There are many proposed diseases and
diagnoses that are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with
pseudoscience.
Definition
Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition.
Pseudoscience rejects
empirical methodology.[1]
Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, however, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory.
In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine
signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate.
Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include:
Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate within the scientific and medical literature.
Functional disorders are a set of conditions that cannot be explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities.[3] These raise challenges around diagnosis and treatment, with debate around whether they are psychogenic. They often present with
non-specific symptoms that are consistent with multiple causes.
Medical
Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the
adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of
hormones, primarily the
glucocorticoidcortisol, due to chronic stress or infections.[4] Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as
adrenal insufficiency or
Addison's disease.[5] The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a
chiropractor,[6] may be applied to a collection of mostly
nonspecific symptoms.[4] There is no
scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community.[4][5] A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth.[7]
Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British
gastroenterologistAndrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to
autism.[8] The existence of such an
enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established".[9] Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls.[10][11] Multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful.[12] Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease.[13][14][15]
Chronic Lyme disease is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection."[19] This is different from
Lyme disease, which is a known medical condition. Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent infection.[20] It is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful treatment of infection with Lyme spirochetes. The symptoms of "chronic Lyme" are generic and non-specific "symptoms of life".[21]
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity is a reported sensitivity to
electric and
magnetic fields or
electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies at exposure levels well below established safety standards. Symptoms are inconsistent, but can include headache, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, as well as similar non-specific indications.[22] Provocation studies find that the discomfort of sufferers is unrelated to hidden sources of radiation,[23] and "no scientific basis currently exists for a connection between EHS and exposure to [electromagnetic fields]."[24][25]
Excited delirium, originally identified by pathologist
Charles Wetli to account for the deaths of nineteen Black prostitutes due to "sexual excitement" while under the influence of cocaine; the women later turned out to be victims of a serial killer.[26] The condition is primarily found in people under police restraint, especially after being tasered,[27] and, while it is not in the ICD-10 or DSM-5, it is promoted by a number of doctors, many of whom are on the payroll of Axon, the manufacturer of the
Taser.[27]
Leaky gut syndrome is an alleged condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. Alternative medicine proponents claim it is the cause of many conditions including
multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific.[28] According to the
UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven.[29] Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an instance of deliberate
health fraud.[29]
Morgellons is a self-diagnosed, unexplained
skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain some kind of fibers.[30][31][32] Morgellons is poorly characterized but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of
delusional parasitosis.[33] An attempt to link Morgellons to the cause of Lyme disease has been attacked by
Steven Salzberg as "dangerous pseudoscience".[34]
Shoenfeld's syndrome, a hypothesised autoimmune disorder proposed by Israeli immunologist
Yehuda Shoenfeld. There is a lack of reproducible evidence for this syndrome, refuting its existence.[41][42] In addition, supporting data from animal models are flawed.[43]
"Vaccine overload", a non-medical term for the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects,[45][46] is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence.[47]
Vertebral subluxation is a
chiropractic diagnosis that involves a site of impaired flow of innate or a spinal lesion that is postulated to cause neuromusculoskeletal or visceral dysfunction.
Scientific consensus does not support the existence of chiropractic's vertebral subluxation.[48][49]
Wind turbine syndrome is a proposed connection between adverse health effects and proximity to
wind turbines.[52] Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer, and
congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of
wind farms.[53][54] Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.[55]
Psychological
Autogynephilia is a proposed
paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical
transphobia.[56]
Drapetomania was a supposed
mental illness that, in 1851, American physician
Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of
enslaved Africansfleeing captivity.[57] This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape.[58][59] As treatment Cartwright recommended "
whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure.[60]
Rapid-onset gender dysphoria is a proposed condition in which someone develops
gender dysphoria due to
social contagion. The term originates from a 2018 study which surveyed parents of transgender people from anti-transgender internet forums.[68][69] While the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association cosigned a statement with 120 other medical organizations calling for rapid-onset gender dysphoria to not be used in clinical settings,[70] the term is still used by anti-trans groups.[71]
Homosexuality was once a diagnosable
mental illness in the category of paraphilic disorders but is now considered a healthy variation of behaviour.[72]
Reward deficiency syndrome[73][74] (RDS) is a term that has been applied to a wide variety of addictive, obsessive and compulsive behaviors including substance and process addictions, personality and spectrum disorders.[75][76] There is no consistent evidence to validate any such syndrome.[77] "Reward deficiency syndrome" is not a medically recognized disorder.[78] The diagnostic validity of RDS has not been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in its diagnostic manual, the
DSM.
