmoniewski, Bartłomiej Szymon (2022). "The Axe-Shaped Iron Bars from the Middle Volga and Kama River Basins from 4th and 5th centuries A.D." Materiały Archeologiczne. 43: 7–16.
- ^ Loftsgarden, Kjetil (2019). "The prime movers of iron production in the Norwegian Viking and Middle Ages". Fornvännen. 2: 75–87.
- ^ Măgureanu, Andrei; Gáll, Erwin, eds. (2010). Între stepă şi imperiu : studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu. Bucureşti: Institutul de Arheologie „Vasile Pârvan”. pp. 289–295. ISBN 978-973-8922-77-8.
- ^ Lindeberg, Marta (2010). "Forging History. Spade-shaped currency bars, history and identity in central Europe". Current Swedish Archaeology. 18: 203–221. doi: 10.37718/CSA.2010.13. S2CID 96425486.
- ^ Langer, Lawrence N. (2002). Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia. Lanham, Maryland, and London: The Scarecrow Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0-8108-4080-4.
- ^ a b c Pleiner, Radomír (1961). "Slovanské sekerovité hřivny" (PDF). Slovenská archeológia. 9 (1–2): 405–450.
- ^ Zelnitius, Antonín (1945). Staré Město. Archeologický výzkum valu "Na Valách" v letech 1924-1932. Praha: Česká akademie věd a umění.
- ^ Poulík, Josef (1957). "Výsledky výzkumu na velkomoravském hradišti "Valy" u Mikulčic". Památky archeologické. 48 (2): 241–388.
- ^ Zakon sudnyj ljudem (Court Law for the People). Translated by Dewey, H. W.; Kleimola, A. M. (Michigan Slavic Materials No. 14 ed.). Michigan: The University of Michigan. 1977. pp. 11, 13.
- ^ a b Hájnik, Jakub (2019). "Včasnostredoveké sekerovité hrivny z územia strednej Európy". Musaica Archaeologica. 4 (2): 111–172.
- ^ a b c d Hlavica, Michal; Bárta, Patrick (2021). "The evolution of early medieval Moravian axe-shaped currency through the perspective of an archaeological experiment". Přehled výzkumů. 62 (2): 11–21. doi: 10.47382/pv0622-01. S2CID 244202168.
- ^ a b Hašek, Vladimír; Nekuda, Rostislav; Ruttkay, Matej, eds. (2007). Ve službách archeologie 2/2007. Časopis věnovaný 70. narozeninám Prof. PhDr. Alexandra Ruttkaya, DrSc. Brno: Helbich. pp. 151–158.
- ^ Hlavica, Michal; Bárta, Patrick; Merta, Ondřej (2020). "Příspěvek experimentální produkce velkomoravských sekyrovitých hřiven k pochopení jejich funkce v raně středověké ekonomice". Archeologia Technica. 31: 15–27.
- ^ Bialeková, Darina; Tirpáková, Anna (1989). "K otázke funkčnosti sekerovitých hrivien z Pobedima z hľadiska ich metrologických hodnôt". Slovenská numizmatika. 10: 89–96.
- ^ a b c d Hlavica, Michal; Kouřil, Pavel; Mikulec, Roman (2022). "Moravian iron money: Model of the 9th-century axe-shaped bars' genesis and its testing with the assemblage from Staré Zámky near Brno-Líšeň". Slovenská archeológia. 70 (2): 327–350. doi: 10.31577/slovarch.2022.70.14. S2CID 257609458.
- ^ Galuška, Luděk, ed. (1990). Staroměstská výročí. Sborník příspěvků ze slavnostního zasedání u příležitosti 40 let archeologických výzkumů Moravského muzea ve Starém Měste a výročí objevu první velkomoravské zděné stavby ve Starém Městě Na valách. Brno: Moravské zemské muzeum; Slovácké muzeum. pp. 99–117. ISBN 978-80-7028-010-2.
- ^ Souchopová, Věra; Stránský, Karel (2008). Tajemství dávného železa. Archeometalurgie objektivem mikroskopu. Brno: Technické muzeum v Brně. pp. 31–46. ISBN 978-80-86413-54-9.