Sluggish schizophrenia is a proposed form of slow-onset schizophrenia that political dissenters were institutionalised for in communist countries. It was diagnosed in people with no
hallucinations or
delusions under the assumption that they would appear later.[79]
Stockholm syndrome is a proposed condition in which a hostage develops an emotional bond with their kidnapper while in captivity.[81] Stockholm syndrome is a contested diagnosis mostly due to the difficulty in researching it.[82]
^
abcShah R, Greenberger PA (2012). "Unproved and controversial methods and theories in allergy-immunology". Allergy Asthma Proc. 33 Suppl 1 (3): S100–2.
doi:
10.2500/aap.2012.33.3562.
PMID22794702. Quote: "There is no scientific basis for the existence of this disorder and no conclusive method for diagnosis."
^Röösli, Martin; Moser, Mirjana; Baldinini, Yvonne; Meier, Martin; Braun-Fahrländer, Charlotte (2004). "Symptoms of ill health ascribed to electromagnetic field exposure – a questionnaire survey". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 207 (2): 141–150.
doi:
10.1078/1438-4639-00269.
ISSN1438-4639.
PMID15031956.
^Sorg, Barbara A. (1999). "Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Potential Role for Neural Sensitization". Critical Reviews in Neurobiology. 13 (3): 283–316.
doi:
10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v13.i3.30.
PMID10803638.
^Hawkes, David; Benhamu, Joanne; Sidwell, Tom; Miles, Rhianna; Dunlop, Rachael A. (May 2015). "Revisiting adverse reactions to vaccines: A critical appraisal of Autoimmune Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA)". Journal of Autoimmunity. 59: 77–84.
doi:
10.1016/j.jaut.2015.02.005.
ISSN1095-9157.
PMID25794485.
^Ameratunga, Rohan; Gillis, David; Gold, Michael; Linneberg, Allan; Elwood, J. Mark (November 2017). "Evidence Refuting the Existence of autoimmune/Autoinflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA)". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice. 5 (6): 1551–1555.e1.
doi:
10.1016/j.jaip.2017.06.033.
ISSN2213-2201.
PMID28888842.
^Ameratunga, Rohan; Langguth, Daman; Hawkes, David (May 2018). "Perspective: Scientific and ethical concerns pertaining to animal models of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA)". Autoimmunity Reviews. 17 (5): 435–439.
doi:
10.1016/j.autrev.2017.11.033.
ISSN1873-0183.
PMID29526635.
^Hilton S, Petticrew M, Hunt K (2006). "'Combined vaccines are like a sudden onslaught to the body's immune system': parental concerns about vaccine 'overload' and 'immune-vulnerability'". Vaccine. 24 (20): 4321–7.
doi:
10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.003.
PMID16581162.
^Homola, Samuel (2010). "Real orthopaedic subluxations versus imaginary chiropractic subluxations". Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 15 (4): 284–287.
doi:
10.1111/j.2042-7166.2010.01053.x.
ISSN1465-3753.
^Charlotte Patterson; Anthony R. D'Augelli, eds. (2013). Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-976521-8.
OCLC779472218.
^White, Kevin (2002). An introduction to the sociology of health and illness. London: Sage Publications.
ISBN978-1-84787-713-0.
OCLC294909186.
^Arthur L. Caplan; James J. McCartney; Dominic A. Sisti, eds. (2004). Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
ISBN1-58901-014-0.
OCLC53020380.
^Maines, Rachel (1998). The technology of orgasm: "hysteria," the vibrator, and women's sexual satisfaction. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN0-8018-5941-7.
OCLC39060595.
^
abHoult, JA (2006). "The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy". Children's Legal Rights Journal. 26 (1).
SSRN910267.
^Dallam, SJ (1999).
"The Parental Alienation Syndrome: Is It Scientific?". In St. Charles E; Crook L (eds.). Expose: The failure of family courts to protect children from abuse in custody disputes. Our Children Our Children Charitable Foundation.
^Caplan, PJ (2004). "What is it that's being called Parental Alienation Syndrome". In Caplan PJ; Cosgrove L (eds.). Bias in psychiatric diagnosis.
Rowman & Littlefield. pp.
62.
ISBN9780765700018.
^Comeford, L (2009). "Fatherhood Movements". In O'Brien J (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Vol. 1.
SAGE Publications. pp.
285.
ISBN9781412909167.
^Myers, John E. B. (2005). Myers on evidence in child, domestic, and elder abuse cases. Gaithersburg, Md:
Aspen Publishers. pp.
415.
ISBN0-7355-5668-7.