- ^ a b Graeber, David (2011). Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Brooklyn - New York: Melville House. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-1-933633-86-2.
- ^ Einzig, Paul (1966). Primitive Money in its Ethnological, Historical and Economic Aspects (2nd ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
- ^ Štefan, Ivo (2014). "Mocní náčelníci od řeky Moravy? Poznámky ke struktuře raných států". Archeologické rozhledy. 66 (1): 141–176.
| This article has multiple issues. Please help
improve it or discuss these issues on the
talk page. (
Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
| Moravian axe-shaped bars | |
|---|---|
|
Axe-shaped bar from the Great Moravian centre in
Mikulčice-Valy | |
| Occurrence | |
| Moravia, Slovakia, Lesser Poland | |
| Chronology | |
| 9th–10th centuries AD | |
| Function | |
| Pre-commercial currency, monetary tokens |
Moravian axe-shaped bars are iron bars stylized into the shape of long axes made by the Great Moravians during the 9th and early 10th centuries AD. These archaeological finds have primarily been found in the former core of Great Moravia, in what is today the region of Moravia in the Czech Republic, and western Slovakia. However, they have also been found in Silesia, in the eastern Slovakia, [1] and in Lesser Poland. In Lesser Poland, a large hoard of over 4,000 axe-shaped bars was found near Kraków. [2]
Outside of the Central European region, archaeologists have found similar bars in Russia along the Volga and Kama rivers in modern-day Tatarstan and Udmurtia, dating back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD. [3] They have also been found in southern Norway. In this area, their occurrence is the earliest, dating back to the early Iron Age. [4] They also survived there the longest, written mentions of them date back to the 13th century. [5] Similarly stylized iron bars referring to other types of axes are also known from Sweden. [6]
Terminology
Although the term axe-shaped hryvnia is used for these iron artefacts in Czech, Slovak and Polish archaeology (Czech: sekerovité hřivny; Slovak: sekerovité hrivny; Polish: grzywny siekieropodobne), referring to the chronologically later silver currency of Kievan Rus, [7] their original early-medieval name is unknown. The first Czechoslovakian archaeologists investigating the former Great Moravian centers tried to recognize practical tools in them; therefore, they referred to them as carpenter's axes, cleavers, or narrow chisels. [8] Archeologist Antonín Zelnitius, investigating the Great Moravian center in Staré Město (district Uherské Hradiště), reports on them for the first time as iron hryvnias around 1945. [9] Archaeologist Josef Poulík subsequently took over the name, discovering similar artifacts in one of the other important period centers in Mikulčice-Valy. [10] With the increase in the intensity of archaeological excavations after World War II and the increasing number of finds from other Great Moravian centers, the term axe-shaped hryvnia became commonly used in the regional archaeological community.
However, the question of the original naming of the artifacts is still open. The contemporary legal text Zakon Sudnyi Liudem preserves in the list of fines for various offenses the name of the local accounting unit called stljaz, in which the fines are measured together with the weight of gold. [11] Due to the assumed linguistic affinity of the original Old Slavic form *stьlęzь with words close in meaning to today's words connected with chopping or cutting (Czech: sekat, rubat), [12] there is a possibility that it could also have been the original early medieval designation of the axe-shaped bars or the monetary unit that these artefacts represented. [13]
Shape and size
The source for the production of axe-shaped bars was square iron rods of various sizes. A substantial part of the rod was hammered into a gradually widening sheet imitating the blade of a long axe. The eye of the axe was then represented by the occipital part of the bar pierced with a punch pin. [15] However, the "blade" of axe-shaped bars no longer had a sharpened and carburised cutting edge, and the eye in the vast majority of cases was not able to hold the wooden handle. In terms of length, Moravian axe-shaped bars ranged from massive pieces almost half a meter long and weighing around 1 kg to miniature specimens with a length of just a few centimeters and weighing only several of grams. Archaeologists have tried to capture their characteristic length and stylistic diversity through several typologies. Archaeologist Radomír Pleiner distinguishes three length categories – large bars (40 to 47 cm), medium bars (21 to 28 cm), small bars (15 to 17 cm) and miniature bars (5 to 8 cm). [8] Due to the much greater length and weight variability of the finds [16] however, this division must be considered only approximate, rather than reflecting the former standardization of production. [17] Archaeologist Darina Bialeková attempted a classification based on the nature of the piercing of the eyes in the occipital parts of the bars. The typology distinguishes four basic types (which are further divided into several subtypes). Type I bars are the closest in shape to the original axes, and the piercing of the eye is completed by pulling out the side lobes originally used to stabilize the wooden handle. Type II bars are characterized by a simplified design of the eye, the original lobes are only symbolically indicated by the groove of the occipital part in the vicinity of the piercing. This groove then completely disappears in type III bars, which are punched quite simply, without any additional modifications. Type IV bars are then no longer pierced at all, but the eye of the occipital part is created by bending the rod. [18] [14] Both above-described typologies are then combined by the latest typochronological model, which considers the pieces that are the largest and most similar in shape to real axes as chronologically the oldest, and perceives further simplification of shape and shortening of length as a parallel consequence of the gradual transformation of their social and economic function. [17]
Evolution and function
Originally, archaeologists thought of Moravian axe-shaped bars as practical tools or even weapons. One opinion was even that the bars were used as a type of boomerang. However, due to the shape of the bars being unsuitable for use in crafting and the poor quality of their blades, these hypotheses were soon abandoned. [8] Argumentatively problematic were also the opinions that these bars were just idiosyncratic iron semi-finished products that served for better transportation of iron from smelting sites to forges, where they were to be further processed. There is no archaeological evidence of forges from the Great Moravian period that were located directly at smelting sites. It is thus quite improbable that the bars were produced there. There is also no evidence of the occurrence of any axe-shaped bars on smelting sites of the time. [19] Moreover, the experimental production of axe-shaped bars and their subsequent processing clearly demonstrated that their shape is completely unsuitable for further processing and leads to noticeable losses of iron mass. [13] Current research thus leans towards the opinion that Moravian axe-shaped bars were a regional variant of primitive money (or in the D. Graeber's term, social currency), [20] i.e., pre-coin currency, which has countless analogies around the world. [21] These stylized objects usually circulate in the pre-commercial economies and are used for gift-giving and payments leading to establishing, strengthening, or correcting relationships between individuals, clans, or entire communities. [20] [13] Examples of such payments can be payments for brides or blood money (e.g., weregild).
The origins of the axe-shaped bars are assumed to be in the pre-Christian period, where axes most likely played a specific role as ritual offerings or grave gifts. The neglect of the practical function of these axes at the expense of their symbolic function, together with the increasing demand for iron, probably led to their gradual simplification until the stage when they took on a stylized shape, from which it was no longer possible to create an full-fledged axe. These difficult-to-practical products then began to circulate in contemporary society as currency, and their smaller variants were probably later also integrated as a medium of exchange in the nascent Great Moravian market. Moravian axe-shaped bars disappear from archaeological finds during the 10th century, i.e., at the time when Great Moravia and its economic system collapsed. However, evaluations of some Great Moravian central sites show that axe-shaped bars could still circulate for some time after the collapse. [12] [13] [17] The onset of minting, which penetrated Moravia around this time, could also have played a role in the definitive disappearance of the Moravian axe-shaped bars from archaeological record. [22]
References
- ^ Poláček, Lumír, ed. (2020). Great Moravian elites from Mikulčice. Brno: Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology. pp. 82–85. ISBN 978-80-7524-032-3.
- ^ Zaits, Emil (1990). "Wczesnośredniowieczne grzywny siekieropodobne z Małopolski". Materiały Archeologiczne. XXV: 142–191.
- ^ Szmoniewski, Bartłomiej Szymon (2022). "The Axe-Shaped Iron Bars from the Middle Volga and Kama River Basins from 4th and 5th centuries A.D." Materiały Archeologiczne. 43: 7–16.
- ^ Loftsgarden, Kjetil (2019). "The prime movers of iron production in the Norwegian Viking and Middle Ages". Fornvännen. 2: 75–87.