There are many proposed diseases and
diagnoses that are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with
pseudoscience.
Definition
Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition.
Pseudoscience rejects
empirical methodology.[1]
Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, however, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory.
In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine
signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate.
Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include:
Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate within the scientific and medical literature.
Functional disorders are a set of conditions that cannot be explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities.[3] These raise challenges around diagnosis and treatment, with debate around whether they are psychogenic. They often present with
non-specific symptoms that are consistent with multiple causes.
Medical
Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the
adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of
hormones, primarily the
glucocorticoidcortisol, due to chronic stress or infections.[4] Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as
adrenal insufficiency or
Addison's disease.[5] The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a
chiropractor,[6] may be applied to a collection of mostly
nonspecific symptoms.[4] There is no
scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community.[4][5] A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth.[7]
Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British
gastroenterologistAndrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to
autism.[8] The existence of such an
enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established".[9] Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls.[10][11] Multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful.[12] Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease.[13][14][15]
Chronic Lyme disease is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection."[19] This is different from
Lyme disease, which is a known medical condition. Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent infection.[20] It is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful treatment of infection with Lyme spirochetes. The symptoms of "chronic Lyme" are generic and non-specific "symptoms of life".[21]
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity is a reported sensitivity to
electric and
magnetic fields or
electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies at exposure levels well below established safety standards. Symptoms are inconsistent, but can include headache, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, as well as similar non-specific indications.[22] Provocation studies find that the discomfort of sufferers is unrelated to hidden sources of radiation,[23] and "no scientific basis currently exists for a connection between EHS and exposure to [electromagnetic fields]."[24][25]
Excited delirium, originally identified by pathologist
Charles Wetli to account for the deaths of nineteen Black prostitutes due to "sexual excitement" while under the influence of cocaine; the women later turned out to be victims of a serial killer.[26] The condition is primarily found in people under police restraint, especially after being tasered,[27] and, while it is not in the ICD-10 or DSM-5, it is promoted by a number of doctors, many of whom are on the payroll of Axon, the manufacturer of the
Taser.[27]
Leaky gut syndrome is an alleged condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. Alternative medicine proponents claim it is the cause of many conditions including
multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific.[28] According to the
UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven.[29] Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an instance of deliberate
health fraud.[29]
Morgellons is a self-diagnosed, unexplained
skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain some kind of fibers.[30][31][32] Morgellons is poorly characterized but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of
delusional parasitosis.[33] An attempt to link Morgellons to the cause of Lyme disease has been attacked by
Steven Salzberg as "dangerous pseudoscience".[34]
Shoenfeld's syndrome, a hypothesised autoimmune disorder proposed by Israeli immunologist
Yehuda Shoenfeld. There is a lack of reproducible evidence for this syndrome, refuting its existence.[41][42] In addition, supporting data from animal models are flawed.[43]
"Vaccine overload", a non-medical term for the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects,[45][46] is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence.[47]
Vertebral subluxation is a
chiropractic diagnosis that involves a site of impaired flow of innate or a spinal lesion that is postulated to cause neuromusculoskeletal or visceral dysfunction.
Scientific consensus does not support the existence of chiropractic's vertebral subluxation.[48][49]
Wind turbine syndrome is a proposed connection between adverse health effects and proximity to
wind turbines.[52] Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer, and
congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of
wind farms.[53][54] Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.[55]
Psychological
Autogynephilia is a proposed
paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical
transphobia.[56]
Drapetomania was a supposed
mental illness that, in 1851, American physician
Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of
enslaved Africansfleeing captivity.[57] This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape.[58][59] As treatment Cartwright recommended "
whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure.[60]
Rapid-onset gender dysphoria is a proposed condition in which someone develops
gender dysphoria due to
social contagion. The term originates from a 2018 study which surveyed parents of transgender people from anti-transgender internet forums.[68][69] While the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association cosigned a statement with 120 other medical organizations calling for rapid-onset gender dysphoria to not be used in clinical settings,[70] the term is still used by anti-trans groups.[71]
Homosexuality was once a diagnosable
mental illness in the category of paraphilic disorders but is now considered a healthy variation of behaviour.[72]
Reward deficiency syndrome[73][74] (RDS) is a term that has been applied to a wide variety of addictive, obsessive and compulsive behaviors including substance and process addictions, personality and spectrum disorders.[75][76] There is no consistent evidence to validate any such syndrome.[77] "Reward deficiency syndrome" is not a medically recognized disorder.[78] The diagnostic validity of RDS has not been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in its diagnostic manual, the
DSM.