- ^ Măgureanu, Andrei; Gáll, Erwin, eds. (2010). Între stepă şi imperiu : studii în onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu. Bucureşti: Institutul de Arheologie „Vasile Pârvan”. pp. 289–295. ISBN 978-973-8922-77-8.
- ^ Lindeberg, Marta (2010). "Forging History. Spade-shaped currency bars, history and identity in central Europe". Current Swedish Archaeology. 18: 203–221. doi: 10.37718/CSA.2010.13. S2CID 96425486.
- ^ Langer, Lawrence N. (2002). Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia. Lanham, Maryland, and London: The Scarecrow Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0-8108-4080-4.
- ^ a b c Pleiner, Radomír (1961). "Slovanské sekerovité hřivny" (PDF). Slovenská archeológia. 9 (1–2): 405–450.
- ^ Zelnitius, Antonín (1945). Staré Město. Archeologický výzkum valu "Na Valách" v letech 1924-1932. Praha: Česká akademie věd a umění.
- ^ Poulík, Josef (1957). "Výsledky výzkumu na velkomoravském hradišti "Valy" u Mikulčic". Památky archeologické. 48 (2): 241–388.
- ^ Zakon sudnyj ljudem (Court Law for the People). Translated by Dewey, H. W.; Kleimola, A. M. (Michigan Slavic Materials No. 14 ed.). Michigan: The University of Michigan. 1977. pp. 11, 13.
- ^ a b Hájnik, Jakub (2019). "Včasnostredoveké sekerovité hrivny z územia strednej Európy". Musaica Archaeologica. 4 (2): 111–172.
- ^ a b c d Hlavica, Michal; Bárta, Patrick (2021). "The evolution of early medieval Moravian axe-shaped currency through the perspective of an archaeological experiment". Přehled výzkumů. 62 (2): 11–21. doi: 10.47382/pv0622-01. S2CID 244202168.
- ^ a b Hašek, Vladimír; Nekuda, Rostislav; Ruttkay, Matej, eds. (2007). Ve službách archeologie 2/2007. Časopis věnovaný 70. narozeninám Prof. PhDr. Alexandra Ruttkaya, DrSc. Brno: Helbich. pp. 151–158.
- ^ Hlavica, Michal; Bárta, Patrick; Merta, Ondřej (2020). "Příspěvek experimentální produkce velkomoravských sekyrovitých hřiven k pochopení jejich funkce v raně středověké ekonomice". Archeologia Technica. 31: 15–27.
- ^ Bialeková, Darina; Tirpáková, Anna (1989). "K otázke funkčnosti sekerovitých hrivien z Pobedima z hľadiska ich metrologických hodnôt". Slovenská numizmatika. 10: 89–96.
- ^ a b c d Hlavica, Michal; Kouřil, Pavel; Mikulec, Roman (2022). "Moravian iron money: Model of the 9th-century axe-shaped bars' genesis and its testing with the assemblage from Staré Zámky near Brno-Líšeň". Slovenská archeológia. 70 (2): 327–350. doi: 10.31577/slovarch.2022.70.14. S2CID 257609458.
- ^ Galuška, Luděk, ed. (1990). Staroměstská výročí. Sborník příspěvků ze slavnostního zasedání u příležitosti 40 let archeologických výzkumů Moravského muzea ve Starém Měste a výročí objevu první velkomoravské zděné stavby ve Starém Městě Na valách. Brno: Moravské zemské muzeum; Slovácké muzeum. pp. 99–117. ISBN 978-80-7028-010-2.
- ^ Souchopová, Věra; Stránský, Karel (2008). Tajemství dávného železa. Archeometalurgie objektivem mikroskopu. Brno: Technické muzeum v Brně. pp. 31–46. ISBN 978-80-86413-54-9.
- ^ a b Graeber, David (2011). Debt: The First 5,000 Years. Brooklyn - New York: Melville House. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-1-933633-86-2.
- ^ Einzig, Paul (1966). Primitive Money in its Ethnological, Historical and Economic Aspects (2nd ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
- ^ Štefan, Ivo (2014). "Mocní náčelníci od řeky Moravy? Poznámky ke struktuře raných států". Archeologické rozhledy. 66 (1): 141–176.