Sluggish schizophrenia is a proposed form of slow-onset schizophrenia that political dissenters were institutionalised for in communist countries. It was diagnosed in people with no
hallucinations or
delusions under the assumption that they would appear later.[79]
Stockholm syndrome is a proposed condition in which a hostage develops an emotional bond with their kidnapper while in captivity.[81] Stockholm syndrome is a contested diagnosis mostly due to the difficulty in researching it.[82]
^
abcShah R, Greenberger PA (2012). "Unproved and controversial methods and theories in allergy-immunology". Allergy Asthma Proc. 33 Suppl 1 (3): S100–2.
doi:
10.2500/aap.2012.33.3562.
PMID22794702. Quote: "There is no scientific basis for the existence of this disorder and no conclusive method for diagnosis."
^Röösli, Martin; Moser, Mirjana; Baldinini, Yvonne; Meier, Martin; Braun-Fahrländer, Charlotte (2004). "Symptoms of ill health ascribed to electromagnetic field exposure – a questionnaire survey". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 207 (2): 141–150.
doi:
10.1078/1438-4639-00269.
ISSN1438-4639.
PMID15031956.
^Sorg, Barbara A. (1999). "Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Potential Role for Neural Sensitization". Critical Reviews in Neurobiology. 13 (3): 283–316.
doi:
10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v13.i3.30.
PMID10803638.
^Hawkes, David; Benhamu, Joanne; Sidwell, Tom; Miles, Rhianna; Dunlop, Rachael A. (May 2015). "Revisiting adverse reactions to vaccines: A critical appraisal of Autoimmune Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA)". Journal of Autoimmunity. 59: 77–84.
doi:
10.1016/j.jaut.2015.02.005.
ISSN1095-9157.
PMID25794485.
^Ameratunga, Rohan; Gillis, David; Gold, Michael; Linneberg, Allan; Elwood, J. Mark (November 2017). "Evidence Refuting the Existence of autoimmune/Autoinflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA)". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice. 5 (6): 1551–1555.e1.
doi:
10.1016/j.jaip.2017.06.033.
ISSN2213-2201.
PMID28888842.
^Ameratunga, Rohan; Langguth, Daman; Hawkes, David (May 2018). "Perspective: Scientific and ethical concerns pertaining to animal models of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA)". Autoimmunity Reviews. 17 (5): 435–439.
doi:
10.1016/j.autrev.2017.11.033.
ISSN1873-0183.
PMID29526635.
^Hilton S, Petticrew M, Hunt K (2006). "'Combined vaccines are like a sudden onslaught to the body's immune system': parental concerns about vaccine 'overload' and 'immune-vulnerability'". Vaccine. 24 (20): 4321–7.
doi:
10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.003.
PMID16581162.
^Homola, Samuel (2010). "Real orthopaedic subluxations versus imaginary chiropractic subluxations". Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 15 (4): 284–287.
doi:
10.1111/j.2042-7166.2010.01053.x.
ISSN1465-3753.
^Charlotte Patterson; Anthony R. D'Augelli, eds. (2013). Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-976521-8.
OCLC779472218.
^White, Kevin (2002). An introduction to the sociology of health and illness. London: Sage Publications.
ISBN978-1-84787-713-0.
OCLC294909186.
^Arthur L. Caplan; James J. McCartney; Dominic A. Sisti, eds. (2004). Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
ISBN1-58901-014-0.
OCLC53020380.
^Maines, Rachel (1998). The technology of orgasm: "hysteria," the vibrator, and women's sexual satisfaction. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN0-8018-5941-7.
OCLC39060595.
^
abHoult, JA (2006). "The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy". Children's Legal Rights Journal. 26 (1).
SSRN910267.
^Dallam, SJ (1999).
"The Parental Alienation Syndrome: Is It Scientific?". In St. Charles E; Crook L (eds.). Expose: The failure of family courts to protect children from abuse in custody disputes. Our Children Our Children Charitable Foundation.
^Caplan, PJ (2004). "What is it that's being called Parental Alienation Syndrome". In Caplan PJ; Cosgrove L (eds.). Bias in psychiatric diagnosis.
Rowman & Littlefield. pp.
62.
ISBN9780765700018.
^Comeford, L (2009). "Fatherhood Movements". In O'Brien J (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Vol. 1.
SAGE Publications. pp.
285.
ISBN9781412909167.
^Myers, John E. B. (2005). Myers on evidence in child, domestic, and elder abuse cases. Gaithersburg, Md:
Aspen Publishers. pp.
415.
ISBN0-7355-5668-7.